Death (personification)

Death, also known as the Grim Reaper, is frequently imagined as

a personified force, due to its prominent place in human culture. In some mythologies,
the Grim Reaper causes the victim's death by coming to collect them. In turn, people in
some stories try to hold on to life by avoiding Death's visit, or by fending Death off with
bribery or tricks. Other beliefs hold that the Spectre of Death is only a psychopomp,
serving to sever the last ties between the soul and the body, and to guide the deceased
to the afterlife, without having any control over when or how the victim dies. Death is
most often personified in male form, although in certain cultures Death is perceived as
female (for instance, Marzanna in Slavic mythology).

By region
Middle Eastern
Main article: Mot

Mot (lit. "Death") was personified to Canaanites as a god of death. He was

considered a son of the king of the gods, El. His contest with the storm god Baal forms
part of the myth cycle discovered in the 1920s in the ruins of Ugarit. Lacunae obscure
some of the details, but Mot apparently consumes Baal before being split open and
mutilated by that god's sister, the warrior 'Anat. After a time, both gods are restored and
resume battle before the sun goddess Shapash prompts a truce by warning Mot that, if
forced to, El would intervene on Baal's behalf. The Phoenicians also worshipped death
under the name Mot and a version of Mot later became Maweth, the devil or angel of
death in Judaism.

Hellenic
Main article: Thanatos
 Ancient Greece found Death to be inevitable, and therefore, he is not represented
as purely evil. He is often portrayed as a bearded and winged man, but has also been
portrayed as a young boy. Death, or Thanatos, is the counterpart of life, death being
represented as male, and life as female. He is the twin brother of Hypnos, the god of
sleep. He is typically shown with his brother and is represented as being just and gentle.
His job is to escort the dead to the underworld, Hades. He then hands the dead over
to Charon, who mans the boat that carries them over the river Styx, which separates the
land of the living from the land of the dead. It was believed that if the ferryman did not
receive some sort of payment, the soul would not be delivered to the underworld and
would be left by the riverside for a hundred years. Thanatos' sisters, the Keres, were the
spirits of violent death. They were associated with deaths from battle, disease, accident,
and murder. The sisters were portrayed as evil, often feeding on the blood of the body
after the soul had been escorted to Hades. They had fangs and talons, and would be
dressed in bloody garments.

Celtic

Breton folklore shows a spectral figure portending death, the Ankou (yr Angau in Welsh).
Usually, the Ankou is the spirit of the last person that died within the community and
appears as a tall, haggard figure with a wide hat and long white hair or a skeleton with a
revolving head who sees everyone, everywhere. The Ankou drives a deathly wagon or
cart with a creaking axle. The cart or wagon is piled high with corpses and a stop at a
cabin means instant death for those inside.[3]

In Ireland there was a creature known as a dullahan, whose head would be tucked under
his or her arm (dullahans were not one, but an entire species), and the head was said to
have large eyes and a smile that could reach the head's ears. The dullahan would ride a
black horse or a carriage pulled by black horses, and stop at the house of someone
about to die, and call their name, and immediately the person would die. The dullahan
did not like being watched, and it was believed that if a dullahan knew someone was
watching them, they would lash that person's eyes with their whip, which was made from
a spine; or they would toss a basin of blood on the person, which was a sign that the
person was next to die.

Also in Ireland there is a female spirit known as Banshee, who heralds the death of a
person, usually by shrieking or keening. The banshee is often described in Gaelic lore as
wearing red or green, usually with long, disheveled hair. She can appear in a variety of
forms. Perhaps most often she is seen as an ugly, frightful hag, but she can also appear
as young and beautiful if she chooses. In Ireland and parts of Scotland, a traditional part
of mourning is the keening woman (bean chaointe), who wails a lament in Irish:
Caoineadh, caoin meaning "to weep, to wail". When several banshees appear at once, it
indicates the death of someone great or holy. The tales sometimes recounted that the
woman, though called a fairy, was a ghost, often of a specific murdered woman, or a
mother who died in childbirth.

In Scottish folklore there was a belief that a black, dark green or white dog known as
a C Sth took dying souls to the afterlife.

Slavic

In Poland, Death, or mier , has an appearance similar to the traditional Grim Reaper,
but instead of a black robe, Death has a white robe. Also, due to grammar, Death is a
female (the word mier is of feminine gender), mostly seen as an old skeletal woman, as
depicted in 16th century dialogue "Rozmowa Mistrza Polikarpa ze
mierci " (Latin: "Dialogus inter Mortem et Magistrum Polikarpum").

In Serbia and other smaller Balkan countries, Grim Reaper is well knows as Smrt ("Death")
or Kosa ("Billhook"), Balkan people found this very similar to the Devil and other dark
powers. One popular saying about the Grim Reaper is: Smrt ne bira ni vreme, mesto ni
godine ("Death is not choosing a time, place or years" - which means she is
destiny.)[original research?]

The Low Countries

In the Netherlands, but also to lesser extent in Belgium, the personification of Death is
known as Magere Hein ("Meager Hein"). Historically, he was sometimes simply referred
to as Hein or variations thereof such as Heintje, Heintjeman and Oom
Hendrik ("Uncle Hendrik"). Related archaic terms are Beenderman ("Bone-
man"), Scherminkel (very meager person, "skeleton") and Maaijeman ("mow-man", a
reference to his scythe).[4]

The concept of Magere Hein was pre-Christian and tied to Pagan beliefs, but it
was Christianized and likely gained its modern name and features (scythe, skeleton, black
robe etc.) during the Middle Ages. The designation "Meager" comes from its portrayal as
a skeleton, which was largely influenced by the Christian "Dance of Death"
(Dutch: dodendans) theme that was prominent in Europe during the late Middle Ages.
"Hein" was a Middle Dutch name originating as a short form of Heinric (see Henry (given
name)). Its use was possibly related to the comparable German concept of "Freund
Hein". Notable is that many of the names given to Death can also refer to the Devil,
showing how his status as a feared and "evil" being led to him being merged into the
concept of Satan.[4][5]

In Belgium, this personification of Death is now commonly called Pietje de Dood "Little
Pete, the Death".[6] As with some of the Dutch names, it can also refer to the Devil.[7]

Scandinavia

In Scandinavia, in Norse mythology death was personified in the shape of Hel, the
goddess of death and ruler over the realm of the same name, where she received a
portion of the dead.[8] In the times of the Black Plague, Death would often be depicted as
an old woman known by the name of Pesta, meaning "plague hag". She wore a black
hood. She would go into a town carrying either a rake or a broom. If she brought the
rake, some people would survive the plague; if she brought the broom, however,
everyone would die.[9]

Later, Scandinavians adopted the classic Grim Reaper with a scythe and black robe.

Baltic

Lithuanians named Death Giltin , deriving from word gelti ("to sting"). Giltin was viewed
as an old, ugly woman with a long blue nose and a deadly poisonous tongue. The
legend tells that Giltin was young, pretty and communicative until she was trapped in a
coffin for seven years. The goddess of death was a sister of the goddess of life and
destiny, Laima, symbolizing the relationship between beginning and end.

Lithuanians later adopted the classic Grim Reaper with a scythe and black robe.

India

The Sanskrit word for death is mrityu (cognate with Latin mors and Polish mier ), which
is often personified in Dharmic religions.

In Hindu scriptures, the lord of death is called King Yama ( , Yama R j). He is
also known as the King of Karmic Justice (Dharmaraja) as one's karma at death was
considered to lead to a just rebirth. (Yudhishthira, eldest of the pandavas and a
personification of justice, was born through Kunti's prayers to Yama.) Yama rides a
black buffalo and carries a rope lasso to carry the soul back to his home, called Naraka,
pathalloka, or Yamaloka. There are many forms of reapers, although some say there is
only one who disguises himself as a small child. His agents, the Yamadutas, carry souls
back to Yamalok. There, all the accounts of a person's good and bad deeds are stored
and maintained by Chitragupta. The balance of these deeds allows Yama to decide
where the soul has to reside in its next life, following the theory of reincarnation. Yama is
also mentioned in the Mahabharata as a great philosopher and devotee of the
Supreme Brahman.

Buddhist scriptures also mention Mara, much in the similar way.

East Asia[edit]

Yama was introduced to Chinese mythology through Buddhism. In Chinese, he is known

as King Yan (t , s , p Ynwng) or Yanluo (t , s , p Ynluwng),
ruling the ten gods of the underworld Diyu. He is normally depicted wearing a Chinese
judge's cap and traditional Chinese robes and appears on most forms of hell
money offered in ancestor worship. From China, Yama spread to Japan as the Great King
Enma (, Enma-Dai- ), ruler of Jigoku (); Korea as the Great King Y mna
(), ruler of Jiok (); and Vietnam as Dim La Vng, ruler of a Ngc or m
Ph
Separately, the Kojiki relates that the Japanese goddess Izanami was burnt to death
giving birth to the fire god Hinokagutsuchi. She then entered a realm of perpetual night
called Yomi-no-Kuni. Her husband Izanagi pursued her there but discovered his wife was
no longer as beautiful as before. After an argument, she promises she will take a
thousand lives every day, becoming a goddess of death. There are also death gods
called shinigami (), which are closer to the Western tradition of the Grim Reaper;
while common in modern Japanese arts and fiction, they were essentially absent in
traditional mythology.

In Korean mythology, the equivalent of the Grim Reaper is the "Netherworld Emissary"
Jeoseung-saja (). He is depicted as a stern and ruthless bureaucrat in Y mna's
service. A psychopomp, he escorts allgood or evilfrom the land of the living to the
netherworld when the time comes.[10]

Latin America[edit]

Our Lady of the Holy Death (Santa Muerte) is a female deity of Mexican folk religion,
whose faith has been spreading in Mexico and the United States. Since the pre-
Columbian era Mexican culture has maintained a certain reverence towards death, which
can be seen in the widespread commemoration of the Day of the Dead. Elements of that
celebration include the use of skeletons to remind people of their mortality. The cult of
Santa Muerte is indeed a continuation of the Aztec cult of the goddess of
death Mictecacihuatl (Nahuatl for "Lady of the Dead") clad in Spanish iconography.

In Aztec mythology, Mictecacihuatl is the "Queen of Mictlan" (Mictlancihuatl),

the underworld, ruling over the afterlife with Mictlantecuhtli, another deity who is
designated as her husband. Her role is to keep watch over the bones of the dead. She
presided over the ancient festivals of the dead, which evolved from Aztec traditions into
the modern Day of the Dead after synthesis with Spanish cultural traditions. She is said
now to preside over the contemporary festival as well. She is known as the "Lady of the
Dead" since it is believed that she was born, then sacrificed as an infant. Mictecacihuatl
was represented with a defleshed body and with jaw agape to swallow the stars during
the day.
San La Muerte (Saint Death) is a skeletal folk saint that is venerated in Paraguay, the
Northeast of Argentina and southern Brazil. As the result of internal migration in
Argentina since the 1960s the veneration of San La Muerte has been extended to Greater
Buenos Aires and the national prison system as well. Saint Death is depicted as a male
skeleton figure usually holding a scythe. Although the Catholic Church in Mexico has
attacked the devotion of Saint Death as a tradition that mixes paganism with Christianity
and is contrary to the Christian belief of Christ defeating death, many devotees consider
the veneration of San La Muerte as being part of their Catholic faith. The rituals
connected to and powers ascribed to San La Muerte are very similar to those of Santa
Muerte.

In the Brazilian religion Umbanda, the orix Omolu personifies sickness and death, and
also the cure. The image of the death is also associated with Exu, lord of the crossroads,
who rules the midnight and the cemeteries.

In Abrahamic religions[edit]

See also: Destroying angel (Bible)

The "Angel of the Lord" smites 185,000 men in the Assyrian camp (II Kings 19:35). When
the Angel of Death passes through to smite the Egyptian first-born, God prevents "the
destroyer" (shchath) from entering houses with blood on the lintel and side posts
(Exodus 12:23). The "destroying angel" (mal'ak ha-mashit) rages among the people in
Jerusalem (II Sam. 24:16). In I Chronicles 21:15 the "angel of the Lord" is seen by King
David standing "between the earth and the heaven, having a drawn sword in his hand
stretched out over Jerusalem." The biblical Book of Job (33:22) uses the general term
"destroyers" (memitim), which tradition has identified with "destroying angels" (mal'ake
Khabbalah), and Prov. 16:14 uses the term the "angels of death" (mal'ake ha-
mavet). Azra'il is sometimes referred as the Angel of Death as well.[citation needed]

Jewish tradition also refers to Death as the Angel of Dark and Light, a name which stems
from Talmudic lore. There is also a reference to "Abaddon" (The Destroyer), an Angel
who is known as the "Angel of the Abyss". In Talmudic lore, he is characterized
as archangel Michael.[11]
In Judaism[edit]

In Hebrew scriptures, Death ("Maweth") is sometimes personified as a devil or angel of

death (e.g., Habakkuk 2:5; Job 18:13).[1] In both the Book of Hosea and the Book of
Jeremiah, Maweth/Mot is mentioned as a deity to whom Yahweh can turn over Judah as
punishment for worshiping other gods.[12] The memitim are a type of angel from biblical
lore associated with the mediation over the lives of the dying. The name is derived from
the Hebrew word m m tm (
" executioners", "slayers", "destroyers") and refers to
angels that brought about the destruction of those whom the guardian angels no longer
protected.[13] While there may be some debate among religious scholars regarding the
exact nature of the memitim, it is generally accepted that, as described in the Book of
Job 33:22, they are killers of some sort.[14]

Form and functions[edit]

According to the Midrash, the Angel of Death was created by God on the first day.[15] His
dwelling is in heaven, whence he reaches earth in eight flights, whereas Pestilence
reaches it in one.[16] He has twelve wings.[17] "Over all people have I surrendered thee the
power," said God to the Angel of Death, "only not over this one which has received
freedom from death through the Law."[18] It is said of the Angel of Death that he is full of
eyes. In the hour of death, he stands at the head of the departing one with a drawn
sword, to which clings a drop of gall. As soon as the dying man sees Death, he is seized
with a convulsion and opens his mouth, whereupon Death throws the drop into it. This
drop causes his death; he turns putrid, and his face becomes yellow.[19] The expression
"the taste of death" originated in the idea that death was caused by a drop of gall. [20]

The soul escapes through the mouth, or, as is stated in another place, through the throat;
therefore, the Angel of Death stands at the head of the patient (Adolf Jellinek, l.c. ii. 94,
Midr. Teh. to Ps. xi.). When the soul forsakes the body, its voice goes from one end of the
world to the other, but is not heard (Gen. R. vi. 7; Ex. R. v. 9; Pire R. El. xxxiv.). The drawn
sword of the Angel of Death, mentioned by the Chronicler (I. Chron. 21:15; comp. Job
15:22; Enoch 62:11), indicates that the Angel of Death was figured as a warrior who kills
off the children of men. "Man, on the day of his death, falls down before the Angel of
Death like a beast before the slaughterer" (Grnhut, "Liuim", v. 102a). R. Samuel's
father (c. 200) said: "The Angel of Death said to me, 'Only for the sake of the honor of
mankind do I not tear off their necks as is done to slaughtered beasts'" ('Ab. Zarah 20b).
In later representations, the knife sometimes replaces the sword, and reference is also
made to the cord of the Angel of Death, which indicates death by throttling. Moses says
to God: "I fear the cord of the Angel of Death" (Grnhut, l.c. v. 103a et seq.). Of the
four Jewish methods of execution, three are named in connection with the Angel of
Death: Burning (by pouring hot lead down the victim's throat), slaughtering (by
beheading), and throttling. The Angel of Death administers the particular punishment
that God has ordained for the commission of sin.

A peculiar mantle ("idra"-according to Levy, "Neuhebr. Wrterb." i. 32, a sword) belongs

to the equipment of the Angel of Death (Eccl. R. iv. 7). The Angel of Death takes on the
particular form which will best serve his purpose; e.g., he appears to a scholar in the form
of a beggar imploring pity (The beggar should receive Tzedakah.)(M. . 28a). "When
pestilence rages in the town, walk not in the middle of the street, because the Angel of
Death [i.e., pestilence] strides there; if peace reigns in the town, walk not on the edges of
the road. When pestilence rages in the town, go not alone to the synagogue, because
there the Angel of Death stores his tools. If the dogs howl, the Angel of Death has
entered the city; if they make sport, the prophet Elijah has come" (B. . 60b). The
"destroyer" (saan ha-mashit) in the daily prayer is the Angel of Death (Ber. 16b). Midr.
Ma'ase Torah (compare Jellinek, "B. H." ii. 98) says: "There are six Angels of
Death: Gabriel over kings; apiel over youths; Mashbir over animals; Mashit over
children; Af and emah over man and beast."

Scholars and the Angel of Death

Talmud teachers of the 4th century associate quite familiarly with him. When he
appeared to one on the street, the teacher reproached him with rushing upon him as
upon a beast, whereupon the angel called upon him at his house. To another, he
granted a respite of thirty days, that he might put his knowledge in order before entering
the next world. To a third, he had no access, because he could not interrupt the study of
the Talmud. To a fourth, he showed a rod of fire, whereby he is recognized as the Angel
of Death (M. K. 28a). He often entered the house of Bibi and conversed with him (ag.
4b). Often, he resorts to strategy in order to interrupt and seize his victim (B. M. 86a;
Mak. 10a).

The death of Joshua ben Levi in particular is surrounded with a web of fable. When the
time came for him to die and the Angel of Death appeared to him, he demanded to be
shown his place in paradise. When the angel had consented to this, he demanded the
angel's knife, that the angel might not frighten him by the way. This request also was
granted him, and Joshua sprang with the knife over the wall of paradise; the angel, who
is not allowed to enter paradise, caught hold of the end of his garment. Joshua swore
that he would not come out, and God declared that he should not leave paradise unless
he was absolved from his oath; if not absolved, he was to remain. The Angel of Death
then demanded back his knife, but Joshua refused. At this point, a heavenly voice (bat
ol) rang out: "Give him back the knife, because the children of men have need of it will
bring death." Hesitant, Joshua Ben Levi gives back the knife in exchange for the Angel of
Deaths name. To never forget the name he carved Troke into his arm the Angel of
Death's chosen name. When the knife was returned to the Angel Joshua's carving of the
name faded and he forgot. (Ket. 77b; Jellinek, l.c. ii. 4851; Bacher, l.c. i. 192 et seq.).

Rabbinic views[edit]

The Rabbis found the Angel of Death mentioned in Psalm 89:48, where the Targum
translates: "There is no man who lives and, seeing the Angel of Death, can deliver his soul
from his hand." Eccl. 8:4 is thus explained in Midrash Rabbah to the passage: "One may
not escape the Angel of Death, nor say to him, 'Wait until I put my affairs in order,' or
'There is my son, my slave: take him in my stead.'" Where the Angel of Death appears,
there is no remedy, but his name (Talmud, Ned. 49a; Hul. 7b). If one who has sinned has
confessed his fault, the Angel of Death may not touch him (Midrash Tanhuma, ed. Buber,
139). God protects from the Angel of Death (Midrash Genesis Rabbah lxviii.).

By acts of benevolence, the anger of the Angel of Death is overcome; when one fails to
perform such acts the Angel of Death will make his appearance (Derek Ere Zua, viii.).
The Angel of Death receives his orders from God (Ber. 62b). As soon as he has received
permission to destroy, however, he makes no distinction between good and bad (B. .
60a). In the city of Luz, the Angel of Death has no power, and, when the aged inhabitants
are ready to die, they go outside the city (Soah 46b; compare Sanh. 97a). A legend to
the same effect existed in Ireland in the Middle Ages (Jew. Quart. Rev. vi. 336).

In Catholicism[edit]

Medieval painting of Death playing chess from Tby Church in Sweden

In Roman Catholicism, the archangel Michael is viewed as the good Angel of Death (as
opposed to Samael, the controversial Angel of Death), carrying the souls of the deceased
to Heaven (cf. his invocation in the traditional offertory of the requiem Mass). Death is
also one of the Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse portrayed in the Book of
Revelation. Revelation 6:78[21]

In Islam[edit]
Main article: Islamic view of death

In Islam, Azrail (Malak al-Maut) is the angel of Death. He pulls the souls out of the body,
and guides them through the journey of the afterlife. His appearance depends on the
person's deed and actions, with those that did good seeing a beautiful being, and those
that did wrong seeing a horrific monster.[citation needed]

Islamic tradition discusses elaborately, almost in graphic detail, as to what exactly

happens before, during, and after the death. The angel of death (Malak al-Maut) appears
to the dying to take out their souls. The sinners' souls are extracted in a most painful way
while the righteous are treated easily.[22] After the burial, two angels Munkar and
Nakir come to question the dead in order to test their faith. The righteous believers
answer correctly and live in peace and comfort while the sinners and disbelievers fail and
punishments ensue.[22][23] The time period or stage between death and resurrection is
called the life of barzakh.[22]

Death is a significant event in Islamic life and theology. It is seen not as the termination
of life, rather the continuation of life in another form. In Islamic belief, God has made this
worldly life as a test and a preparation ground for the afterlife; and with death, this
worldly life comes to an end.[24] Thus, every person has only one chance to prepare
themselves for the life to come where God will resurrect and judge every individual and
will entitle them to rewards or punishment, based on their good or bad deeds. [24][25] And
death is seen as the gateway to and beginning of the afterlife. In Islamic belief, death is
predetermined by God, and the exact time of a person's death is known only to God.

Psychopomp

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about the psychopomp in religion, mythology and psychology. For the
song, see Psychopomp (song).

"Psychopomps" redirects here. For the Danish band, see Psychopomps (band).
Relief from a carved funerary lekythos at Athens: Hermes as psychopomp conducts the
deceased, Myrrhine, to Hades, ca 430-420 BCE (National Archaeological Museum of
Athens).

Psychopomps (from the Greek word , psuchopompos, literally meaning the

"guide of souls")[1] are creatures, spirits, angels, or deities in many religions whose
responsibility is to escort newly deceased souls from Earth to the afterlife. Their role is
not to judge the deceased, but simply to provide safe passage. Appearing frequently
on funerary art, psychopomps have been depicted at different times and in different
cultures as anthropomorphic entities, horses, deer, dogs, whip-poor-
wills, ravens, crows, owls, sparrows and cuckoos. When seen as birds, they are often seen
in huge masses, waiting outside the home of the dying.
 Contents
[hide]

1Overview
2Notes
3References
4Further reading

Overview[edit]

Classical examples of a psychopomp are the ancient Egyptian god Anubis,

the Greek ferryman Charon[1] and deities Hermes and Hecate, the Roman god Mercury,
and the Etruscan deity Vanth. The form of Shiva as Tarakeshwara in Hinduism performs a
similar role, although leading the soul to moksha rather than an afterlife. Additionally, in
the Bhagavata Purana, the Visnudutas and Yamadutas are also messengers for their
respective masters, Vishnu and Yama. Their role is illustrated vividly in the story
of Ajamila. In many beliefs, a spirit being taken to the underworld is violently ripped from
its body.[2]

In the Persian tradition, Daena, the Zoroastrian Self-guide, appears as a beautiful young
maiden to those who deserve to cross the Chinvat Bridge or a hideous old hag to those
who dont.[3]

In Judaism and Islam, Azrael plays the role of the angel of death who carries the soul up
to the heavens.[4]

In Jungian psychology, the psychopomp is a mediator between the unconscious and

conscious realms. It is symbolically personified in dreams as a wise man or woman, or
sometimes as a helpful animal. In many cultures, the shaman also fulfills the role of the
psychopomp. This may include not only accompanying the soul of the dead, but also to
help at birth, to introduce the newborn child's soul to the world.[5](p36) This also accounts
for the contemporary title of "midwife to the dying", or "End of Life Doula", which is
another form of psychopomp work.
In Filipino culture, dead relatives function as psychopomps. When the dying call out to
specific dead persons (e.g. parents, partners), the spirits of the latter are supposedly
visible to the former. The spirits, who traditionally wait at the foot of the deathbed, fetch
(Tagalog: sund) the soul soon after death and escort it into the afterlife.

The most common contemporary example of a psychopomp appearing in popular

culture is the Grim Reaper, which dates from 15th-century England and has been
adopted into many other cultures around the world over the years; for instance,
the shinigami in Japanese culture today.[a]

List of death deities

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Yama, the Hindu god of death and Lord of Naraka (hell). He subsequently
entered Buddhist, Chinese, Tibetan, Korean, and Japanese mythology as the king of hell.
 Maya death god "A" way as a hunter, Classic period

Deities associated with death take many different forms, depending on the
specific culture and religion being referenced. Psychopomps, deities of the underworld,
and resurrection deities are commonly called death deities in comparative religions texts.
The term colloquially refers to deities that either collect or rule over the dead, rather than
those deities who determine the time of death. However, all these types will be included
in this article.

Many have incorporated a god of death into their mythology or religion. As death, along
with birth, is among the major parts of human life, these deities may often be one of the
most important deities of a religion. In some religions with a single powerful deity as the
source of worship, the death deity is an antagonistic deity against which the primary
deity struggles. The related term death worship has most often been used as a
derogatory term to accuse certain groups of morally abhorrent practices which set no
value on human life.

Contents
[hide]

1Occurrence
2African mythology
3American mythology
 4Aztec mythology
5Babylonian mythology
6Celtic mythology
7Chinese mythology
8East and South East Asian mythology
9Egyptian mythology
10Etruscan mythology
11European mythology
12Finnish mythology
13Greek mythology
14Hindu mythology
15Inca mythology
16Japanese mythology
17Korean mythology
18Nordic mythology
19Roman mythology
20Turco-Mongol mythology
21Pacific Islands mythology
22Southwest Asian mythology
23In fiction
24See also
25References

Occurrence[edit]

In polytheistic religions or mythologies which have a complex system of deities

governing various natural phenomena and aspects of human life, it is common to have a
deity who is assigned the function of presiding over death. The inclusion of such a
"departmental" deity of death in a religion's pantheon is not necessarily the same thing
as the glorification of death which is commonly condemned by the use of the term
"death-worship" in modern political rhetoric.
In the theology of monotheistic religion, the one god governs both life and death.
However, in practice this manifests in different rituals and traditions and varies according
to a number of factors including geography, politics, traditions and the influence of other
religions.

African mythology[edit]

Iku (Yoruba religion), Yoruba influenced syncretic religions such

as Santera, Umbanda and Candombl
Ogbunabali (Igbo mythology)

American mythology[edit]

See also: Aztec mythology

Gud or Ghede (Haitian Vodou)

Baron Samedi (Haitian Vodou)
Camazotz
Maya death gods known under various names (Hunhau, Uacmitun Ahau, Kisin, Yum
Kimil) Lord of Underworld in Maya mythology
Santa Muerte (Saint Death), in Mexico
San La Muerte (Saint Death), in Paraguay, the northeast of Argentina
El To, lord of the underworld, in Cerro Rico, Bolivia
Anguta, gatherer of the dead, Inuit mythology
Chepi
Aipaloovik, Inuit mythology
Pana, Inuit mythology
Baron Cimetiere, Haitian Vodou
Baron La Croix, Haitian Vodou
Luison, Guarani mythology
Muut, Native American mythology
Maximn
 San Pascualito
Ta'xet, Haida mythology

Aztec mythology[edit]

Mictecacihuatl,[1] the chief death goddess; Queen of Mictlan (underworld) or Lady of

the Dead
Mictlantecuhtli, the chief death god; lord of the Underworld[2]
Cihuateteo, dead, roaming spirits; envoys of Mictlan
Coatlicue, minor goddess of death, as well as the goddess of life and rebirth
Itztlacoliuhqui, personification of winter-as-death
Tlaloc, water god and minor death god; ruler of Tlalocan, a separate underworld for
those who died from water-related death
Xipe Totec, hero god, death god; inventor of warfare and master of plagues
Xolotl, god of sunset, fire, lightning, and death

Babylonian mythology[edit]

Ereshkigal,[3][4] first lady of the Underworld

Nergal, second lord of the Underworld[5]

Celtic mythology[edit]

Arawn
Cichol
Crom Cruach
Donn
Mannanan
The Morrigan

Chinese mythology[edit]

Emperor(s) of Youdu (Capital City of the Underworld)

 Yin Changsheng
Wang Yuan
Yan Luo (Buddhist/Chinese Yama)
Jiang Ziwen

Kings of the Ten Underworld Palaces

Chiang Ziwen
Bao Zheng
Dong Ji
Huang Xile

The rest only have surnames including Li, Yu, Lu, Bi, Lu and Xue.

Four Kings of the Underworld

Bao Zheng
Han Qinhu
Fan Zhongyan
Kou Zhun

Ghost Kings of the Five Regions

Cai Yulei
Zhao He
Zhang Heng
Duzi Ren
Zhou Qi

Ghost Kings of the Five Regions (Ver.2)

Shen Cha
Yang Yun
Yan Di (Shenlong)
Ji Kang
 Immortal Wang

Governors of Fengdu

Deng Ai
Ji Ming

Imperial Censor of Fengdu

Han Yi
Zeng Yuanshan
Jiao Zhongqing
Ma Zhong
Song Youqing
Guan Yu (note: different from the famous general of three kingdoms)
Wu Lun
Tu Cha

Four Generals of the Direct Altar of Fengdu

Ma Sheng
Ma Chuanzhong
Chen Yuanbo
Guo Zhongyou

Eight Generals of the Inner Altar of Fengdu

Wei Tin, Ghost Capturing General

Liu Chu, Ghost Restraining General
Wang Jian, Ghost Flailing General
Meng E, Ghost Interrogating General
Che Zi, Guardian of the East Gate
Xia Dali, Guardian of the West Gate
Lie Weizhi, Guardian of the South Gate
 Sang Tongguai, Guardian of the North Gate

Eight Generals of the Outer Altar of Fengdu

Zhang Yuanlian
Chen Yuanqing
Li Yuande
Fan YuanZhang
Du YuanZhen
Liu Yuanfu
Chang Yuan
Jia Taoyuan

Ten Masters of the Underworld

A Bang, Bull Head

Luo Cha, Horse Face
Xie Bian, Wondering God of the Day
Fan Wujiu, Wondering God of the Night
Hei Wuchang (Black Impermanence)
Bai Wuchang (White Impermanence)
Huangfeng (responsible for insects)
Paowei (responsible for animals)
Yusai (responsible for fishes)
Guaiwang (responsible for Hungry Ghosts)

(Note: in some versions, Xie Bian and Fanjiu are the He Wuchang and Bai Wuchang.)

Four Strongmen of Fengdu

Zhang Yuanzhen, Taiyi Strongman

Hu Wenzhong, Tri-day Strongman
Sun Zhongwu, Demon-smiting Strongman
 Tang Bocheng, Ghost-smiting Strongman

Two Agents of Fengdu

Xun Gongda, Great God of the Black Sky

Liu Guangzhong, Great God of the Black Fog

Wardens of the Nine Prison of Fengdu

Wang Yuanzhen
Zhen Yan
Yao Quan
Shi Tong
Zhou Sheng
Diao Xiao
Kong Sheng
Wu Yan
Wang Tong

Administers of the Six Paths of Rebirth of Fengdu

Cao Qing, Administer of the Path of Heaven

Tien Yan, Administer of the Path of Ghosts
Cui Cong, Administer of the Path of Earth
Ji Bie, Administer of the Path of Gods
Chen De, Administer of the Path of Hungry Ghosts
Gao Ren, Administer of the Path of Beasts

Judges of Fengdu

Cui (Chief Judge)

Wang Fu
Ban Jian
Zi He
 Jia Yuan
Zhao Sheng
Zhang Qi
Yang Tong
Fu Po
Zhu Shun
Li Gong
Xue Zhong
Rong Zhen
Lu Zhongce
Chen Xun
Huang Shou
Zhou Bi
Bian Shen
Cheng De
Liu Bao
Dong Jie
Guo Yuan

East and South East Asian mythology[edit]

Batara Kala (Balinese mythology), god of the underworld in traditional Javanese and
Balinese mythology, ruling over it in a cave along with Setesuyara. Batara Kala is also
named the creator of light and the earth. He is also the god of time and destruction,
who devours unlucky people. He is related to Hindu concept of Kala, or time. In
mythology, he causes eclipses by trying to eat the Sun or the Moon.
Kumakatok (Philippines), hooded and cloaked harbingers of death that would knock
on doors of the dying
Shinigami (Shinto), a demon that would possess humans making them want to die. It
is said that upon being possessed, the victim would suddenly wish to commit suicide.
 Shingon (nat) (Burmese)
Sidapa (Philippines), god of the death and lifespan in traditional Visayan mythology;
resides in Mt. Majaas. Sidapa is prominently known for defeating the other gods in
order to take Bulan a boy to be his consort or child-bride.
Magwayen (Philippines), the goddess of afterlife and the first ocean deity, according
to Cebuano and Hiligaynon legends. Known for being the goddess who collects souls
and takes them to Sulad with her boat.

Egyptian mythology[edit]

Anubis, guardian of the dead,[6] mummification and the afterlife in ancient Egyptian
religion
Osiris, lord of the Underworld[7]
Nephthys, Anubis' mother; sister of Osiris; also a guardian of the dead. She was
believed to also escort dead souls to Osiris.
Seker, a falcon god of the Memphite necropolis who was known as a patron of the
living, as well as a god of the dead. He is known to be closely tied to Osiris.
Aker
Aqen
Andjety
Duamutef
Hapi (Son of Horus)
Imiut fetish
Imset
Kherty
Qebehsenuef

Etruscan mythology[edit]

Aita, god of the underworld

Culga, a female underworld spirit
 Februus, god of purification, death, the underworld, and riches
Mani, spirits of the dead
Mania, goddess of the dead
Mantus, god of the underworld
Orcus, god of the underworld
Tuchulcha, an underworld demon
Vanth, winged demon of the underworld

European mythology[edit]

Ankou (Breton people)

Grim Reaper, Europe, personification of death
Erio (Basque mythology)
Giltin (Lithuanian mythology)
Ishtar-Deela Nakh, Lord of the Underworld[8]
M ra (Latvian mythology)
Morana (Slavic mythology)
Banshee (Irish Mythology)
Dullahan (Irish Mythology)
Cu Sith (Scottish folklore)
Black Dog (ghost)
Chernobog (Slavic mythology)
Djall (Albanian mythology)
Horned God (Wicca)
Xargi (Siberian mythology)
Peckols (Prussian mythology)
Peklenc (Slavic mythology)
Veles (Slavic mythology)
Nga (Siberian mythology)
Finnish mythology[edit]

Tuoni, with his wife and children[9]

Kalma, Finnish goddess of death and decay, her name meaning "the stench of
corpses" [10]

Greek mythology[edit]

Hades with his dog Cerberus

Hades, king of the Underworld[11]

Persephone, queen of the Underworld; wife of Hades and goddess of spring
growth[12]
Thanatos, god of death[13]
Macaria, goddess of the blessed death (not to be confused with the daughter of
Heracles)[14]
Melinoe, goddess of propitiation
 Angelos, a daughter of Zeus and Hera who became an underworld goddess
Lampades, torch-bearing Underworld nymphs
Gorgyra[15]
Orphne, a Lampad nymph of Hades, mother of Askalaphos
Erebus, the primeval god of darkness, his mists encircled the underworld and filled
the hollows of the earth
Tartarus, the darkest, deepest part of the Underworld
Keres, goddesses of violent death, sisters of Thanatos
Keuthonymos, an Underworld spirit and father of Menoetes
Lamia, a vampiric Underworld spirit or spirits in the train of Hecate
Menoetes, an Underworld spirit who herded the cattle of Hades
Mormo, a fearsome Underworld spirit or spirits in the train of Hecate
Styx, goddess of the river Styx, a river that formed a boundary between Earth and the
Underworld, one of the seven rivers of the Underworld
Acheron, god of the river Acheron, one of the seven rivers of the Underworld
Alpheus, god of the river Alpheus, one of the seven rivers of the Underworld
Cocytus, god of the river Cocytus, one of the seven rivers of the Underworld
Eridanos, god of the river Eridanos, one of the seven rivers of the Underworld
Lethe, goddess of the river Lethe, one of the seven rivers of the Underworld.
Phlegethon, god of the river Phlegethon, one of the seven rivers of the Underworld.
Charon, Ferryman of Hades
Erinyes, Chthonic deities of vengeance
Rhadamanthus, judge of the dead
Minos, judge of the dead
Aeacus, judge of the dead
Atropos, one of the three Moirai associated with death.
Clotho, one of the three Moirai
Lachesis, one of the three Moirai

Hindu mythology[edit]
 Alakshmi
Chhinnamasta
Chitragupta
Dhumavati
Jyeshtha
Kalantaka
Kali
Mah k la
Mahakali
Mara
Nirti
Varuna
Yama
Yami

Inca mythology[edit]

Supay
Vichama

Japanese mythology[edit]

Death gods, also known as shinigami

Izanami, the queen of Yomi

Korean mythology[edit]

Sacha Bonpuri

Yeomra, King of the Underworld

Shiwang, the Ten kings of the Underworld

Cheonjiwang Bonpuri
 Daebyeol, Supreme King of the Underworld

Jeoseung Sacha, gods/messengers of death

Gangnim Doryeong, leader of the Death Gods

Hwadeok Sacha, Reaper of Death in Fire
Yonggung Sacha, Reaper of Death at Sea
Danmul Sacha, Reaper of Death in Wells
Tusok Sacha, Reaper of Death by Rock or Stone

Jangseung, Korean totem poles

Cheonha Daejanggun, village guardian and the Great General of all under Heaven
Jihayeojanggun, village guardian and the Great General of the Underworld

Nordic mythology[edit]

Odin[16][17] presides over Valhalla, and chooses half of those who die in battle to be
escorted by Valkyries to spend their afterlife there.
Freya, presides over Flkvangr; chooses half of those who die in battle to spend their
afterlife there
Hel,[16][17] goddess of the dead and queen of Helheim

Roman mythology[edit]

Dis Pater, god of the underworld

Proserpina, Queen of the underworld
Mania, goddess of death
Mors, personification of death
Orcus, punisher of broken oaths; usually folded in with Pluto
Pluto, ruler of the Underworld
Di inferi, ancient Roman deities associated with death and the Underworld
Viduus, god who separated the soul and body after death
 Dea Tacita, goddess of the dead.
Morta, Goddess of the dead, and one of the three Parcae
Nenia Dea, goddess of funerals
Soranus, Underworld Sabine god adopted by the ancient Romans
Manes, spirits of the dead
Lemures, the malevolent dead
Libitina, goddess of funerals and burial

Santa Muerte Blanca

Turco-Mongol mythology[edit]

Erlik, the god of death and underworld in Turkic and Mongolian mythology

Pacific Islands mythology[edit]

Hine-nui-te-p (Maori mythology)

Whiro (Maori mythology)
Wuluwaid (Australian Aboriginal mythology)
Degei (Fijian mythology)
Azrael

Southwest Asian mythology[edit]

Angra Mainyu or Ahriman, the destructive spirit (Persian mythology)[18]

Asto Vidatu or Astiwihad or Asto-widhatu, death deity (Persian mythology)[19]
Aminon, Gatekeeper of the underworld (Ossetian mythology)
Azrael, the Archangel of Death (Islam, Sikhism)
Barastyr, the ruler of the underworld (Ossetian mythology)
Erlik (Turkic mythology)
Mot (Canaanite)
Jabru (Elamite mythology)
Namtar (Mesopotamian mythology)
Ninsusinak (Assyrian mythology)

In fiction[edit]

Death is the protagonist in the science fantasy novel On a Pale Horse, book one in a
series of 8 books, the "Incarnations of Immortality".

In the novel The Book Thief Death is the narrator of the story.[citation needed]

Death is the name of one of "The Endless" in the DC Universe.[citation needed]

Death is a recurring character in the Discworld series written by Terry Pratchett. Books
featuring Death include Mort, Reaper Man, Soul Music, Hogfather and Thief of Time. He
also makes a cameo appearance in Interesting Times.

In A Song of Ice and Fire by George R.R. Martin, the guild of assassins known as the
Faceless Men believe that all death deities are simply different incarnations of the same
god, known to them as the Many-Faced God or Him of Many Faces, while the Faith of
the Seven worships The Stranger as one of Seven Aspects of God representing Death
and the Unknown.

In the works of J. R. R. Tolkien, especially The Silmarillion, Nmo AKA Lord Mandos is the
Doomsman of the Valar, Judge of the Dead and Lord of the Halls of Mandos (where
Elves await reincarnation and humans retreat before making the Journey into the
Beyond), similar to Hades.

In the CW TV show Supernatural, Death makes a crucial appearance. He is portrayed as

existing alongside God since the beginning of time, and being so ancient he cannot
remember when he came into existence; he may even be older than God. In the show he
is the oldest and most powerful, of the Four Horsemen - Death, Famine, War and
Pestilence. He is not portrayed as a villain.

In the manga and anime of the popular hit series Sailor Moon, the tenth and last Sailor
Soldier of the Moon Kingdom, Sailor Saturn, is the Sailor Soldier of all silence,
destruction, oblivion, nothingness, ruin, and death. Her weapon is the Silent Glaive that is
capable of utterly obliterating and destroying entire worlds and planets if used to its
maximum potential.

In the Marvel Comics Universe, the personification of death is Mistress Death.

The Transformers mythos features the character of Mortilus, a Cybertronian deity who
represents death and who later betrayed his brethren and was destroyed, leading to the
longevity of the Transformer race. A similar character is The Fallen, a member of
the Thirteen Primes who is identified as the guardian of entropy.

See also[edit]
tropos

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For other uses, see Atropos (disambiguation).

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please

help improve this article by adding citations to reliable
sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and
removed. (February 2016) (Learn how and when to remove
this template message)

Bas relief of Atropos, shears in hand, cutting the thread of life

Atropos or Aisa (/trps/; Ancient Greek: "without turn"), in Greek

mythology, was one of the three Moirai, goddesses of fateand destiny. Her Roman
equivalent was Morta.

Atropos was the oldest of the Three Fates, and was known as the "inflexible" or
"inevitable." It was Atropos who chose the mechanism of death and ended the life of
mortals by cutting their thread with her "abhorred shears." She worked along with her
two sisters, Clotho, who spun the thread, and Lachesis, who measured the length.
Atropos has been featured in several stories such as Atalanta[1] and Achilles.
 Contents
[hide]

1Origin
2Medicine
3Herpetology
4References
5External links

Origin[edit]

Her origin, along with the other two fates, is uncertain, although some called them the
daughters of the night. It is clear, however, that at a certain period they ceased to be
only concerned with death and also became those powers who decided what may
happen to individuals. Although Zeus was the chief Greek god and their father, he was
still subject to the decisions of the Fates, and thus the executor of destiny, rather than its
source. According to Hesiod's Theogony, Atropos and her sisters (Clotho and Lachesis)
were the daughters of Erebus (Darkness) and Nyx (Night), though later in the same work
(ll. 901-906) they are said to have been born of Zeus and Themis.

Medicine[edit]

Atropos lends her name to the genus Atropa, of which the poisonous plant Atropa
belladonna (deadly nightshade) is a member, and to the alkaloid atropine,
an anticholinergic drug which is derived from it.

Herpetology[edit]

The scientific name of a venomous snake, Bitis atropos, refers to Atropos.[2]

In Roman mythology, Morta was the goddess of death. She is one of the Parcae, related
to the Roman conception of the Fates in Greek mythology, the Moirai. Her Greek
equivalent is Atropos, She is responsible for pain and death that occurs in a half wake
half sleep time frame. Her father is the god of darkness and her mother is the goddess of
night. She visits and warns in advance of the pain or death about to be endured.

Azrael

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For other uses, see Azrael (disambiguation).

Not to be confused with Sir Azreal, a Knight of the Round Table.

Angel of Death by Evelyn De Morgan, 1881

Azrael (Biblical Hebrew: )is often identified with the Angel of Death of the Hebrew
Bible.[1]:6465

The Hebrew name translates to "Help of God", "Help from God", or "One Whom God
Helps".[1]:6465 Azrael is the spelling of the Chambers Dictionary. The Qur'an refers to a
"( " Malak Al-Mawt or "Angel of Death") which corresponds with Hebrew term
Malach ha-Mawet in Rabbinic Literature. Islamic-Arabic tradition adopts the name, in
the Arabic alphabet as a Izr l (Arabic: ).

Contents
[hide]
 1Background
2In Judaism
3In Christianity
4In Islam
5In Sikhism
6See also
7References

Background[edit]

Depending on the outlook and precepts of various religions in which he is a figure,

Azrael may be portrayed as residing in the Third Heaven.[1]:288 In one description, he has
four faces and four thousand wings, and his whole body consists of eyes and tongues
whose number corresponds to the number of people inhabiting the Earth. He will be the
last to die, recording and erasing constantly in a large book the names of men at birth
and death, respectively.[2]

In Judaism[edit]

In Jewish mysticism, he is commonly referred to as "Azriel" (Biblical Hebrew: ), not

"Azrael". The Zohar, a holy book of the Jewish mystical tradition of Kabbalah, presents a
positive depiction of Azriel. He is associated with the South and is considered to be a
high-ranking commander of God's angels.

In Christianity[edit]

There is no reference to Azrael in the Bible, and he is not regarded as either a canonical
or a non-canonical figure in Christianity. However, a story in 2 Esdras (a book disallowed
by the Catholic and Protestant Churches, but considered canonical in Eastern Orthodox
teachings) which is part of the Apocrypha, has the story of a scribe and judge named
Ezra (not to be confused with the Biblical figure Ezra), also sometimes written "Azra" in
different languages. Azra was visited by the Archangel Uriel and given a list of laws and
punishments he was to adhere to and enforce as judge over his people. Azra was later
recorded in the Apocrypha as having entered Heaven "without tasting death's taint".
Depending on various non-Christian religious views, it could be taken as Ezra ascending
to angelic status. This would add the suffix "el" to his name, which denotes a heavenly
being (e.g. Michael, Raphael, Uriel). Hence, it would be Ezrael/Azrael. Later books also
state a scribe named Salathiel, who was quoted as saying, "I, Salathiel, who is also Ezra".
Again, depending on certain views of Christian spirituality, this could be seen as angelic
influence from Ezrael/Azrael on Salathiel, though it should be noted that in Christianity
one cannot "become" an angel, as humans and angels are two different orders of beings
and not a promotion.

In Islam[edit]

Along with Jibrail, Mkh 'l and Isr fl, the Angel of Death, called Azrail (also pronounced
as Izr l /Azriel) is believed by Muslims to be one of the archangels.[3] He is responsible
for taking the souls of the deceased away from the body.[4] Azrail does not act
independently from God and just takes those, who were commanded to be taken. Rather
than merely representing an independent personified death, the Angel of Death is
described in Islamic sources as subordinate to the will of God "with the most profound
reverence".[5]

Several Muslim traditions recount meetings between the Angel of Death and
the prophets, the most famous being a conversation between the Angel of Death
and Moses.[6] In an islamic narration, Idris befriended the angel of death. Idris offered him
food, thereupon he revealed him his non-human essence, because as an angel, he does
not eat. Later the angel of death showed him the heavens.[7]

In Sikhism[edit]

In Baba Farid's bani, found in the Guru Granth Sahib, Azrael () is

metaphorically referred to as the anthromorphic form of death. As there is no concept of
angels or demons in Sikhism, the referencing of Azrael is merely for poetic use, and not
for literal inference.

Personifications of Death
Visitors to the Church of St. Nicholas in Tallinn, Estonia, will recall the representation of
death as a bony, dark figure with a skull, as depicted in Bernt Notke's famous
canvas, Danse Macabre (c. 1460). Many others are acquainted with the image of death as
the reaper in Ingmar Bergman's dramatic filmThe Seventh Seal (1957).

Through the ages people have tried to personify death by giving it a humanlike
form. Personification is used in this context as the mental transformation of inner
thoughts and feelings into autonomous figures. The term personify is defined as giving
inanimate objects or abstract ideas human characteristics. Formed in this way, death
personifications can be considered culture-bound channels to transfer invisible
phenomena into external patterns.

Death Personifications in History

In the ancient world, life and death were perceived as two forces of the Great Mother,
the oneness of everything. Life was associated with the Good Mother, and death with the
Evil Mother. According to the psychologist Erich Neumann, death is the hungry earth,
devouring its own children.

In classical Greek tradition, the unity of life and death is split into opposites. Life is
personified as feminine, and death as masculine. Death is named Thanatos, the twin
brother of Hypnos, the god of sleep. His mission is to accompany the departed to Hades,
the underworld, where the aged boatman Charon ferries them across the Sinister River,
which separates the underworld from the world above. In Greek mythology, death is
considered inevitable, but not purely evil. Illustrations on Greek vases depict Thanatos
and Hypnos as two young men. In European art, literature, and iconography, Thanatos is
often portrayed as an earnest, winged youngster holding an extinguished flare.

In Judeo-Christian religion, death is considered exceedingly evil. It is not personified as a

human-like figure; rather it is described by its actions. The Old Testament says that
humans are cast down in the kingdom of death, which resembles Hades, where the
wicked are punished. The Christian concept of death associates death with sin. Sin is
regarded as opposition to the will of God, requiring repentance and God's forgiveness.
Only in apocalyptic writings is death personified as a human figure, a pale horseman who
kills people using violence.

Death Dance

During the plagues (the Black Death) and wars of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries,
personifications of violent death were popular. Throughout this time there was a belief
that the skeletonized dead rose from their graves and tempted the living of all ages and
ranks to join them in a dance to the death. The "dance of death," or dance macabre, was
an allegorical theme in art, literature, and music. It was first embodied in murals, then in
woodcuts. The Parisian painter Guyot Marchaut published a portrayal of the death dance
in woodcuts and verse (1486), which was circulated throughout Europe. Best known are
the fifty-one drawings of the German painter Hans Holbein the Younger (14971543),
where death is personified as a skeleton, and each individual dances through life
embracing his own death.

Death Personifications in Art

This theme of personifying death as a skeleton or a reaper has continued into the
twenty-first century. In Sweden the dramatist August Strindberg's play The Dance of
Death (1901) is filled with macabre medieval symbolism. Bergman's film The Seventh
Seal personifies death as a man with a hood obscuring his face. In "La Mort et le
Bcheron" (Death and the woodcutter) the French landscape painter Jean Franois Millet
depicts death as the grim reaper. Alfred Kubin paints death as a skeleton in "Bltter mit
dem Tod." The Austrian painter Gustav Klimt personifies death in the flamboyantly
dressed skeleton in his "Tod und Leben" (Death and life, 1916). Musical renderings of the
personification of death include Totentanz (1864) by the Hungarian composer Franz
Liszt, Danse Macabre (1874) by the French composer Camille Saint-Sans, and La danse
des morts (1940) by the French composer Arthur Honneger.
Personification of Death in Children and Adults

In 1948 the researcher Maria Nagy observed that Hungarian children had a tendency to
personify death as "the reaper" or "the skeleton," a figure that appeared in order to carry
people off. Later research in the United States could not confirm Nagy's findings.
American children showed no signs of personifying death. In Canada more than thirty
years later, Richard Lonetto showed that children tended to personify death as
exemplified through their drawings. In Sweden, Maare E. Tamm and Anna Granqvist
observed that less than 10 percent of children and adolescents personified death. The
personifications of younger children were ideographic, a "death man," while those of
older children were formed from cultural symbols. All children personified death as
masculine.

Personification of death in adults is studied in the United States by Robert Kastenbaum

and Carol Herman. In 1997 they found that females most often select "kind and gentle"
imagery, as "the gentle comforter" or "the gay deceiver," while males are more likely to
see death as a "cold, remote" person. Grim and terrifying personifications of death were
infrequent. In Sweden, Maare E. Tamm found that a majority of the adults studied
personified death as an old man, the reaper figure being the most apparent
personification.
Similar to Gustave Dor's nineteenth-century engraving Death on a Pale Horse, death is
most commonly personified as a skeleton or reaper by children and adults .

BETTMANN/CORBIS

Conclusion

Death has been personified through the ages; in the ancient world as a feminine figure,
and from classical Greek civilization to the present as a masculine figure. When the
plague raged throughout Europe, death acquired a violent, frightening, and macabre
image. The image of the "grim reaper" is preserved in art and literature, and in people's
minds, to the present day. It is hard to say how death will be portrayed in future decades,
when new technology like the Internet and virtual reality introduces new ways of thinking
in philosophy, theology, and the human mind. Certainly people will continue to personify
death in some way because there is a universal tendency among humankind to
understand the world as a humanlike entity, and personification of an imagein this
case deathmakes its qualities more palpable and less terrifying.

Read more: http://www.deathreference.com/Nu-Pu/Personifications-of-

Death.html#ixzz4siaJsyr1

Select Cross-Cultural and Historical Personifications of Death

This extensive introduction includes some of the more well known, along with some
lesser known Death "incarnations", and I use that term loosely, as in many cultures, the
Angel of Death can be quite an adept shapeshifter. We have tried to cull together as
much information and as many examples of Death in personification as possible. I'm
certain that there are many more. To include them all, we would have a page of
encyclopedic proportions! Prior to The Azrael Project, if one were seeking information on
the Death entity, you would literally need to research thousands of books and pour
through stacks of research papers. With this project, you need look no further than here
to begin your journey.

One of the earliest known depictions of a personified Death was found at Catal Huyuk, a
Neolithic settlement in Anatolia dating from the 7th Millennium B.C... Death takes the
form represented by gigantic black birds of vulture-like appearance menacing headless
human corpses. Many Stone Age cave paintings depict Death as a winged being, tall and
extremely thin and pale in complexion. In these earliest renditions, Death was not given a
name, simply an image, that to the people of that day, was representative of a major
force or "deity". Something much larger than life that could never be appeased, no
matter how many "sacrifices" were given unto It. The assignation of names and titles, and
even personality, came much later as the world grew "larger" and more diverse in the
eyes of man. When humankind literally separated himself from the animal kingdom and
began to think about the meaning of life, while always having the recognize the
inevitability of Death.

We begin with Azrael, a name of Hebrew derivation. While not the earliest known
appellation, it is probably the most recognized name given the Angel of Death in the
Judeo-Christian-Islamic world. Literally meaning "whom God helps", Azrael remains at all
times a legate of the supreme consciousness, which for the multi-cultural aim of this
book, we shall refer to as the "Godsoul".

From Islamic teachings, it is written that "when Michael, Gabriel and Israfel failed to
provide seven handfuls of earth for the creation of Adam, the 4th angel on this mission,
Azrael, succeeded, and because of this feat, he was appointed to separate body from
soul". (Encyclopedia of Religion & Ethics- Hastings). It is said that Azrael keeps a scroll
containing the name of every person born in the world. The time of death...is not known
to Azrael. When the day of death approaches, Allah lets a leaf inscribed with the person's
name drop from his throne. Azrael reads the name and within forty days must separate
the soul from the body. He is often described, in the Koran, as a "divine being endowed
with immense power so awesome that he had to be restrained in 70,000 chains of a
thousand years journey's length each. By the Godsoul's command; it is written, Azrael
spread his wings and opened his eyes and upon seeing this spectacle, the angels fainted
away." It is further stated that Azrael was given "all of the powers of the heavens to
enable him to master death." The Koran also recorded the following statement of a man
engaging in conversation with Death: "When people lament and weep too much over
the death of a person, the Angel of Death will stand at the door and say, 'what cause
have you for such violent complaint? I am only the messenger of God and have done His
bidding, and if you rebel against Him, I shall return often to take one of your house."

Although this passage may seem overly ominous, it typifies man's personal interaction
with a personified Death, particularly in the pantheon we are discussing, so heavily
influenced by religious fear and the dominance of their God. Nearly all historical
literature treats Death as a divine creation of the Godsoul for purposes of separating the
soul from the body at the time of passing. This is well exemplified in the following
excerpt, also from Moslem teachings: "When a righteous person dies, the Angel of Death
comes with a host of divinity carrying sweet odors of paradise and makes the soul leave
the body like a drop taken out of a bucket of water. Though, when a wicked person dies,
Death comes in the company of demons, who pull the soul out as with iron spits."

In Jewish literature, it is written that "Azrael appears to our spirit in a form determined by
our beliefs, actions and dispositions during life. He may even manifest invisibly so that a
man may die of a rose in aromatic pain...or of a rotting stench." In Islamic lore, it is said
that "Azrael, the Angel of Death, is veiled before the creatures of God with a million veils
and that his true immensity is vaster than the heavens, and the east and the west are
between his hands like a dish on which all things have been set to balance." It is further
written, "that when the soul sees Azrael, it 'falls in love', and thus is withdrawn from the
body as if by a seduction."

In some Jewish folklore, the Angel of Death is called Sammael (Samael), meaning the
"drug of God" since it was believed that his sword was tipped with gall. In the Talmud,
'Abodah Zarah 20', Sammael is described as "altogether full of eyes. At the time of death,
he (the Angel of Death) takes his stand above the place of ones head with his sword
drawn and a drop of poison suspended on its tip." Often, Death is depicted as bearing
some form of weapon or energy directing instrument; a knife, a sword, a scythe, a shaft
of light, or a rod of fire, to name a few. Perhaps one of the more pronounced cases of
Death's visitation in this example, is the tale of Joshua ben Levi, a Talmudian scholar.
When time came for him to die, the Angel of Death (Sammael, in this case) appeared to
him whereby Joshua demanded to be shown his place in 'paradise'. When the angel
consented to this, Joshua demanded the angel's knife so that Death would not use it to
frighten him on the way. This request was also granted, whereupon Joshua sprang with
the weapon over the wall of paradise. Death, who by Talmudic law was not permitted to
enter, caught hold of Joshua's garment; but Joshua swore that he would not come out.
The Godsoul then declared that Joshua should not leave paradise unless he was
absolved of his oath. The Angel of Death then demanded back his knife, and, upon
Joshua's refusal, a heavenly voice rang out, "Give him back the knife because the children
of men have need of it!" Mankind understands the symbolic power of weaponry. In
Joshua's case, the image of the knife symbolizes power over life and death, as well as the
means to inflict death at higher command.

While Azrael was the most prominent name mentioned in this culture, in certain Arabic
lore, Death is occasionally referred to by another name, Iblis, as in the Arabian Nights
Tale, The Angel of Death and the Proud King; And Iblis came (to the proud king)...so the
king bowed his head to him and he said, 'I am the Angel of Death and I purpose to take
thy soul.' Replied the king, 'Have patience with me a little whilst I return to my house and
take leave of my people and children...' 'By no means so,' answered the angel; 'thou shalt
never return nor look on them again, for the fated term of thy life is past.' So saying, he
took the soul of the king...and departed thence."

Longfellow makes mention of Azrael in a poem included in Tales of a Wayside Inn,

wherein a Spanish Jew tells a tale of Azrael and King Solomon. The king is entertaining a
"learned man" who is a rajah. As they walk, a figure in the twilight air is gazing intently at
the man. The rajah asks Solomon: "What is yon shape, that, pallid as the dead, is
watching me, as if he sought to trace in the dim light the features of my face?" The king
calmly tells his guest that it is Azrael, the Angel of Death. The man then asks Solomon to
get him as far away from Azrael as possible. With the aid of his magic ring, the king
sends him off to India. Azrael asks Solomon who the man was who left so suddenly. The
king gives Azrael the name, and Azrael thanks the king for sending the man off to India,
since he was on his way "to seek him there."

Osiris is the Egyptian embodiment of the "Death Energy". Although not necessarily
considered the "personification" of Death in particular, (as the Egyptian pantheon is
divided into may higher and lower aspects) he is described in ancient texts as a "dark
lord, having beautiful yet terrible dark eyes and an equally dark complexion: He is also
said to have reached a height of five and a half yards! Egyptian concept of a true,
anthropomorphic personification of the Death entity was best exemplified as Anubis
(who is actually an "aspect" of Osiris). While Osiris is considered "God of the Dead",
Anubis is the "Guardian of the Dead" whose function was to weigh the heart of the
deceased against a feather to determine the soul's place in eternity.

Seker, is an even older version of Egyptian Death personified, particularly in the area of
ancient Memphis. He was said to be enthroned in a region of utter blackness and is
depicted in the form of a mummy and called the "greatest god who was in the beginning
and dwelleth in darkness." Originally, as "death gods" go, Seker and Osiris had many
attributes in common, and the eventual fusion of the two was the result of the triumph of
Osiris over the many "lesser" and varied Egyptian death gods. While Seker represented
death as absolute and final, Osiris represented the death which was merely a temporary
point of transition. Egyptian mythology is rife with Death allegory. This excerpt from the
Coffin Text of the Middle Kingdom (circa 2160-1580 B.C..) vividly shows how the
Egyptians personified Death very realistically: "Save me from the claws of him who takes
for himself what he sees: May the glowing breath of his mouth not take me away."

We could no doubt spend this page alone detailing the many, varied incarnations and
aspects of Death in the Egyptian pantheon. However, there are far more specific books
available on general Egyptian history and belief that would cover that in length.

Thanatos, the Greek embodiment of Death is described as "the figure of a priest in sable
garments and the twin brother of Morpheus (sleep)." The Greeks endeavored to exclude
any thought of his gloomy nature by viewing him as a "gentle god, who came quietly
upon the dying." Here, again, Death is personified with a secondary aspect, Charon, the
ferryman who carries the souls of the dead across the Lethe, (which means 'river of
forgetfulness'). It is from this culture that we get the concept of "paying the ferryman" for
passage to the other side. If no payment was rendered unto him, usually the equivalent
of a farthing or penny, the soul was destined to wander beside the river eternally. Hence,
the practice of putting pennies on a dead man's eyes.

Charon, himself, was not a part of Greek mythology until approximately the 5th Century
BC., when an inscription praised him as "You who release many men from toil." He is
often portrayed as a stern and formidable old man who insists that the rules of passage
be respected. This is well illustrated in Bullfinch's retelling of an incident first described by
Virgil: "Charon, old and squalid, but strong and vigorous...was receiving passengers of all
kinds into his boat. Magnanimous heroes, boys and unmarried girls, as numerous as the
leaves that fall at autumn, or the flocks that fly southward at the approach of winter. They
stood pressing for a passage and longing to touch the opposite shore. But the stern
ferryman took in only such as he chose, driving the rest back. Aeneas, wondering at the
sight, asked the Sibyl, 'Why this discrimination?' She answered, 'Those who are taken on
board the bark are the souls of those who have received due burial rites; the host of
others who have remained unburied are not permitted to pass the flood, but wander a
hundred years, and flit to and fro about the shore, till at last they are taken over.' Aeneas,
displaying the sacred golden bough, finally persuades Charon to make an exception and
allow him, one of the living, to cross into the realm of the dead in order to bury a fallen
comrade and see his father. " It is from the account of this highly unusual round-trip that
we have some of history's most detailed impressions of the "lower world" in which the
souls of the dead are to be found. "Charon with eyes like burning coals herds them in,
and with a whistling oar flails on the stragglers to his wake of souls." (from Dante's
Inferno, 1300AD). Although, in classical mythology, Charon is usually imagined as a grim
and solemn figure with an awesome task to perform, he has also been portrayed with
humor, and even tender passion.

It is interesting to note that the name Charon is also mentioned in Etruscan history as
"The god of the dead" replete with an image painted in the tomb of Orca-Tarquina (5th
century BC). It is highly likely that Charon was "imported" into the Greek pantheon from
this contemporary region.

Modern Greek folklore has transmuted the concept of Charon into a whole new
personification. Death is no longer the withered ferryman, but rather the driver of the
"death coach". In many parts of Greece, it is believed that, as time passed on and men
became less connected to their gods (i.e., more concerned with material gains rather
than spiritual pursuits) Death had to venture into the land of the living to retrieve souls.
Hence, the personification of the death-coach, a black plumed, funerary coach pulled by
huge black horses and driven by a faceless driver with burning eyes, who is in effect,
Death Himself. Still today, in the age of motorized transport, if one were to hear the
prance of hooves coming down the road, all ears are tuned in the hopes the coach
doesn't stop in front of one's home. It is believed that if the death-coach stops to claim a
soul, the driver would dismount and knock twice on the door signaling that someone in
that house had just died.

To the ancient Romans, Orcus was the god of death and was described as a "pale
divinity, almost devoid of flesh and furnished with immense, black wings." His function
was to carry the souls of the dead to the underworld, which they believed was literally a
place beneath the earth's surface. Here, as well, Death is personified with more than one
aspect. Februus, of Etruscan origin, was also an incarnation of Death in ancient Rome. He
had a whole month set aside as 'the month of the dead', our equivalent of February.
Death also had a third aspect, a female personification, Libitina, the Goddess of Funerals.
This triumvirate of deities comprised primary Roman belief. However, there was still
another, more pronounced and detailed female Roman personification of Death. Her
face was seldom portrayed, nor were temples dedicated to her, or were sacrifices offered
her, as they were to Orcus, her male equivalent. Today, her very name has sunk into such
obscurity that it is seldom mentioned when the gods and goddesses of antiquity are
reviewed. Her name was Mors, (a familiar derivation of much of our current reference to
death) and she was worshipped by the ancients and often sung about by their poets.
This female deity, remembered today mostly from Roman verse, was a reigning
personification of Death. It was Mors, pale, wan and emaciated...whom the poets
describe as "ravenous, treacherous and furious, roving about...ready to swallow up all
who came her way." She was manifest as a black robed, dark winged figure who might,
like an enormous bird of prey, hover above her intended victim until the moment came
to seize it. In M.A. Dwight's 1864 epic, Grecian & Roman Mythology, it is noted that
"Mors was not so honoured with temples and sacrifices because Death is inexorable,
inaccessible to entreaties and unmoved by prayers and offerings." Death in the form of
this deadly, female hunter is a striking figure to contemplate, especially when we
consider that most contemporary personifications portray Death as masculine, if a
gender is specified at all, and that, in fact, women much more than men, provide care
and comfort to the terminally ill. Mors appears then to represent, the type of very
powerful female deity who laid claim to many cultures, as well as to human imagination,
before the patriarchal god became the dominant image.

There is also another interesting correlation to the image of Mors. Within the often
blended pantheons of ancient Etruscan and ancient Roman, there is mentioned another
feminine anthropomorphism of Death; Tuchulcha (from the Etruscan) who is described as
a bird-like being with snakes for hair, who's menacing stare, it is said, could kill with but a
glance.

In the Hindu/Tibetan pantheon, Shiva (Siva) is the penultimate archetype of Death, again,
with a secondary aspect called Mahakala, who is Death personified. Shiva is referred to as
"the formed", and Mahakala, "the formless" embodiment of the Death energy. This
passage from Aghora, At the Left Hand of God by Robert Svoboda describes them best;
"Mahakala has no limitation of any kind whatsoever, at least in the universe we know. He
has no form at all, none. At least Shiva manifests a form we can concentrate on.
Mahakala, being the utterly formless, which means He can assume all forms at will."

Shiva is attributed as a "compassionate yet terrible divinity whose sight made even
Vishnu, (the Hindu/Tibetan aspect of the great Godsoul) wince". Mahakala is said "to
make everyone cry, and cries himself out of the joy of releasing imprisoned souls." Rudra,
is another name found in this complex pantheon. Literally translated, it means 'the crier"
or "he who makes others cry." Rudra is the ancient name for Shiva, and in texts "is so
called because he makes everyone cry who comes into contact with Him because He
separates them from their limited existence to which they are tightly attached." Of Rudra,
it is further written, "By my magnanimity I have removed this individual from all the pains
and miseries of existence, and the fellow was not even aware of my presence. Now he is
truly at peace. People are fools to cry for their dead; They should cry for themselves."

In Svoboda's Aghora, it states, "Everyone is afraid of dying, which explains why no one is
willing to love Mahakala. Only two persons in all our scriptures have loved Mahakala, and
both of them became immortal...Destruction is necessary but, unfortunately, no one is
willing to face Death. Even for Rama and Krisha, who were real incarnations of God, there
was one moment of shock, one tremor, when Mahakala appeared before them...The
sight of Mahakala is so terrible that even God incarnate quails before Him..."

There are a variety of "faces" of Death in Indian culture, dependant upon particular
religious "sects" and beliefs. Kali, a feminine aspect of Death comes immediately to mind.
Although, she is referred to more as "the Destroyer" or "the Devourer", no doubt she
embodies the same energy as Mahakala. Kali, "The Black Mother", is portrayed rather
frightfully. She is naked, dishevelled, wild-eyed and maniacal. In her hands she
brandishes a blood-stained knife and a bloody human head. A necklace of skulls lies on
her breast. She is often depicted, in Indian art, as having one foot on Shiva, who is lying
on the ground like a corpse. Kali has many different names and faces in Indian culture.
Yama is called the "King of Death" in Buddhism, and certain Hindu pantheons. He is also
referred to as judge of the dead, evaluating their activities while on earth to determine
their fate after death. He is described as having "flesh of green or black, and robes of
blood-red. He wears and crown and a flower in his hair and has many eyes, legs and
arms. Each appendage bearing mystic implements and human skulls." (Much like the
images of Kali.). Another of Yama's names is Vajra-Bhairava, which literally means
"terrible lightning". Yet another name that pops up is Daikoku-ten, of Oriental Buddhist
origin, and is pretty much the equivalent of Siva/Mahakala. He is called "the Great Black
One".

There are numerous tales from India's vast apocryphal texts of human interaction with
Yama. One in particular describes "that it is difficult to prevail on Yama when he comes at
the appointed hour to seek his victim on earth. However, the gentle and beautiful Savitri,
wife of Satyavan, succeeded in persuading the god of death to give her back her
husband...As Yama was bearing away Satyavan's soul, his wife followed obstinantly...until
Yama was so moved by this fidelity and love, that he offered her fulfillment of her wish,
provided she did not ask to have her husband brought back to life!"

Emma-O is referred to as "the King of the Dead" in ancient Oriental Buddhism. It is said
that he became Death because he was the first man to die. His description is one of a
red-faced, angry looking deity with a coarse beard, attired in judges robes with a berreta
bearing the sigil of a king. In his right hand, he has a tablet, the emblem of official
authority. In his left hand, he holds a staff with two accusing faces on top; one called
"The Seeing Eye", and the other, "The Sensitive Nose". Emma is still part of the popular
pantheons of Buddhism throughout Japan and China.

Secular Chinese Buddhism has another name for the Lord of Death, Yen-wang, whose
job it is to decide when one's time is up. He then severs the mystical cord that connects
body to soul. It is from Eastern beliefs that we get the concept of the "silver cord", that
etheric "umbilical" that connects body to soul until the time of death.
In the modern Japanese pantheon, the "Goddess of Death" is called Yuki-Onne, which
literally means "the Snow Queen" who "chills to numbness those she takes so as to make
their transition as peaceful and painless as possible." She also serves to cut the cord at
life's end.

Hel was labeled the "goddess of Death" in the Germanic and Scandinavian lands. She
was said to dwell in "the land of shades called Niflheim". Her face was portrayed as half
normal, and half the colour of the night sky (much like images of Shiva). It was said that
Odin (the Germanic equal to God) "gave her power over nine worlds, so that she could
determine where everyone should dwell after death." There are a lot of feminine Death
personifications in this part of the world. There is also mention of Freya, leader of the
mysterious Valkyries, (the airborne horsewomen of death) as being a prominent Death
allegory in Norse mythology. Also, from this part of the world, we get the name Kalma, a
death goddess of Finnish origins, where we also find the name Nga, "God of Death". In
certain ancient Finnish folklore, Tuonela was the "Domain of Death", and is surrounded
by "Death's river". The dead are carried across the waters by "Death's Maiden" at the
darkest moment of night.

In many Slavic and Baltic lands, Death appeared simply as a woman dressed in white who
carried souls to "Vela", a world shrouded in grey mist and cold. Folklore, particularly that
of the Black Forest region, is rife with "Grim Reaper" type images, and/or Death generally
personified as a withered farmer with scythe in hand who doubled as Lord of the
Harvest. This concept still remains with us throughout many Pagan traditions where
deities are heavily tied into the seasons, and nature in general.

In Polish tradition death is personified as a female. She is believed to be a skeleton (or at

times a skeleton covered with skin) wearing a black cloak and holding a scythe. Death
has also a special name. People call her "Kostucha". This archaic name means "bone
lady". The oldest text about her is from 15th century (circa 1460) and it is actually the
longest Polish Medieval text It's title is "Conversation between Master Polikarp and The
Death" ("Rozmowa Mistrza Polikarpa ze Smiercia"). In this story Polikarp, who was a wise
and religious man, asked God to show him Death. One evening, when he was praying
alone in church, he saw a strange person. He described it as a skinny, pale female
without nose or lips (something like a corpse - or "moira" in Polish) with yellow eyes
crying tears of blood. She was "the Death" sent to him by God. Then, the Death
answered the questions asked by Polikarp. From this conversation we know that she was
born from the apple which Eve passed to Adam It is said that. She is powerful, and that
no one can hide from her neither under the ground, nor under the water. Everyone is
equal before her. it does't matter if you are poor or rich, sinner or saint. She is
irreconcilable and incorruptible

Another, similar image is derived from ancient Celtic and Gaul; Sucellos, the "Harvester of
Souls", who was described as a "mighty striker with scythe in hand". This entity was also
called Silvanus in southern Gaul. We get much of the origin of our current Grim Reaper
imagery from this part of the world. In certain Celtic pantheons, Death is again, given
aspects. One of the more well known is the female triplicity known as The Morrigan, "the
Queen of Shades". Consisting of actually three spirits, it was personified as a large, black
crow or raven, much like the Roman Mors, sweeping down to catch its prey. Another,
lesser known Celtic personification was Ankou, known in Brittany and rural Ireland by the
sound of his creaking cart traveling the roads at night, picking up his latest victims. He
need only open his cart door, or touch his intended, and life would flee. This, too, is a
similar mythos, alikened to modern Greek folklore mentioned earlier, even though they
were culturally, worlds apart.

In certain early Welsh folklore, the name Gwyn Ab Nuud is mentioned as "god of the
hunt who gathers lost souls and escorts them to the land of the dead on a white horse."

Quetzalcoatl was the god of the west and of magic in ancient Central America. Depicted
as a plumed serpent with two faces, one of life, and one of death. He was both creator,
and destroyer. Lord of Life and Death, and the embodiment of the Death energy whose
personified aspect was called Miquiztli, literally meaning "death". If we go further north,
into Mexico, we find the name Mictlantecuhtli, the Aztec "God of Death" whose function
was to guide the souls of the dead safely to the next world. The name Kukulcan is also
briefly mentioned as a "manifest Death", but this appears to be more of a latter
corruption of Quetzalcoatl.

In present day Mexican folk art, the personified Death is called Santa Muerte, "Saint
Death" and is depicted as a white-robed skeleton. In one hand He holds the scales of
balance, and in the other, either the earth, or the more traditional scythe. During
Mexico's "Day of the Dead" celebrations on November 2nd, one can find depictions of
Death throughout Mexican culture, from its local shops, to churches and elaborate home
altars, to candy and children's toys.

Baron Samedi is Death personified in the Haitian Voudon pantheon, and is described
quite vividly, as a tall, black man sporting a tail coat and top-hat. He has a long, white
beard and eyeless sockets in his head. When invoked, he acknowledges by flapping his
coat tails and tipping his hat. He is said to be a very educated speaker, yet his comments
and mannerisms can be quite lewd. Offerings of rum are sure to get one into his good
graces. Here, as well, we find that Death has other aspects; Baron Cimitere, who is
literally, "Ruler of the Cemetery", and his counterpart, Baron LaCrosse, who is the "spirit
of the Shadow of the Cross". These grand loa (or great spirits) are often accompanied by
petra loa (demi-gods) called the Gede Loa, or "Spirits of the Cemetery".

The Haitian feminine form of the Loa of Death is the pale, thin and wraithlike Madam
Brigette, who serves very much the same function as Baron Samedi, but with a few more
Kali-like attributes of "whirlwind-like change and balance". If we trace Voudon tradition
back to its African source, we find the name Oya, whose name translates to mean "she
who tears". Goddess of storms, hurricanes, radical change and Death, she is portrayed as
a whirlwind who literally rips away the veil between this world and the next. Wearing
grass skirts or costumes of multi-coloured rags, she is a fierce and steadfast guardian of
the cemetery, particularly over the souls of women. She has also found her way into the
Santeria religion where she fills a similar role as Baron Cimitere; as one who watches over
the dead and guides their passage.
African culture is particularly rife will archetypal Death images. The Egungun, of West
Africa are a group of "spirits of Death" who appear only as cloth draped entities and are
known to dance at various festival and tribal functions. Gaunab is another of the many
African personifications of Death. Referred to primarily as "Chief of the Dead", his
function and images are very similar to that of a counterpart found in the Congo, who is
not mentioned by any specific name, but simply as "one of the sons of the great god
Ngai. (This is not the only culture where Death is referred to as "the son of" someone. In
Polynesia, for example, Hine-Nui-Te-Po, or "The Great Lady of Night" is mentioned as
being the "mother of Death").

There are numerous, oral tribal legends telling of human interaction with Death in African
culture. For instance, in Baganda legend, "Kintu, the first man, was permitted, after many
trials and tests, to marry one of the daughters of heaven. God sends the pair to live on
earth and gives them gifts, including a hen. He told them to hurry lest they meet Death
(the bride's brother), and not to come back if they had forgotten anything. The woman
forgets the hen's feed and goes back for it despite the warning, at which God, in His
displeasure, grants Death's request to accompany them. Kintu appeals to God, who
relents and sends another of His "sons" (called Digger) to take Death back to heaven.
Silence was ordained during the pursuit as Digger chases Death who has hidden in the
ground, but the cries of children break the spell of silence and Death is allowed to
remain on earth and strike down all living things."

There is another, very odd African story, told by folks living on the shores of Lake Kivu,
which shows God trying to save men from death but giving up in exasperation.
According to this tale, God made man to be immortal and kept a close watch on Death
who was always trying to pick quarrels with men and provoke them to a fight which He
knew He would win. One day God was away and Death killed and old woman. She was
buried. But, after a few days, her grave began to heave as if she were coming back to life.
Her daughter-in-law poured boiling water on the grave and beat it with a pestle saying
"Die: what is dead should stay dead!" The grave was then quiet and the old woman was
really dead. God returned, and seeing that the old woman was not there, asked what
happened. When he was told, he said he would hunt Death down. Death fled...and met
another old woman to whom he said, "Hide me and I shall reward you." She let him hide
under her skirt and he entered her body. God caught them and decided that, since she
was so old, it would be best to kill her and tear Death from her body and kill him as well.
But Death slipped through God's fingers, and this time, persuaded a young girl to hide
him in her belly. God despaired: if human beings kept on thwarting his efforts to save
them, he might as well give it up as a bad job. So, he let Death do as he pleased.

One of the strangest stories of all comes from the Ewe-speakers of West Africa. Yiyi the
spider (a panthaic demiurge) cadged meat from Death during a famine. Death had
plenty of meat because he had made a great clearing in the forest and set traps in it. In
return for continual supplies, Yiyi gave Death his daughter in marriage. Death told his
new wife not to go through the clearing when she went to fetch water. But, one rainy day
she did and was caught in a trap. Her husband chopped her up for the larder! When Yiyi
discovered what had happened, he attacked Death with a knife and ran away in terror to
the village with Death in pursuit. Death had never been to the village before, and as he
lay in wait for Yiyi, he amused himself by shooting at the women as they went down to
the river for water. He then realized that here was game enough, and he had no need to
set traps for animals.

The Chippewa Indians have a unique legend about Death. It is said that once there was a
great magician who came to the Chippewa nation wanting to make them immortal. He
advised them to give "amicable greeting to the first stranger who would come to visit
them". Unfortunately, for them, the Indians turned aside from a man carrying a basketful
of rotting flesh, taking him for Death, but gave affectionate welcome to Death, Himself,
in the guise of a pleasing young man.

Tales like these, are as abundant as the tribes of mortals that have walked the earth.
Another example, from the Aborigines of New South Wales tells how, in the beginning,
the Godsoul forbade the people to go near a certain hollow tree in which bees had made
their nest. The men obeyed, but the women wanted the honey. Finally, one of the
women hit the tree with an axe, and out flew Death in the form of a bat which now
claims all living things by touching them with its wings.

There are numerous other "names" of Death and stories like these to be found.
Although, as mentioned earlier, to include them all in this volume, would make it a task
of encyclopedic proportions. Nearly every culture on earth, and no doubt beyond, has
had its version of an anthropomorphic Death. A few others we thought merited mention,
include one from Melanesia, where Death is called Marawa, the "Giver of Death" and is
said to work hand in hand with Qat, "The Giver of Life".

In Iranian mythology, death was closely associated with time, so that Zurvan, the
deification of Time, was regarded as the god of Death. Murdad is another name that we
find in the Persian pantheon. And, if we look into Zoroastrianism, we find Murdad's
androgynous counterpart, Mairya.

In ancient Mesopotamia, the Babylonians named the death god Uggae; but he does not
figure notably in their mythology under this name. More well known was Mot, whose
name, again, means death. Here, as earlier seen, he is aligned to the harvest. He was
personified in a rather horrific manner, similar to that mentioned in the famous Epic of
Gilgamesh, in which is written, that Enkidu, the unfortunate friend of Gilgamesh dreams
of his coming death as seizure by an awful being; "He transformed me, that mine arms
were covered with feathers like a bird. He looks at me and leads me to the house of
darkness, to the dwelling of Irkalia; To the house from which he who enters never goes
forth."

Another name found in Sumerian-Babylonian mythology is Ereshkigal (Ereshigal), the

Sumerian "goddess of Death and the under-world". She was known as the dark sister to
Inanna, fertility queen of heaven and earth, and ruler of the "land from which there is no
return".
Haida, the Canadian Indians of Queen Charlotte Island have a death god duality called
Ta'xet and Tia. One is god of violent death, and its counterpart, that of a peaceful
passing.

In Falasha lore, the Angel of Death is Surial, "the trumpeter". It is said that Moses
received all his knowledge from Suriel. This "angel" is also mentioned in The Canonical
Prayerbook of the Mandaeans as "Sauriel the Releaser".

In Christian theology, Death is not graced with a name, but is referred to by description
as an "intelligent being" in Job XXVII-22, and in Revelations VI-8, as "sitting on a pale
horse and His name was Death". This is echoed in earlier, Gnostic texts, particularly The
Book of Enoch; "And I looked and saw a pale horse and the one seated upon it had the
name Death." In Christianity, the archangel Michael was once considered the original
incarnation of the Angel of Death in earlier texts.

To bring encounters such as these into a more contemporary forum, I'd be amiss not to
mention one of the more publicised modern day accounts which appeared in Newsday,
a well respected New York daily newspaper. The encounter experienced by a well known
and respected Long Island doctor is today, a documented case history. Following, is an
extraction from Dr. Julian Kirchick's partially published journal: "It was an apparition, a
frightening thing that at first scared me witless! I don't know whether it was real or not,
but I knew it was Death! I was sitting at my picturesque backyard pool, which was
surrounded by rose bushes. I was startled by a rustling in the bushes about twenty feet
away. I rose to investigate. After taking about two steps, I suddenly stopped short. There
was a ghastly intruder, the face of Death! He was dressed in a monk-like robe with a
large hood and large sleeves which hung low. The tissue-like skin drawn tightly against
the skull...eyes which seemed absent from the hollow eye-sockets seemed to pierce my
very soul. His bony hand beckoned to me in a benign gesture. 'Come to me,' he seemed
to say..." Dr. Kirchick died shortly after this encounter of a illness he was unaware of at
the time the experience happened.
Despite enormous cultural differences, the basic countenance of Death is uniquely
universal. Often described, as we have seen, as a tall, often winged, dark enshrouded
(skeletal or emaciated) being surrounded either by darkness, or by a blue or purplish
radiance. His "eyes" are striking, if not mesmeric "pools of black water", as described in
Midrashic legend where awesome depictions of Death's appearance are rich!

It is curious to note, that in many of these cultural pantheons, Mors (Death) and Amor
(Love) are inextricably entwined. The Greek Thanatos and Eros are said to be nearly
twins. In many cases Death has been known to appear as a handsome youth, and Love,
as the withered corpse. In Hinduism, Yama (Death) and Kama (Love) are said to be in
eternal union, much like Shiva and Shakti (his bride) are locked in eternal embrace to
keep the universe in balance. This concept is echoed in numerous instances where a
personified Death and a personified Love are present.

The power of the archetypal Death entity lies not in the many names given It. These are,
of course, man-made, not divinely assigned. The power of the presence of a personified
Death lies in the resident and residual energies attached thereto, which have become
"energized" over time with psionic vibrations of the thoughts, meditations, evocations,
prayers and faith via the millions of impressions directed at, and attributed to the Spirit of
Death throughout history. The collective energy of so much focused thought has literally
made the formless manifest and accessible.

Considering the way modern society treats D/death as something "evil" or "malevolent",
it is interesting to note that in nearly every one of the preceding examples, Death
remains at all times, a legate of the Divine Consciousness. Death is, in principal, the
personification of a particular divine aspect of will, developed from a functional
expression of the Godsoul that has evolved into a relatively independent personality with
a distinct character of Its own. Dion Fortune stated an excellent observation on modern
mans view of Death in her 1942 book, Through the Gates of Death; "We must get out of
the way of thinking that death is the ultimate tragedy...It is only the man sunk in matter
who calls the Angel of Death the great enemy. His esoteric name is the Opener of the
gates of Life."