Ultra Wideband Ultra Wideband

Introduction
UWB has received a great amount of interest since the decision by the FCC (US Federal Communication Comission)
in February 2002 authorizing the emission of very low power spectral density in a bandwidth going from 3.1 to
10.6 GHz.
This spectral availability makes it possible to consider:

wideband communications.
fine space resolution radars.
ULTRA WIDEBAND ULTRA WIDEBAND

Introduction
In this scenery various advantages of UWB can be pointed out:
High data rates
Let us examine Shannons capacity equation:

C: Maximum channel capacity (bits/second)
S BW: Channel bandwidth in hertzs.
!
C = BW log2 1 + (1)
N S: Signal power in watts.
N: Noise power in watts (White gaussian noise is assumed).
Multipath inmunity
The narrow pulses used in UWB, which also give the extremely high bandwidth, if separated out, provide a
fine resolution of reflected pulses at the receiver. This is important in any wireless communication system, as pulses
or sinusoids interfering with each other are the major obstacle to an error-free communication.

Introduction
Low complexity and low cost systems.
It arises from the carrier-free nature of the signal transmission. This eliminates the need for an additional
radio-frequency (RF) mixing stage as required in narrowband systems. Such an omission of up/down -conversion
processes and RF components allows the entire UWB transceiver to be integrated with a single CMOS implemen-
tation (small size, low cost, low power).
High-precision ranging and localization
This is due to the short duration of UWB waveforms. Together with good material penetration properties,
UWB signals offer opportunities for short-range radar applications such as rescue and anticrime operations as well
as in surveying and in the mining industry.

Introduction
DEFINITION: A signal is considered UWB if, at any point in time, has a fractional bandwidth equal to or
greater than 0.2 or has a BW equal to or greater than 500 MHz.
Bandwidth (BW): Frequency band bounded by the points that are 10 dB below the highest radiated
emission. The upper boundary is designated fh and the lower boundary fl .
Fractional bandwidth (FB): It is defined as :

fh fl
FB = 2 (2)
fh + fl
The current restrictions of the regulatory agencies on the emission power level limit the range of the UWB commu-
nications to a few meters for high data rates and up to a few hundred meters for low data rates.

UWB Regulation
UWB regulation in the USA
The term Part 15 limit relates to the limit (-41.3dBm/MHz) tolerated by the FCC for non-intentional emissions
(e.g. radiation by electric household appliances). For comparison, PSD limits for 2.4 GHz ISM (industrial, scientific
and medical applications bands) and 5 GHz U-NII bands (Unlicensed National Information Infrastructure radio
band is part of the radio frequency spectrum used by IEEE-802.11a devices and by many wireless ISPs) are 40+
dB higher per MHz

UWB Regulation
UWB regulation in Europe
In the 3.1-4.8 GHz and 8.5-9 GHz band, UWB equip-

ment must apply mitigation techniques in order to
protect the already existing services in these bands.
Two mitigation techniques have been defined:

1.- LDC (Low Duty Cicle), which consists of limiting
in time UWB emissions, is especially applicable to low
data rate UWB applications.
2.- DAA (Detect And Avoid), which consists of detec-
ting the presence of other possible radio signals and
reducing the transmitted power of UWB equipment to
a level that will not cause interferences on the reception
of other radio signals. The DAA mechanism applies
especially to short range high data rate UWB devices.

UWB Regulation
UWB regulation in Japan
Comparison of the regulations in the USA, Europe and

Japan shows the difficulty of obtaining an identical band
throughout the world. This lack of agreement is at the
origin of the delays in starting mass production of UWB
equipment.

UWB Types
Ultra Wideband Impulse Radio (UWB-IR)
The Impulse Radio UWB waveform is characterized by the periodic emission of a pulse of very short dura-
tion. The transmission interval of the pulses is defined using the PRP (Pulse Repetition Period) or the PRF (Pulse
Repetition Frequency) parameter. Classically, the PRP varies between 100 and 1000 times the pulse length. The
duration of a pulse, is in the order of nanoseconds (or even less) and it is inversely proportional to the BW.
Roughly, the 3-dB BW is 1,16/ and the 10-dB BW 1,8/ .
Multiband OFDM Ultra Wideband (UWB-OFDM)
Multiband approaches were proposed in which the UWB frequency band is divided into several subbands.
Each subband occupies a bandwidth of at least 500 MHz in compliance with FCC regulations. By interleaving
the symbols across subbands, multiband UWB can maintain the transmitter power as if a larger bandwidth were
used. The advantage is that the processing at the receiver can be done over much smaller bandwidths reducing,
therefore, the complexity. Besides, multiband approaches improve spectral flexibility and worldwide compliance.
The multiband OFDM approach was one of the two leading proposals for the IEEE 802.15.3a wireless personal area
networking (WPAN) standard in 2004 and has been approved as the UWB standard by the European Computer
Manufacturers Association (ECMA) in 2005.

Pulse waveforms
Not any pulse waveform is appropriate for UWB transmission. It must comply with the regulation. Basi-
cally, it must have a quite flat spectrum, that is a noise-like spectrum and it must avoid a DC component.
Gaussian wave forms, in particular, the Gaussian monocycle and the Gaussian doublet meet these require-
ments.
2t (t/ )2
Gaussian monocycle g2 (t) = K2 e (3)
2
2t2

2 2
Gaussian doublet g3 (t) = K3 2 1 2 e(t/ ) (4)

where is the time scaling factor and K2 , and K3 are constants to adjust the transmitted power.
Their respective spectra are given by:

2
Gaussian monocycle G2 (f ) = K2 (j2f )e( f ) (5)
2
Gaussian doublet g3 (t) = K3 (j2f )2 e( f ) (6)


Modulation Techniques
1. Pulse Amplitude Modulation
The information in a PAM signal is in the amplitude of the pulses. An M-ary PAM signal is a sequence of
pulses with M different amplitude levels.

X
am (k) is the amplitude of the k-th pulse.
s(t) = am (k)g(t kT ) (7) T is the PRT.
k
g(t) is any pulse waveform.
PAM signals are simple to generate, though:
1.- They are vulnerable to AWGN, which can change the pulse amplitude and cause false detection.
2.- Since the pulse transmitted is periodic it produces discrete lines on the power spectral density which can cause
interference to systems sharing the frequency spectrum.
2. On-Off Keying
OOK is a special case of PAM with bynary symbol m {0, 1}.
It is the simplest system to implement, but it yields poor performance as it is greatly affected by noise and
interference.

Modulation Techniques
3. Bi-phase Modulation: BPSK
In binary PSK (Phase Shift Keying) or biphase modulation, the bynary data are carried in the polarity of
the pulses.

X 1 if information bit is 1
s(t) = d(k)g(t kT ) where d(k) = (8)
1 if information bit is 0
Compared to PAM and OOK modulations its spectrum does not present spectral lines since the change in the
polarity of the pulses results in a zero mean.
4. Pulse Position Modulation (PPM)
The information is carried in the fine time shift of the pulse.

X
s(t) = g(t kT m(k)Td ) (9)

where Td is the unit time shift or modulation delay.

By far, the most common method of mo-

dulation in the literature is the PPM, since
this was the first modulation proposed for
UWB. One of the main problems of the PPM
modulation are the spectral lines, however, if
a pseudorandom code of the pulse positions
is used, then the discrete lines on the power
spectral density are significantly reduced.
On the other hand, for the UWB system
extremely fine time control is necessary to
modulate pulses to sub-nanosecond accuracy.
BPSK modulation is also quite popular.

Multiple Access Techniques
In single band UWB systems multiple users may share the spectrum. It is then, necessary to use multiple
access techniques to accomodate all of them.
Among the different multiple access techniques (frequency division, time division, code division multiple ac-
cess) two are gaining more popularity for use with UWB-IR: the direct sequence spreading technique (DS-UWB)
and the time-hopping (TH-UWB).
DS-UWB employs a train of high-duty-cycle pulses whose polarities follow pseudorandom code sequences.
Specifically, each user in the system is assigned a pseudorandom code. The signal can be described as:
NXc 1
d(k) symbol to be transmitted over frame k.
1 X
s(t) = d(k) c(n)g(t kT nTc ) (10) c(n) user code.
Nc n=0 Nc Number of code pulses per frame.

Let us consider an example of DS-UWB with BPSK modulation.
Data sequence:

X
d(k)

Pulse train with a PN code:

1 X Nc
c(n)g(t nTc )
Nc n=0
DS-UWB signal with BPSK modulation

1 X NXc 1
d(k) c(n)g(t kT nTc )
Nc n=0

TH-UWB utilizes low duty cycle pulses, where the time spreading between the pulses is used to provide time
multiplexing of users. Basically, each frame interval of duration T is divided into multiple smaller segments of
length Tc ; only one of these segments carries the users transmitted pulse. A unique code, also referred to as TH
sequence (c(k)), is assigned to each user to specify which segment in each frame interval is used.
The signal can be described as:

X
s(t) = g(t kT c(k)Tc ) (11)
k=
The TH technique can be used with any modulation (PSK, PAM or PPM). Let us consider an example with PPM
modulation.

X
s(t) = g(t kT c(k)Tc m(k)Td ) (12)
k=

TH-BPSK example

Ultra Wideband Channel
Propagation models are divided in two categories: large and small-scale models.
Large scale models characterize signal power over long distances between the transmitter and the recei-
ver.
Large scale models comprise path loss models and shadowing.
Path loss models describe an average value of the signal power as a function of the distance to the receiver.
Shadowing characterizes the slow variation of the signal envelope over time around the deterministic path loss
value.
Small scale models characterize signal behavior over very short distances (up to 30 m outdoor or a few
meters in indoor scenarios).
Small scale models are used to describe rapid fluctuations of the amplitudes, phases or multipath delays in the
signal received over a short period of time. These are due to constructive and destructive interference of the
multipath components which arrive at the receiver at slightly different times.

LARGE SCALE MODELS.
1.- PATH LOSS MODELS.
Path loss is defined as the ratio between the signal power at the transmitter and the signal power at the
receiver considering isotropic antennas at both ends. It depends on the distance d between the transmitter and
receiver, the frequency f of the signal and the terrain path. For narrowband signals, in ideal free-space propagation
conditions, it is:
!2
4f d
P L(d) = . (13)
c
In practice, the path loss is affected by the signal refraction, reflection and scattering in the environment. Generally
it can be expressed as:
!k
d
P L(d) = P L(do ) (14)
do
where do is the reference distance (typically 1 m), P L(do ) the path loss at the reference distance and k is the path
loss exponent that can be obtained from measurements (k = 2 in free space, k = 3,5 in rural areas,...)

In UWB communications the frequency dependence of the propagation parameters may be significant, then
P L(f, d) = P Lf (f ) P Ld (d) (15)
The frequency dependent path loss can be modeled as a function of f m , m (0,8, 1,4).
2.- SHADOWING.
The shadowing behavior in UWB is quite similar to that in narrowband systems. Empirical studies have
shown that the shadowing effect in UWB is lognormally distributed, that is the signal level at a specific point in
dB has a normal distribution with mean given by the Path Loss and a standard deviation that depends on the
specific environment and the antenna heights.

SMALL SCALE MODELS.
In UWB systems the large signal bandwidth provides fine spatial resolution. Consequently two effects can
be observed:
1.- The number of pulses arriving simultaneously at the receiver is very low compared to the narrowband case ( sin-
ce UWB pulses are much shorter in time). As a result, the fading is not as severe as in the case of narrowband signals.
2.- Multipath components can be resolved on a very fine time duration. Therefore the time of arrival of
multipath componets may not be continuous. In fact, in UWB systems, the channel measurements showed
multipath arrivals in clusters rather than in a continuous as is common for narrowband systems.
Example: Saleh-Valenzuela Model
In this model multipath arrivals are grouped in two categories: cluster arrival and ray arrival within a clus-
ter. The model require four parameters: the cluster arrival rate, the ray arrival rate, the cluster decay factor and
the ray decay factor. The channel impulse response is given by:
C X
X L
h(t) = (c, l)(t T c cl ) (16)
c=0 l=0
(c, l) is the gain of the l ray in the c cluster.

The complex amplitude (c, l) follows a zero mean complex Gaussian random variable with variance:
Tc cl
!
cl = 00 exp (17)

00 Mean power of the first path of the first cluster.
Cluster decay factor.
Ray decay factor.
T c represents the delay of the c-th cluster.

cl is the additional delay of the l-th ray within the c-th cluster. By definition c0 = 0
The cluster and ray arrivals are modeled by Poisson processes:
p(Tc |Tcl ) = exp [(Tc Tc1 )] (18)
p(c |cl ) = exp [(c c1 )] (19)
is the cluster arrival rate.

the ray arrival rate, >

, , and are different for different environments.
CM1 CM2 CM3 CM4

1
(ns ) 0.0233 0.4 0.0667 0.0667
(ns1 ) 2.5 0.5 2.1 2.1
7.1 5.5 14 24
4.3 6.7 7.9 12
The IEEE 802.15 work group has defined two statistical models, one for short range, high rate, indoor applications
(802.15.3a model) and the second one for applications with longer range in both indoor and outdoor environments
(802.15.4a model).
Lets see the IEEE 802.15.3a model.

IEEE 802.15.3a model

. Path Loss is calculated as the free space-path loss considering a frequency f = fH fL where fH and fL are
obtained at the -10 dB points of the spectrum.
Shadowing is assumed to be lognormally distributed with a standard deviation of 3 dB.
Small scale fading. The model for the small scale fading is based on the Saleh-Valenzuela model, although for
the ray amplitude a lognormal distribution is adopted.
CM1 parameters describe a LOS scenario with a maximum distance between transmitter and receiver of 4 m.
CM2 is used for the same range but in NLOS conditions.
CM3 describes a NLOS scenario with transmitter-receiver distances between 4 and 10 m.
CM4 corresponds to NLOS situations with a large delay spread 0f 25 ns.
The total average received power of the multipath realizations is normalized to unity.

Demodulation Techniques
The signal received consists of multipath signals from active users plus thermal noise. Due to the effects of
the propagation channel and the antenna, the shape of the received pulse is different from the shape of the
transmitted pulse. Typically, the transmitted pulse is modified to its second derivative at the receiver antenna
output.
1. Correlation receiver
The correlation receiver is the optimum receiver for a single bit of a binary-modulated UWB-IR signal in
additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN) channel. The signal received at the correlation receiver is correlated with
the pulse expected (reference pulse) and binary decisions are made depending on the correlation values.
The correlation receiver is optimal for AWGN channels, however, the UWB channel is usually frequency-selective
(multipath) and the correlation receiver performance in this case worsens significantly.

IR-UWB Receiver
Correlator
2. RAKE receiver
In a frequency-selective fading channel, a RAKE receiver can be used to exploit multipath diversity by combining
constructively the pulses received from resolvable multipath components. A typical RAKE receiver is composed
of several correlators followed by a linear combiner. The signal received is correlated with delayed versions of
the reference pulse and linearly combined. The performance of the RAKE receiver depends on the path selection
technique and the combining method.
Various combinations of path selection and combining methods have been studied.

RAKE receiver: Path selection techniques
In a realistic dense multipath channel (e.g. indoor channel), the number of resolvable paths when conside-
ring UWB sytems would be very large. Then, consideration of all resolvable paths, though providing high
performance would be difficult to implement and expensive. A trade-off between complexity and performance has
lead to different techniques to select only a subset of the resolved multipath components available. Let us consider
that L path components are to be chosen out of L1 paths available.
1. Maximum selection. Select the L best paths.To select properly requires keeping track of all L1 components, to
choose the best L at each instant. This requires instantaneous and highly accurate channel estimation.
2. Partial selection. Select the first nonzero L arriving paths. The partial selection requires neither path amplitude
knowledge nor the selection mechanism. It reduces the complexity but also the performance compared to the
maximum selection strategy.
3. Threshold selection. Select the first L paths with a magnitude above a threshold. This technique, as the
partial selection, does not require a sorting algorithm or amplitude knowledge, however it requires to define
the threshold.

RAKE receiver: Combining methods
The combining methods define the weight to apply to each path before combining all of them.
1. Equal gain Combining (ECG). The outputs of the correlators are summed up together and fed to the detector.
It is the simplest form of combiner that does not require knowledge of path amplitudes.
2. Maximum Ratio Combining (MRC). The outputs of the correlators are weighted in direct proportion to the
signal amplitude. This requires estimation of the amplitudes of the paths chosen. This method maximizes the
system instantaneous SNR when no narrowband interference exists. Its performance degrades in the presence
of narrowband interference.
3. Minimum Mean Square Error Combining (MMSEC). The objective of this method is to suppress the narrow-
band interference while maximizing the instantaneous SNR. For that an adaptive MMSE algorithm is used,
what increases the complexity of the system, though a better performance is expected.

The main idea of multiband approaches is to divide the UWB spectrum (3.1 GHz-10.6 GHz) into smaller bands
(subbands). Each subband must have a bandwidth greater than 500 MHz to comply with FCC regulations.

The UWB spectrum is divided into S subbands. Each subband occupies a bandwidth BW>500 MHz. The OFDM
has N subcarriers. At each OFDM symbol period, the modulated symbol is transmitted over one of the subbands.
These symbols are time-interleaved across subbands.
Let dk (n) be the complex coefficient to be transmitted in subcarrier n during the kth symbol period. The OFDM
symbol is constructed using an IFFT:
f = BW/N is the frequency spacing between adjacent subcarriers.

1
NX TF F T : duration of x(t).
xk (t) = dk (n)ej2nf t (20) TSY M is the symbol duration, it equals TF F T + TCP + TGI .
n=0
TCP is the cyclic prefix length.
TGI is the guard interval length.
The RF signal transmitted is:
<{xk (t kTSY M )ej2fk t }

X
s(t) = (21)
k
The carrier frequency fk specifies the subband in which the signal is transmitted during the kth OFDM symbol
duration. These carrier frequency sequences are based on time frequency codes, which are assigned uniquely to
various users so as to minimize the multiple access interference.


Multiband OFDM proposal of IEEE 802.15.3a WPAN standard.
The subbands BW is set to 528 MHz allowing 14 subbands within the 7.5 GHz bandwidth (between 3.1
and 10.6 GHz) for UWB.
The OFDM symbol has 128 subcarriers. QPSK is used.

Each OFDM symbol is preappended with a zero-trailing prefix to eliminate the ISI.
Number of OFDM subcarriers 128

Number of data subcarriers 100
Number of defined pilot subcarriers 12
Number of guard subcarriers 10
f : Subcarrier frequency spacing 4.125 MHz (528/128 MHz)
TF F T : IFFT/FFT period 242.42 ns (1/f )
TCP : Cyclic prefix duration 60.61 ns (32/528 MHz)
TGI : Guard interval duration 9.47 ns (5/528 MHz)
TSY M : Symbol duration 312.5 ns

Bibliography
W.Pam Siriwongpairat and K.J. Ray Liu. Ultra-Wideband Communications Systems. Multiband OFDM Approach
Ed. John Wiley & Sons. 2008
I. Oppermann, M. Hamalainen and J. Linati. UWB Theory and Applicatons Ed. John Wiley & Sons. 2004
M. Ghavami, L.B. Michael and R. Kohno. Ultra Wideband. Signals and Systems in Communication Engi-
neering. Ed. John Wiley & Sons. 2007
P. Pagani, F. Tchoffo Talom, P. Pajusco and B. Uguen. Ultra-Wideband Radio Propagation Channels Ed.
John Wiley & Sons. 2008

Exercise
Synthesis of PPM, OOK and BPSK modulated UWB signals using Matlab.
BER estimation on AWGN channels.
Synthesis of TH-PPM, TH-BPSK DS-BPSK and DS-BPSK signal with Matlab,
BER estimation on AWGN channels.
Consider the following Gaussian monocycle pulse:
tau=0.16e-9; % Gives a pulse of Tw=0.6 ns. BW 2.2 GHz. Bandbase width 3.2 GHz
% Nyquist frequency 6.5 GHz, TN 0.15 ns.
% Considering an oversampling rate of 10, Ts=0.015e-9
Ts=0.015e-9;
t=[-1e-9:Ts:1e-9];
Epulso=1;
K2=sqrt(tau*Epulso/(sqrt(pi/2)));
g2=-2*t/(tau.2).*exp(-2*(t/tau).2)*K2;
Plot the pulse in the time and frequency domains.

Exercise
Define a BPPM (symbols (1,-1)), an OOK and a BPSK modulated UWB sequences using Matlab. Consider:
1.- The transmitted pulse is g2.
2.- The frame interval is T (time between transmitted pulses).
3.- Each frame interval is divided into smaller time segments of length Tc . Pulses are transmitted within a time
segment.
4.- Tc = 1 ns. T = 100Tc . Total length of each sequence: 50T .
5.- Td = Tc , Td time shift for PPM modulations.
Plot one realization of each sequence (BPPM, OOK, BPSK).
Plot an estimate of the power spectral density of each sequence (BPPM, OOK, BPSK).

Exercise
Consider an AWGN channel. Assume synchronization at the receiver has been done.
Define the correlator receiver for each modulation: BPPM, BPSK, OOK. The transmitted pulse is g2. The
same pulse is expected at reception.
Use Matlab simulations to estimate the BER for each modulations versus Eb /No .
Eb stands for the transmitted energy per bit: energy per symbol divided by the number of bits per symbol.
No /2 is the noise spectral power density.

Exercise
Define a TH-BPSK, a TH-BPPM sequence and a DS-BPSK modulated UWB sequences using Matlab. Consider:
1.- The transmitted pulse is g2.
2.- The following user code for the DS modulation is [-1 1 -1 -1 1 -1 1].
3.- For the TH case, consider that the user code is [2 3 4 5 6 0 1].
4.- T is the frame interval, that is, the time between coded transmitted pulses.
5.- Each frame interval is divided into smaller segments of length Tc . A number of segments Tc equal to the length
of the code is used for transmitted each coded BPSK or PPM symbol.
6.- For TH-BPSK and DS-BPSK, Tc = 1 ns. T = 100Tc . Total length of each sequence: 50T .
7.- For TH-PPM Tc = 2 ns and Td = 1 ns, (Td the time shift for the PPM modulations).
Plot one realization of each sequence (TH-BPPM, TH-BPSK, DS-BPSK).
Plot an estimate of the power spectral density of each sequence (TH-BPPM, TH-BPSK, DS-BPSK).

Exercise
Consider an AWGN channel. Assume synchronization at the receiver has been done.
Define the correlator receiver for each sequence: TH-BPPM, TH-BPSK, DS-BPSK. The transmitted pulse is
g2. The samepulse is expected at reception.
Use Matlab simulations to estimate the BER for each modulations versus Eb /No .
Eb stands for the transmitted energy per bit: energy per symbol divided by the number of bits per symbol.
No /2 is the noise spectral power density.

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Introduction

This spectral availability makes it possible to consider:

ULTRA WIDEBAND ULTRA WIDEBAND

In this scenery various advantages of UWB can be pointed out:

High data rates

Let us examine Shannons capacity equation:

ULTRA WIDEBAND ULTRA WIDEBAND

Low complexity and low cost systems.

High-precision ranging and localization

ULTRA WIDEBAND ULTRA WIDEBAND

Fractional bandwidth (FB): It is defined as :

ULTRA WIDEBAND ULTRA WIDEBAND

UWB regulation in the USA

ULTRA WIDEBAND ULTRA WIDEBAND

UWB regulation in Europe

In the 3.1-4.8 GHz and 8.5-9 GHz band, UWB equip-

Two mitigation techniques have been defined:

ULTRA WIDEBAND ULTRA WIDEBAND

UWB regulation in Japan

Comparison of the regulations in the USA, Europe and

ULTRA WIDEBAND ULTRA WIDEBAND

Ultra Wideband Impulse Radio (UWB-IR)

Multiband OFDM Ultra Wideband (UWB-OFDM)

ULTRA WIDEBAND ULTRA WIDEBAND

Their respective spectra are given by:

ULTRA WIDEBAND ULTRA WIDEBAND

ULTRA WIDEBAND ULTRA WIDEBAND

1. Pulse Amplitude Modulation

OOK is a special case of PAM with bynary symbol m {0, 1}.

ULTRA WIDEBAND ULTRA WIDEBAND

3. Bi-phase Modulation: BPSK

4. Pulse Position Modulation (PPM)

The information is carried in the fine time shift of the pulse.

where Td is the unit time shift or modulation delay.

ULTRA WIDEBAND ULTRA WIDEBAND

By far, the most common method of mo-

BPSK modulation is also quite popular.

ULTRA WIDEBAND ULTRA WIDEBAND

Multiple Access Techniques

ULTRA WIDEBAND ULTRA WIDEBAND

Let us consider an example of DS-UWB with BPSK modulation.

Pulse train with a PN code:

DS-UWB signal with BPSK modulation

ULTRA WIDEBAND ULTRA WIDEBAND

The signal can be described as:

ULTRA WIDEBAND ULTRA WIDEBAND

ULTRA WIDEBAND ULTRA WIDEBAND

ULTRA WIDEBAND ULTRA WIDEBAND

LARGE SCALE MODELS.

1.- PATH LOSS MODELS.

ULTRA WIDEBAND ULTRA WIDEBAND

P L(f, d) = P Lf (f ) P Ld (d) (15)

ULTRA WIDEBAND ULTRA WIDEBAND

SMALL SCALE MODELS.

Example: Saleh-Valenzuela Model

(c, l) is the gain of the l ray in the c cluster.

ULTRA WIDEBAND ULTRA WIDEBAND

T c represents the delay of the c-th cluster.

The cluster and ray arrivals are modeled by Poisson processes:

p(Tc |Tcl ) = exp [(Tc Tc1 )] (18)

p(c |cl ) = exp [(c c1 )] (19)

is the cluster arrival rate.