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New Constitutive Model For Hot Working: Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A December 2015
New Constitutive Model For Hot Working: Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A December 2015
New Constitutive Model For Hot Working: Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A December 2015
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Based on plane regressions of a set of key points in the ow curves without using SellarsTegart
(ST) assumptions, a new approach to determine parameters in classical two-stage constitutive
equations in hot working was presented. All the parameters in constitutive equations can be
obtained at dierent temperatures and strain rates. The ow stress and recrystallized volume
fraction can be predicted when workpieces undergo dierent conditions during plastic
deformation. Experiment data of 12 pctCr was used to verify the model. The results show
that when using ST model, some bounces occurred near the critical points, while using the
proposed model, the results show better precision especially in determining the characteristic
points such as critical strain, peak strain, and steady stress.
DOI: 10.1007/s11661-015-3280-y
The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society and ASM International 2015
data for the regression planes. These methods provide can be simplied as
possibility to determine the dierent constants involved in A n00 ar
the ST model. However, as a is a small value and the Z Asinhar n e 10
2n00
nonlinear method is sensitive to its variation, adjusting the 00
parameter a is largely based on experience. Therefore, in where n00 n. Let A00 A=2n and b n00 a, and
practical application, most researches have to simplify this Eq. [6] is replaced as an exponential function, which
problem and do not distinguish the variables in dierent can be written as
stress ranges, resulting in two imperfections. One imper-
Z A00 expbr 11
fection is the poor accuracy in characterizing the key
points in ow stress, such as the peak stress and the
relevant strain. The other one results from the bounces on It is worth noting that although n0 in Eq. [8] and n00 in
the transit point between low and high stress levels. Since Eq. [10] are both equal to n in the formula, they are not
the key points in ow stress are also the basis to numerically equivalent exactly, for n0 is obtained by
stress. For example, the stress decreases from 150 to longer time for energy accumulation, and higher
15 MPa when the temperature increases from temperatures result in higher mobility at the bound-
1223 K to 1523 K (950 C to 1250 C) and the aries for the nucleation and growth of dynamic
strain rate decreases from 0.1 to 0.0005 s1. recrystallized grains and dislocation annihilation,
For a single curve, due to the dominance of work and thus reduce the peak stress level. Therefore,
hardening (WH), the stress sharply increases in the materials with a high deformation temperature are
initial stage. As strain increases, DRV becomes more more prone to DRX.
obvious, and the rate of rise is getting weaker. After
deformation reaches a peak strain, the stress
decreases for sake of DRX which plays a more
significant role in softening mechanism. At last, the IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
flow stress comes into a steady-state region due to the
interaction of work hardening and dynamic softening. A. Determination of Characteristic Points
At a given strain rate, the higher the deformation Approximation functions were used to formulize the
temperature, the greater the dynamic softening extent experimental ow curves. The dierential equations of
and rate, and the lower the peak stress. At a certain the approximation functions are he curves. The hr
temperature, the higher the strain rate, the higher the plots, which are shown in Figure 2, can be constructed
rate of working hardening, and the higher the peak by nding the corresponding r with e. rc corresponds to
stress. It is also found that the value of strain the inection points on hr curves. Cubic polynomial
corresponding to the peak stress moves toward a curve can t the hr plot well and make it easy to
higher strain-level with decreases the deformation calculate the inection point. It can be seen that at the
temperature. This is because lower strain rates provide initial stage of DRX, the work-hardening rate, h,
Fig. 2Determination of critical stress and saturation stress of ow curves at dierent deformation conditions from the tted curves of Fig. 1.
rc is the value at the point of inection. rp and rs are dened by the intercepts with the horizontal axis.
C. Application of the Model to Experimental Data model in this work. However, for the case of strain rates
In this study, the ST model was also established as of 0.1, 0.001, and 0.0005 s1 and temperature of 1223 K
shown in Table IV. To validate the correctness of the (950 C), there are obvious errors between the experi-
model, comparisons are made, as shown in Figure 5. It mental and predicted results of the ST model. Mean-
can be easily found that the case of strain rate of while, there are some bounces that occurred near the
0.01 s1 is the most ideal one, i.e., the experimental and critical points in the results of ST model.
predicted results are in good agreement no matter Comparisons for predicted characteristic points
whether determined by ST model or by the developed are shown in Figure 6. The calculated correlation
Fig. 4Quadric surface tting to predict the (a) k2, (b) kd, and (c) nd. The values of x-aix and y-aix are the reciprocal of temperature and the
natural logarithm of strain rate, respectively.
the least-squared method, so the results show better parameters. Linearization introduces additional discrep-
precision. Therefore, the model in this paper is more ancy. Besides, measurement error of experimental study
suitable for soft materials, high temperature, or low should be taken into account.
strain rate process in industry. In high stress levels, both
models can hardly predict the peak stress precisely, but
it might be better to use the mean values. V. CONCLUSIONS
In general, as seen from Figures 5 and 6, predicted
curves of proposed model are somewhat better than A novel way to model the ow stress in hot working
those of the ST model, but not excellent. The has been presented. The new model is not developed by
errors mainly come from the following three compo- using the ST assumption, which employs a hyperbolic
nents. The rst one is due to the predictve ability of the function to describe relationship among ow stress,
classical phenomenological model itself, Eq. [5]. The strain rate, and temperature. The hyperbolic is nonlinear
typical characteristic of Eq. [5] includes piecewise addi- and hard to solve, leaving some problems still remaining
tive function and main parameters, such as rs, rss, and to faced by the industrial application of ST model.
ep. Therefore, accurate equations for description of these Methods to determine characteristic stresses/strains
parameters play a key role in the Eq. [5]. The second from experimental strainstress curves are formulated,
component is associated with approximation equation and by regressing them with the new model, other key
for model parameters, Eqs. [14] and [19]. By introducing stresses/strains at dierent temperature and strain rate
the quadric function, Eq. [19] into Eq. [5], the additional can be predicted. Exponents such as k2, kd, and nd in
degree of freedom leads to better results, because it Eq. [5] can be calculated by quadric function of two
reduced the approximation error. The third component variables. As all the parameters in constitutive equations
is an error of the method of identication of the model can be obtained at dierent temperatures and strain
rates, the ow stress, and percentage of DRX can be model can only be obtained when temperature or
predicted when workpieces undergo dierent conditions strain rate is a constant.
for plastic deformation. 3. More accurate to predict the flow stress. Compar-
The new model can successfully predict the key stress/ isons between experimental data and predicted val-
strain with respect to strain rate and temperature with ues for some key stress/strain are made. The results
the following advantages: show that the new developed model in this work has
better precision in predicting the flow stress, espe-
1. Easier to solve the function. The new model was cially when the stress is not higher than 100 MPa.
developed based on the BaileyNorton creep law
and SherbyDorn relation, which only contain As the model is based on the BaileyNorton law,
power function and exponential relationship, respec- which is usually used to describe the primary and
tively, and can be linearized to a plane equation. All secondary stages of creep, it is more suitable to predict
the parameters contained in the new model can be the forming force and microstructure in heavy forging
obtained by simple least squared method. where temperature is high and strain rate is low.
2. More robust to calculate the parameters. The
multiple linear regressions for a plane in 3D space
take temperature and strain rate into account
simultaneously. All the experimental data can be
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
used in one computation, and an individual bad
experimental result has insignificant effluence on The authors gratefully acknowledge the funding
the result, while some parameters involved in the ST support from the National Basic Research Program of