Brealung the

Cycle of Violence
Building Community: Mechanisms for
Overcoming Violence and Some Suggestions
for Theological Reflection

Fernando Enns

As he came near and saw the city, he wept over it, saying If you, even you. had only rec-
ognized on this day the things that make for peace! But now they are hidden from your eyes.
Indeed the day will come upon you, when your enemies will set up ramparts around you and
surround you, and hem you in on every side. They will crush you to the ground, you and
your children within you. and they will not leave within you one stone upon another;
because you did not recognize the time of your visitation from God (Luke 19:41-44).
The ecumenical Decade to Overcome Violence did not come out of the blue! It
has developed organically from lines of thinking in the World Council of Churches
over the fifty years of its history as it has tried to respond to concerns, questions and
ideas coming from its member churches in their different contexts, and undertake spe-
cific programmes to serve the whole fellowship of the church. The search for possible
ways of overcoming violence may be seen as one of the central themes running
through the ecumenical movement. From the time of the WCC in embryo between
the two world wars until it was eventually founded in 1948, the fellowship of the
churches itself faced the challenge of the divisive violence prevailing in and between
the churches different contexts. Issues such as the protection of those in danger, the
churches share of guilt and complicity in situations of violence and the search for
ways of reconciliation were constantly discussed. What role does the church and
above all the fellowship of churches play - as one of the causes of violence and as
peace-maker?

Building on what has already been achieved

Theologically the subject has been dealt with from a variety of angles. After the
discussions surrounding the kingdom of God in the early years of the ecumenical
movement? there followed the christological and ecclesiological discussions of the

Fernando Enns is director of studies at the EcumenicalInstitute of the University of Heidelberg, Germany.

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1950s and 1960s, of which the Puidoux conferences may be mentioned as an exam-
~ l eThereafter,
.~ the debates were strongly marked by the experience of the liberation
struggles in the countries of the South and the confrontation between the blocs during
the cold war, which took a violent form in many parts of the world: The conciliar
process for Justice, Peace and the Integrity of Creation developed the connection with
the question of justice in greater depth and added the dimension of the theology of cre-
a t i ~ nThe
. ~ theological discussions have always been informed by the political situa-
tion in which the churches found themselves at any given time.
With the Decade to Overcome Violence (2001-10) voted on by the WCC assem-
bly in Harare in 1998, it has become clear that these issues have not yet been conclu-
sively answered. The important thing now will be to make sure that we do not simply
repeat these earlier discussions but use them as a basis on which to build, so that we
avoid getting trapped once more in the impasses which have at times blocked ecu-
menical discussions. In asking about the role of the churches and the ecumenical
movement in overcoming violence at the start of the 21st century, we have to avoid
the set christological and ecclesiological clichtis: Jesus, the ethical teacher for some
versus Christ the ruler of the world for others; the church in a sectarian understanding
as the model for a better world versus the church as a Constantinian entity support-
ing the state and maintaining power, etc. It has to be clear that overcoming violence is
not simply a missionary task underpinned by selected passages from the Bible. Con-
versations and exchanges of ideas of this kind frequently take place and are recorded
in countless documents.
Delegates from churches throughout the world have now once again, quite delib-
erately, put the question of overcoming violence back on the agenda, because it is
clear, on the one hand, that human beings - and indeed, the whole creation - are
trapped in the existing cycles of violence which make abundance of life, or even life
itself, impossible; on the other hand, it is also clear that, here and there, these cycles are
being broken by initiatives and forces inside and outside the churches which show that
violence can actually be overcome, that we do not need to put up with it meekly and
fatalistically, that we can resist it in non-violent ways, and ultimately overcome it. This
is no longer a matter of passive pacifism versus active social responsibility which
legitimizes violence as the last resort.
One of the things which encouraged the delegates in Harare to renew this com-
mitment was the Peace to the City campaign started in the mid-1990s as part of the
Programme to Overcome Violence. Seven cities in different parts of the world were
chosen as examples of places where successful attempts to overcome violence had
been launched: Belfast, Northern Ireland; Boston, USA, Colombo, Sri Lanka; Dur-
ban, South Africa; Kingston, Jamaica; Rio de Janeko, Brazil; Suva, Fiji.6 Considera-
tion of these creative and successful initiatives for reconciliation prompted a re-exam-
ination of the contexts of violence and mechanisms for overcoming it and, on this
basis, fresh theological reflection has also begun on familiar old themes. Hopefully,
this will not congeal into conceptual ethical absolutes detached from real-life stories
but will enable us together to explore the real causes of violence and the possibilities
for overcoming it, starting from the centre of the Christian faith. It is all about the sim-
ple yet deeply complicated question of living together. An in-depth study of this kind
obviously has to be organized along interdisciplinarylines, drawing on the knowledge
available in history and political science, sociology and economics, behavioural

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research, psychology and law. In this sense, too, the Decade ahead calls for an ecu-
menical approach.
In the light of experiences from the seven cities we shall try first to understand the
dynamics and complexity of cycles of violence and peace networks, before going on to
look - in a very tentative and provisional way - at suggestions for further theological
work.

Contextual experiences as a starting point

The self-perpetuating complexity of cycles of violence
Experience in the cities shows that the cycle of violence is a self-perpetuatingphe-
nomenon, constantly generating new violence from within itself. No conspiracy theo-
ries are needed to confirm this. The insight is as old as human life in community itself
(for example in primitive biblical history). It is true also of violence that is used with
the most honourable intentions; nor does it make any difference whether we are talk-
ing about direct/personal, indirect/structural or even cultural violence for, in fact,
there is a far greater connection between these different forms of violence than the the-
oretical distinction might suggest. The picture becomes yet more complicated and dif-
ficult to understand when other levels are taken into account: the inter-relatedness of
the personal, collective, national and global levels.*Examples from countless places of
conflict around the world confirm the theory that violence is self-perpetuating: Israel,
Afghanistan, the Balkans, Sudan, Indonesia, etc. The motor that keeps these cycles
turning is the injustice (social, economic, political and other) which is so reinforced
and perpetuated by violence so that it becomes entrenched.
In what follows we concentrate on the experiences of injustice from some of the
seven selected cities.
Rio de Janeiro is one of the places in the world where injustice is visible to the
naked eye. Anyone who has visited this city with its idyllic setting is bound to have
been struck by the wealth and poverty existing there side by side. Perhaps the visitor
may even have been the victim of crime, because anyone who can afford to travel to
Rio is likely to have more money than most of the local population. The wealthy
protect themselves behind barbed-wire fences and walls, aided by private, armed
security forces which do not, however, create a sense of security. The social
inequality and the unfair distribution of goods have turned the city into a hotbed of
crime. Young people growing up in the favelas basically have no chance of ever cross-
ing the divide and being able to a lead a normal family and working life - as those
affected know all too well. They feel marginalized, and see no point in going to school
when all that awaits them at the end of it is unemployment. Young people can earn
more through drug-dealing and theft than by any other effort they might make. So the
two sides are armed and ready, scraping along from day to day, and the city lives in
a general climate of mutual distrust. State agencies, above all the police, have at best
given up, but in most cases have actually become part of the cycle of violence and try
to make what money they can from it. No laws are going to rescue a city where the
authorities are no longer in control.of violence and where all confidence in the
executive has disappeared - and rightly so. It is bound to end in chaos, for injustice
fosters violence and vice-versa, and so it goes on.
In Belfast the reasons for the violence are different. Here the equation of reli-
gious/confessional affiliation and national identity (UnionistProtestant - Republi-

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can/Catholic) has unleashed a spiral of hatred. The population has been trapped for
decades in sectarian violence backed by old traditions and symbols. Mutual igno-
rance and physical separation make it almost impossible for prejudices ever to be
called in question and constantly rekindle the flames of intolerance, mistrust and dis-
crimination. Walls - ironically known as peace walls -physically mark these divi-
sions and have even helped to reinforce them. The emotional state of the people who
live in this situation is reflected in their sense of frustration at the hopelessness of the
conflict, depression or, again, a resurgence of anger at the injustice of it all. Many peo-
ple suffer from recurring nightmares, problems in concentrating and insomnia as a
result of the violence they have experienced. Others suffer break-downs because of
the permanent feeling of danger and being at the mercy of others as well as the inabil-
ity to cope with their desire for revenge and their own aggressiveness. In more than a
few cases these constant tensions lead to domestic violence, and in some families the
situation is compounded by the harsh reality of three generations of unemployment.
Against this background, young people in particular are naturally drawn towards
paramilitary groups which give them a sense of belonging and being needed. In 1994
the government spent 436 million pounds on social security benefits but just 1 million
on the work of developing community relations? Nobody seems able to break the
cycle.
A third city - Colombo, the capital of Sri Lanka - illustrates how the reasons for
violence can vary, though the structures remain the same. Civil war has been raging
here for over two decades, fuelled by a mixture of ethnic, religious and political inter-
ests. Some of the tensions stem from the events of the colonial era: fnst came the Por-
tuguese, bringing Catholicism, then the Dutch, bringing Protestantism,followed by the
British bringing Anglicanism and Methodism. Although Sri Lanka is actually a multi-
faith, multiethnic and multicultural country, the proportions speak for themselves:
74 percent Singhalese (Buddhist), 18 percent Tamils (Hindus, migrants from India
brought here by the British to work on the tea plantations), 7 percent Muslims (who
arrived later as traders), 1 percent Burghers (descendantsof the former colonial rulers).
Around 7.5 percent of the population are Christians and the Christian religion is the
only one which is not directly linked with a particular ethnic group. The different eth-
nic groups have also retained their own languages.
The struggle for power in the country began very soon after independence in 1948,
when the Singhalese denied the Tamils citizenship. A colonial situation developed
within the country and the tensions mounted. The Tamils demanded the right to self-
determination and the right to call Sri Lanka their home. The government allowed the
Muslim and Singhalese home guards to arm. In 1987, the Indian army tried to settle
the conflict by military intervention but left the country two years later without suc-
ceeding. On the contrary, violations of human rights had increased, divisions were
entrenched, prejudices, hatred and the desire for revenge had redoubled. Now, society
is heavily militarized, and women, children and young people are recruited as a matter
of course. Young people are particularly sought after because they are ready to be
trained for the much-feared suicide commandos, the Baby Tigers. Here too the
police are guilty of abuse and discrimination. Economically and socially, the tensions
are a disaster for the whole country, causing unemployment, poverty and displace-
ment, as the cost of war report testifies. All communication between the opposing
sides broke down long ago.

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Religious fundamentalism also plays a part in these conflicts, especially among

the Buddhist monks who do not want to lose their position of privilege and, in many
cases, it is the clergy who rekindle the torch of violence. There are of course others
who urge that Buddhism should return to its roots, i.e. the practice of non-violence,
peace-building, respect for life and the belief that all people are equal, rejecting caste
and racial superiority.1
Despite the diversity of the contexts, common features can be noted. Cycles of
violence are vicious circles, in the truest sense of the word, as the examples from the
cities show. The cycles are not only perpetuated by injustice within the city itself, but
are reinforced by injustice from outside, be it the unfair global market economy which
further marginalizes the countries of the South and gives only an elite a share of the
profits; or the international arms trade which makes profits out of military conflicts,
but also out of societies with high levels of criminality where people are prepared to
invest huge amounts in private weaponry; or the political refusal to develop interna-
tional law to allow human-rights violations to be prosecuted across national bound-
aries. The global is reflected in the local and vice-versa.
Whenever one begins to probe into the causes of violence, one inevitably comes
up against injustice which leads to unhealthy relations, or the refusal of any relations;
relations which are wholly concerned with the exercise of power and dependence,
where one side is always intent on fulfilling its own needs at the cost of others, where
fear of losing power leads it to oppress others. Traditions and religions are sometimes
used for this purpose, but sometimes they are themselves part of a pattern of behaviour
based roughly speaking on the principle of Im f i e so long as theyre not. In such
situations fears are not unfounded, for the oppressors awareness of their own ruth-
lessness makes them deeply distrustful of those they hold in subjection. This leads
them to cultivate stereotyped enemy images which can then be used to defend their
own misdeeds - which are to some extent acknowledged as such - and ultimately to
justify a war against evil. The mere fact of difference is then in itself sufficient rea-
son to argue for separation and isolation. This does not, however, bring security,
because any relaxation of the pressure on the other is seized upon as a sign of weak-
ness and retaliation can be expected.
These are simply observations reflecting the real-life experience of people directly
affected, and are not intended as a comprehensive theory.

Community-building and presence as a means of overcoming violence

None of the seven cities started with a clear strategy for overcoming violence, but
rather with the problem affecting them. Thus it was clear from the outset that the impor-
tant thing is concrete human needs, and that human beings themselves are the actors. In
each case the development began by building on these experiences and the wisdom
gained from them, which led to visible, tangible changes. Only in retrospect can com-
mon, recurring patterns be identified. This emerged from the cities networking among
themselves. Again we look at some examples of what has been done, in the hope of
deriving more general lessons in the search for effective means of overcoming violence.
In all the cities the projects began with individuals getting together with others.
Before long someones house becomes the centre (like the Baker house in Dorchester,
near Boston), serving as an open, hospitable space for building community. Sometimes
the media take notice and give their support to the attempts to fiid alternatives to

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counter the culture of violence. Many volunteers are needed and are mostly given ini-
tial training on the ground, as part of the programme, so that they are drawn into the
movement (for example the ugenfeesdefuturo involving more than 10,OOO young adult
volunteers in Rio, agents of peace in Belfast, and others). Contacts aresought in other
organizations and government offices, specialists or people exercising specific func-
tions in society. Gradually a trend is established in a local community and a change of
attitude begins.I2 Things which once seemed impossible begin to seem possible and
mentalities change. In this way a culture of non-violence can grow up. In cities, oppor-
tunities for participation and community-building seem to be a key factor, as people do
not naturally want to be urban nomads.
All those involved confirm, however, that these are long and difficult processes,
fragile and dependent upon the initiative and staying-power of individuals. They say it
can only be done with others, in a community offering mutual encouragement and
reassurance and division of labour, where individuals can sometimes be weak because
others are there with them.
The Mediation Network in Belfast, founded in 1991, is a good example of this.I3
Churches, public agencies and politicians, groups working for justice, peace and rec-
onciliation,neighbourhood groups and local communitieshave found points of contact
because they are all affected by the violence. They draw strength from working
together and building relations and their effectiveness is increased. This collective
work itself becomes a touchstone of their capacity fir overcoming violence for here,
too, there is always the danger that people may try to stake out territory for fear of los-
ing power and becoming dependent. The willingness to invest a measure of mutual
trust is the basis for a common undertaking, sustained by the understanding that ulti-
mately it is to the benefit of all sides. In Belfast the aim of education is to establish
identity, tolerance and acceptance of political and cultural differences. Neighbours
cannot remain strangers, areas of encounter develop. Difference then ceases to be con-
sidered first and foremost as a danger and is seen instead as an opportunity. Security is
no longer based on establishing boundaries but on the resilience of the community. The
goal is always the wellbeing of others as well as oneself .because now the idea has
taken root that Im fine if theyre fine, too.
The declared aim of the National Peace Council founded in Colombo in 1995 was
likewise to break the cycle of violence. The initiative brought together people from all
religious groups, and representatives of a dozen organizations, all working for the
common good. They chose three guiding principles: (1) to accept only a negotiated set-
tlement of the conflict; (2) to seek dialogue among all the parties involved, and (3) to
consider the hopes of all the people living in Sri Lanka. For the conflict in Sri Lanka
has made it clear that (1) it cannot be left only to the governing parties to find a solu-
tion to a conflict of this kind; (2) the population must be the guarantors of a lasting
peace, and everyones democratic rights must be institutionally guaranteed; (3) gen-
uine peace work must be independent of all political forces and must guarantee the
basic rights of the oppressed.
It was not a case of starting from scratch. Each religion and culture has its own
inherent conventions for structuring and regulating community life satisfactorily and
for containing or overcoming violence: We decided to begin the task by focusing
actions on the long tradition of good relations that had existed before the ~ o n f l i c t . ~ ~
The first step was to encourage mutual hospitality, which helps to develop respect for

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the others dignity. In Colombo andin many villages, workshops are picking up old
traditions, and ancient myths are being revived through popular dramas and plays
offering the opportunity for people to participate and express their own feelings. Inter-
religious dialogues are being organized where the very fact that clergy are present in
itself has an enormous symbolic and exemplary force (religious leaders must be the
first to be educated for peace).15Political decision-make,rsare also drawn in. For the
churches in the cities the most important thing was to make their presence felt, not to
barricade themselves behind stout church walls but to be present in the places where
violent conflicts are actually being conducted. This was not without repercussions in
the life of local congregations.

Input for theological reflection from the experiences in different contexts

Allowing for the challenges specific to each context and the different methods and
forms of action and organization required in each, similar mechanisms for overcbming
violence can nevertheless be identified. The best way to learn about them would
undoubtedly be a visit to or, better still, involvement in one of these projects. For our
theological reflection let me try now to offer some ideas for discussion which could
bring something of the dynamism and creativity of the practical projects into the theo-
retical reflection, and feed something back to them. The question we have to ask is:
how far peace activities are part of the task of the church in general and of the ecu-
menical movement in particular, and to what extent it touches the heart of the faith.
For one declared aim of the Decade is to move peace-building from the periphery to
the centre of the churchs life and witness..I6

Building community - reflecting on the Trinity

Violence always implies the destruction of relationships, or the prevention of com-
munity. That being so, a basic feature in any form of overcoming violence is network-
ing, building up relationships, with a view to building community. A central element is
reconciliation. Community thrives on the diversity of those involved in it, with no
attempt to impose uniformity. Ecumenical theology in particular has important insights
to offer on this theme. Thanks in no small measure to the influence of the Orthodox tra-
ditions, the long-obscured concept of kpinonia has been fruitfully reintroduced.18This
understanding of communion is grounded in the trinitarian confession. Numerous
excellent individual contributions have also been made on this subject from different
tradition^,'^ whether the relation is presented in a perichoretical or participatory way,
or whether the step from the divine communion to human communion is interpreted
only in terms of economy or derived by analogy.*
The important thing to note for our reflection here is that it is not only a question
of the ontological description of communion (that is, of the church and the churches).
The task for us is to make these central tenets of faith and of theology the foundation
for the description of the life and witness of the church and of the communion of the
churches*- and, going still further, for building community beyond the boundaries of
the church. If we want to describe the nature of God primarily with the help of con-
cepts of communion,and if this is also to underlie the nature of the church, then efforts
to build community are central in the churchs action, and overcoming violence also
belongs at the centre of the faith and life of the church and of the ecumenical fellow-
ship. This conceivably the strongest argument of all against violence.

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Presence - reflecting further on incarnation

What initially sparked off the programme to overcome violence in the city of
Boston (the Ten Point Coalition) was the experience of one local congregation that,
when all is said and done, nothing of the churchs life has any effect on the surround-
ing cycles of violence unless the local church is really present. The members of the
congregation learned the simple yet decisive philosophy from a drug dealer: you cant
do anything if youre not there. They began by leaving the safety of their church
premises and going out into the streets where the people were. Thus began a movement
that has actually reduced violence and saved lives.
Gods decisive movement with his creation finds its visible expression in the
Christian belief in the incarnation. God becomes human, not distant, abstract and
impersonal; God becomes incarnate, takes on human form and comes into the world
of sin to sanctify and save it. Reflecting on this first spark, thinking afresh about the
active movement of the incarnation can provide a strong impetus to the church in shap-
ing church life. Here too, many contributions have been made to the discussion,22not
least from the sphere of missiology on the necessity of incarnating the gospel in dif-
ferent cultures. For the ecumenical movement and the WCC in particular this common
basis of speaking about Gods presence is, quite simply, axiomatic. What forces can be
released to help the churches move out beyond their own boundaries in order to
become incarnate in their respective contexts for the purpose of overcoming vio-
lence?

Opening spaces - a metaphorfor the action of the Holy Spirit

Experiences in the seven cities have shown clearly that opening up spaces is
essential if cycles of violence are to be broken. This is meant first in the quite practical
sense: rooms, sheltered spaces where community-building can happen without any
danger of slipping back into the old familiar patterns of behaviour. Can local churches
become this kind of sanctuary? But it is also meant in the metaphorical sense. Over-
coming violence calls for a sheltered space where the truth can come out without fear
of reprisal; spaces where injustices of all kinds can surface. Without such spaces peo-
ple cannot begin to work through what has happened, there can be no steps towards
reconciliation. This has been impressively demonstrated by truth commissions, even
though these are only a first step.
In some discussions the Decade has been described primarily as an ecumenical
space.23This metaphor is helpful in emphasizing that the undertaking is, by nature, a
process, which offers the different participants the freedom to shape and develop dif-
ferent possibilities; but on the other hand, it also shows that it is not something shape-
less or arbitrary for all that. Rather, it is an ecumenical space that offers security
because it is based in a community that is designed to last - a living space.
But where does this community find its focus? Here too the ecumenical debate on
ecclesiology can offer many explications. Pneumatological considerations may prove
helpful in this connection for this is where the metaphor of space can be situated theo-
logically. Jiirgen Moltmann has referred to the complementary formative metaphors
(energy, space, form) in describing the experiences of the Spirit: The divine Spirit is
experienced as the Lord who sets free, and the free space in which there is no more
cramping... and people who have this experience know that they are kept safe and set
free in the broad place of the Spirit in which they can breathe deeply and unfurl their

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potentialities. This sense of safety linked at the same time to the possibility of devel-
opment is the precondition for a culture of non-violence. Metaphorical talk about the
experience of the Spirit offers the possibility of expressing this in the language of faith
and being certain that this space is given by the Spirit of life.

A different perspective - the kingdom of God

Along with representatives of various organizations and peace initiatives I was
recently invited to discuss the Decade to Overcome Violence in a medium-sized German
working-class city. Violence is present there in a11 its many forms but there is a well-
established network of support involving the womens, youth and child welfare offices,
the police and the schools. The churches have not until now been represented in this net-
work. In the course of our discussion the inevitable question was asked: What would the
churches involvement in this network genuinely have to offer? At the end of this first
encounter it emerged that in joining the network the church would above all bring with
it a coherenr vision. The people engaged in this work are often worn out by their daily
struggle with violence and the sometimes frustrating search for ways to break the cycle.
Between the reality and the objective pressures, it is all too easy to lose sight of the hope
and the goal of this difficult journey - let alone have a vision.
The Christian talk and vision of the kingdom of God offer a possibility that needs
to be spelled out afresh with regard to overcoming violence - the kingdom of God
which has already dawned, here among us, and which awaits its perfection. The dream
of a world of justice and peace is translated for Christians into the language of the king-
dom of God. In it is founded their deepest hope that violence can actually be overcome
because this hope is part of the reality which came into our violent world with Jesus
Christ. This changes the way we look at the world as it is. And it is this altered per-
spective which creates the motivation to try to overcome violence, to take courageous
steps against all apparent odds, and opens the way for us to reinterpret our own expe-
rience. The knowledge that it is given to us to be part of this kingdom of God can be a
source of comfort and strength that will keep us from flagging in our efforts to break
the cycles of violence and to join in building communities of peace.
Afterward you shall be called the city of righteousness,the faithful city (Isa. 1:26).

NOTES

I No other issue has been discussed more widely and intensively in the ecumenical movement from its
very beginning and in the World Council of Churches since 1948 than peace and disarmament ( A n s van
der Bent, Commitment to Gods World: A Concise Critical Survey of Ecumenical Thought.Geneva, WCC.
1995, p.107). See also various accounts of the history of the WCC, e.g. Reinhard Freiling, Der Weg des
okumenischen Gedankens. Eine Okumenekunde.Zugange zur Kirchengeschichte, vol. 10, Gottingen, Van-
denhoeck & Ruprecht, 1992. esp. vol. VI: Friedensbewegung und Friedensethik, pp.313ff.; Wolfgang
Lienemann, Frieden, dkumenische Studienhefte 10, GBttingen, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1991, esp. B.
Okumenische Konflikte und Klihungen.
Cf. Wolfram Weisse, Praktisrhes Christentum und Reich Gottes. Die okumenische Bewegung Life and
Work, 1919-1937, Gottingen, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1991. Also Gerhard Besier, Krieg - Frieden -
Ahriistung: Die Haltung der europaischen und amerikanischen Kirchen zur Frage der deutschen Kreigs-
schuld 1914-1933, Gottingen, Vandenhoeck & Rupretht, 1982.
Cf. Donald F. Durnbaugh. ed., On Earth Peace: Discussions on WarlPeace-Issues between Friends. Men-
nonites. Brethren and European Churches 1935-1975. Elgin. IL, Brethren Press, 1978.

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Cf. the debates at the WCC assemblies in Uppsala 1968 and Nairobi 1975, respectively in The Uppsala
Report . The OfJicial Report of the Fourth Assembly of the Wodd Council of Churches, Norman Gopdall.
, ed., Geneva, WCC, 1968; and Breaking Barrier: Nairobi 1975, The OficialReport of the Fifh Assembly
of the World Council of Churches, David M. Paton, ed., London, SPCK, Grand Rapids, Wm B. Eerdmans
and Geneva, WCC, 1976.
Cf. for example, Between the Flood and the Rainbow: Interpreting the Conciliar Process of Mutual Com-
mitment (Covenant) to Justice, Peace and the Integrity of Creation, compiled by D. Preman Niles,
Geneva, WCC. 1992.
Dafne Plou, Peace to the Cities: Creative Models of Building Community amidst Violence, Geneva, WCC,
1998. Other cities have since joined the existing network, among them Brunswick in Germany.
We speak of direct violence when people kill or injure other people; and of indirect violence when people
are subjected to influences which prevent them from developing as they could, e.g. unequal opportunities
or balance of power; cultural violence designates any feature in a culture which may serve to legitimate
direct or indirect violence, e.g. an extreme right-wing ideology postulating inequality. Cf. the distinctions
drawn by Johan Galtung in Gewalt, Frieden und Friedensforschung, in Friedensforschung, Entschei-
dungshilfe gegen Gewalr, Manfred Funke, ed., in the series published by the German Federal Office of
Political Formation, BOM, 1975, pp.99-132.
Cf. Jennifer Turpin and Lester R. Kutz, The Web of Violence: From Interpersoil to Global, Urbana and
Chicago, Univ. of Illinois Press, 1997.
Plou, Peace to the Cities, p.26.
loIbid.. p.56.
II It is very difficult for a Tamil to understand the official discourse of a war for peace. It is as if they are
being told, We are killing you to help you. Ibid., p.54.
I2 The new movement decided to take the name Viva Rio as a way of affirming that it was possible to
create a trend among citizens to overcome violence, promoting dignity and equal opportunities for all.
Ibid., p.8.
l 3 The network promotes the idea of working for peace while developing mutually respectful relations
within and throughout a divided community. It is an open network, with the c a w i t y to maintain liaisons
with dozens of private and public groups and organizations. Ibid., p.27.
l4 Ibid., p.51.
Is Ibid., p.56.
I6 A Basic Framework for the Decade to Overcome Violence, working document adopted by the WCC
central committee, Geneva, 1999. Minutes of the Fifrierh Meeting- of_ the Central Committee, Geneva,
WCC, 1999, p.190.
I have develowd this idea at ereater leneth
Y in Die historischen Fnedenskirchen in der Okumene. Ekklesi-
ologische Aspekre einer Theologie ausfriedenskirchlicher Perspektive, dissertation presented at the Uni-
versity df Heidelberg, 2001 (to be published shortly).
I n Cf. recently in The Nature and Purpose of the Church: A Stage on the Way to a Common Statement,
Geneva, WCC. 1998.
l9 For example, Christoph Schwobel, ed., Trinitarian Theology Today: Essays in Divine Being and Act,
Edinburgh, T&T Clark, 1995. John D. Zizioulas, Being as Communion: Studies in Personhood and the
Church. Crestwood, St Vladimirs Seminary Press, 1985 (2 ed. 1993).
*O On the discussionson this within the ecumenical movement, see Tobias Brandner. Einheit. Gegeben - ver-
loren - erstreht: Denkhewegungen von Glauben und Kirchenverfassung. Gottingen. Vandenhoeck &
Ruprecht, 1996.
2 1 The WCC study process on Ecclesiology and Ethics has done some important work on this issue. Cf.
Thomas Best and Martin Robra, eds., Ecclesiology and Ethics: Ecumenical Ethical Engagement, Moral
Formation and the Nature of the Church, Geneva,,WCC, 1997.
22 By way of example here, Ulrike Link-Wieczorek, Inkarnation oder Inspiration? Christologische Grund-
fragen in der Diskussion mit britischer angliknnischer Theologie, Gottingen, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht,
1998.
* Cf. on this the general comments concerning the future shape of the WCC by Konrad Raiser in the report
of the general secretary to the meeting of the WCC central committee, Potsdam, 2001 (see here p. 241).
24 Cf. Jurgen Moltmann. The Spirit of Life: A Universal Afirmution, trans. Margaret Kohl, London, SCM
Press, 1992, p.277.

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