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Project Engineering of Process Plants PDF
Project Engineering of Process Plants PDF
of Process Plants
RASE, H. F. AKD B.<RROW, Y.H .
Project Engineering of Process Plants
RASE, 11. F.
HOWARD F. RASE
Associate Professor of Chemical Engineering
The University of Texas
and
M. H. BARROW
Project Engineer
Foster Ti7heeler Corporation
Original Illustrations
by
of vier!- of a project engineer, hut is not intended only for him or for 2. Yisualization rif equilment is facilitated hy isonirtric and pictorial
the indiridual aspiring t o becolne a project engineer. It should he v i e m or rross-sections supplemented by other r i e x s .
useful t o any engineer wlro designs process equipment, since he must 3. Design equations, unless con~pletelpeinpirical, should be developed
know the tlicories and techniques of mechanical design, procurement, sn that their l i n ~ i t a t i o nwill
~ he unrlerstond.
and construction, in addition to hasic chelniral engineering principles. 4. Oily ronrlnonly w r d drsign mrthorl. -iio~llrl hf p r ? s m t r d
Project Engineeririg of Process Plnnts is also intended a s a test for ;i. E X R I I I ~01
I ~ achl:d
S c i c i l i i t i ~ i i sspecifications, and con-
chemical engineering plant design courses. Most chemical engineering tracts are a t times prefcmblc to detailed e s l h n a t i o n s .
curricula in the United States h a r e courses in process plant design. The 6. Conipilations of design data arid sources of inforniation sliorrld he
student finds such courses inraluable for three reasons. H e is able to given tliroughout the text.
integrate the compartmentalized k n o d e d g e obtained from bmic courses. 7. Economics sl~oulrlbe discusse<l in relation to each phase of plant
H e has greater opportunity for original thinking. And, third, he gains the design and procurement. rather than isolatcd ill a separate chaptcr.
healthy self-assurance t h a t conles with being able t o apply his kno\dedge 8. T l ~ cyoung engineer vill profit from the definition and usc of terxni-
to n comprehensive practical problen~. nology common to the cor~stsrictiuninilrlstry.
'l'l~e principles of chelnicnl engineering have been nhly rcconled in
T h e authors are grateful to the illany conipanics which furnished illua-
sucli texts as Hougcn and \V:~tson's Chei,iici~l Process principle,^ and
tratiuns. Specific nrknordedgments arc made in the text. Thanks are
Brown's V n i t Operations, and the student s-ill h a r e such hooks i o r
:rko due Professor hl. !-an \\'inklc for his many helpful suggestions.
reference in making process design calculations.
The cwnvcrsion of these process calculations to a workable plant de-
sign is project mgincering. Project Engineering of Process Plants has
hccn planned to acquaint the student ivith the niethods, organization.
and pliilosopliy of project engineering.
The book is rlivided into four sections. T h e major steps in plant design
are outlined in the first section, and the business and 1eg:ll phases of plant
design are discussed in part t w . P:~rt three gives principles of cquip-
mcnt design and selection and design of structure foundations and piping.
E q u i p e n t common to all process plants is considered in detail d l e r r a s
o t l ~ c requipment is treated briefly in a single chapter, althougli refer-
ences t o more conil~lctesources of inforlilation are given. X o attelnpt
has heen made t o providc n handbook or guide t o the selection of all
types of equipment. Technological progress is too rapid t o make such
a n undertaking n-ortlinMe. Instead design principles and reasons for
current practices arc elnpha~izcilso that the reader can derelop a sound
basis for his own decisions.
T h e last part of the book is a clcscription of construction operations,
and any enginecr cngaged in plant dasign is adrised t o accept the first
opportunity t o observe the coi~stroctioll of a plant from start t o finish.
After t h a t experience the engineer 11iua11y becomes a much better
designer.
T o aid in making the book useRrl t o both student and practical engi-
neer, a n effort is made to adhere to the f o l l o ~ i n gprinciples:
12 Vessels
13 Heat Exchangers
1
Contents
Process Punips
Colllpressurs mil T a r ~ u u ~Pnu n ~ p s CHAPTER
Motors :ind Turl~incs
Other Process Equipment
Piping Design
Thermal Insulation
Process Instrunlents
Plant Ctilitics
Foundatious
Structures and Buildings
Safety in Plant Design
GENERAL PROCEDURE
Before proceeding with any plant location study, one must have a
complete knowledge of the existing company organization, history,
cost data, and marketing techniques. Just as a family must know its
8 Project Engineering of Procerr Plants Plant Locotion 9
I r i t I [)nr!,l~:i-i!~:: :i II(.\V I I ~ u - 1 %so :I colmpitny 11111-1 region or corninunity as being idedly suited. thcn a specific site in t11:it
:rls(~ knoll- itticlf lhciorc locating :I new plant. r\cquiririg such knor~-- rcgion must be selected. Yasecnl" has emphasized the importance
ledge, l ~ o w r e r ,is not :~ln-ayseasy. I n the fast g r ~ ~ v i nIWJW-s
dustry, many organizntionc have grown i r ~ m i?mall family-orvned con-
g ill- ui ~ l c t e r n ~ i n i nthe -
p specific site after the conilnunity has been sclcctcd.
If d u r ~ n gthe study of sewral comn~unitiesa particular site in one is
cerns iuto lnrge corpurate mterprises in a short span r ~ fye:lrs. ('Iwlr- found that has nnwual appeal. tlir eutire stndy may he influenced by
('ut ,~rg:~nization and lroli,,y ~ F t c nfail to 11,. (lrfinr:il <Iririnx -111.11 1 1 1 1 ~ 1 - it. Such ~nflucnccin effwt y r e s undue ~ v r i y l ~t ot the sitc itself, I~eearrsc
no~ucnalperiods of grun-th. I t is vell w x t h vhile fur a cornlxtny in it is so o f t e ~ ipwsible for ouc or more individuals t o fa\-or thc appear-
this situation t o attempt definition of policy and organiz:~tion Ilciore :tncc u i :I g i x n sitc and 11lace excessive enlplia?is on its iuq~ortancc.
proceeding ni!!l cxpanbion in nrrv areas.
I n devising a TI-\-orkahlellrocednre for a plmt, location study. soulc PLANT LOCATION FACTORS
em~proniisculust he made b e t m c n tlvu extremes. One, a n exlianstiv<,
.statistical study requiring a decade for conipletion and the other, :I
short-cut study heavily weighted wit11 preconceived icleas m ~ dlacking
in ohjectirit?-. A complete study of thousancls of possi!)lc locations ii.
of emme, out of the question. Some rneans of decreasing the n u u i l m
of 1mssibilities nus st hc found. .%ires1 has suggcstcd the niethod of
allparent nss<~cintion. A surrey of existing plants of the type being R o w Materials
co~uidered~villoften indicatc th:it ccrtirin types of locations 11aw h e w r
I>h e selection of the sonrce of r:1~1- nmatcrials, :rlthough i t nlny not
referred in the 11a.t. Questioning of the ~ n a n n g e m m tof tlicsc plants be a t the plant site, is an rxtrrmely ini]~ortantfactor in t l ~ cu l t i ~ n a t c
niay indicatc spccial considerations ~ 1 1 i c l dictxted i such locations. I11
this nianner, it niay bc possible t o rcstrict the *tudy t o several genrral
areas.
i I<]cation of the plant. I n many cases, the stud?- of the r a material
situation m:ly ~ ~ r e c e (tlic
~
l c analysis of t , l ~ eother plant lowtionnl facturr,
sinec pilot plant 7vol.k on a. p ~ c c s srequires a t least n knon.leilge of t l ~ r
1 I a n y processrs have one or more predominant factors vhich serve ultimate ~ : I K uiilterial supply. Process devclop~nent~ o r kand econ~~niic
to uiinirnize the nunibcr of possibilities for plant location. R a w ~nntcrial studies d l indicate the m i n i n m n ~stantlartl~for rurv ~uatc,rinlselection.
and transportation costs may 11c such t h a t n p1:lnt must be located near Once thcse st:.ntlards arc dcterminctl, then all possible sonrrer of :~cccpt-
a source. This ~villsuto~natici~lly rcducc the sitvs studiecl to those ncnr :ii~ler a x ninterials can be located :md more rlet:lilcd analysis of thc
sources of raw ~naterixl,rrliich nlay be i1nl3- st,vernl in u u ~ n b r r . Labor source; r a n prorccd.
require~nmts may be such that citics k l o ~:u rertain size must l!v T h e extent of each raw riiatcrinl source must be determined in tlic
~~xrlrnlcd, because only n larger city can supply the h r g r 1;ibor rcquirc- I
light of existing and estimated future requiremmts. .In a t t c ~ n p tto
nients, l'l~eseand other f:ictors s ~ r w:IS eKective scrcming i ~ ~ c n~t vs l ~ i c h 1 estimate the life of tllc r a ~ vinaterial source hasctl on fntnre require-
.wve 110th tinic and n ~ m e y . ~ n c n t s niust be made. Alternate sourccs or substitutes in t l ~ carea
H a r i n g derided upon scvcrnl por.;il~lr regions for p l ; ~ n tl ~ ~ c a t i o nthe , sln~uldalso hc located and evaluated. The rost of SCIK matrrial de-
nrxt step is a dct:iilctl -tudy of tlic possiblc locations. This study in- livered to tllc plant site can then he dctermined for a11 tlmsc sources
clndee a survey of all tht: important f:tctors involved, arld n cost stody. mectiug thc quality and quant,ity specifications required by the process.
It is not possihlc to assign dollar value.? to all the factors t h a t uiust bc .Iccuratti frcigl~trates must be used in determining thcse costs. Bc-
considered. Such intangible factor*: however, can often he conlparerl cause o l tlic conlplex freight ratc strncture that exists in tlic United
by assigning each a numerical valne (100, 200. 300. ctc) the size of States, i t is not 1111ssiblcto use soul? sinq~lcdol1:ir 11er mile figurt, iscc
1r.hic11 depends upon t l ~ cimportance attadled to the particular i t c n ~ IJC!IJ\\-I.A ~ r l : ~ ~ srule
i ~ ~s;t~a tl t , ~tlnlt if thv raw 111xtcrix1lo>cs ~ a l > i , l c ~ r -
bciug considered. T h e assigning of the nutnerical values is b a r d 011 ;ibk woigllt during processing tu the fimil product,, it is cheaper t o loetitc
opjniou, hut such opinion can bc agreed upon by the management at t l ~ c the plant a t the source of the raw material. As is true, hon-ever, wit11
outset of the study no ns to insure a n objective nppraacl~to the accumula- all sue11 general rules, there arc a n u n ~ b c r uf notable cxccptions. X
tion and preseutatirln of data. ~lrlivere,l ran- nintcrial cost analysis sliould n l w i y ~IF n1:idr for e;tch
After the dctailecl study of sevewl arras indicates a partirulnr 111nntl w ~ t i u ubeing w n ~ i d < , r c d
10 Project Engineering of Process Plants Plant Location 11
lines betn-ccn the shipping point and ultiinatc destination. TVhere pos-
Transportation sihlc it is desirable t o have more than one railrond servicing a com-
.is stated previously, no simple dollar per nlile cost rule can be ap- ~ i ~ u n i because
ty of thc greater flexibility snch service providw.
plied t o freight rates. Railroad freight rates in particular are cx- JInny larger communities served by several railroads have terulinal
trcmcly complex. An example given hy Yaseen'Vllustrates this companies or so-callctl belt-line railroa~lsnhicli are often jointly orwed
complexity most effectively. H e describes a nianufacturer d i n is by the several railroads in the region. Thebe trrminal railroad; provide
~'onsidcringa central Ohio location for a nen. plant and who has dis- service hetveen the tracks of the major railroads entering the com-
tribution in surrounding territory and also in the 1.0s Angeles area. A n ~ u n i t yand all plant sites. Such service is rapid and proiluces cheaper
rnajor imnpetitor is located in Cleveland, Ohio. Considering Jlarysville transfer from road to road and ultin~atelyt o tllc pltrnt. Area< served
as a locatim. it is found tlrat the freight rate per hundred pounds will by terminal companies, therefore, are t o be derirwl.
he $556 to Lns .Angeles. The rate fn)m Cleveland is the same, h loca- If large amounts of LCL ehipmcnk are anticipitfd, the esistmce
tion in Pcnria, Ohio, only scvcn miles furthcr west of hlarysrille ill of a car-loading company in the area is advantagrou.;, These car
enjoy a rate of $4.83 per hundred pounds producing an advantage over loaders offer door-to-duor LCL service. They collrrt a nulnhcr of LCL
tlrc (Ilevelmd ro~npctitur. shipments from an area having the same ( l f h n a t i o n , and are able to
I t is not possible to prcscnt a coniplete discussion of freight rates assemble complete carload shipments for delivery to the r:iiIroad
in this rhaptcr. The engineer in charge of obtaining information re- Some railroads provide similar service in large communities.
latcd to plant location need m l y realize that transpr~rtation experts At first t l ~ m g h tit may seem that a plant should either be located
must bc cousultcd in crtnblishing freight charges and optimum location a t the raw n~aterialsource or a t the market for its ~irocluctr. Consider-
lvith r t q e c t to transportation. Such expert information is available ing t,ranq~ortatioaali~nc,horrever, an intermediate location may he
from the frrigllt agents and traffic cxpcrts of tlrc railroads and othcr just as advantageous. Railroads offer fahrii.ation-in-trw~lsit privileg~.~
transportation facilitic;. In addition, thc traffic manager of one's own for certain commorlities. This privilcgc pcrmits the material to be
rompany can l ~ of e great assistance in obtaining the necessary inforwa- shipped t o a plant. processed, and then sent on its v n y t ( ~tlrc ultilnate
tion and aiding in its interpretation. destination for essentially the same rate that ~ ~ - o u hl da r e been clrargcd
The effect of transportation facilities and ratc.; on plant location for a non-stop trip. It is n.ell t o check the existence of such pririlegcs
van he a rontrolliug factor, Industries such as the plastic industry, for for the comniodities to be produced. Many other rate pcculiarities
instance, 15-hich must dclivcr many small slripnients to various users in lravc cvi~lvedas the railroads d c \ ~ l o p c dand conil1etition became keen.
the miniurum of time, find location near the majority of users inanda-
Trucking
tory. I,t,ss-tl~an-car-Itlad-lot (LCL) rates are very high; and, there-
fore. the distanre that the material must he shipl)ed should be kept t o Interstate truck n~overnents,a s in the case of the interstate railroad
a minimum. transportation, are now regulated by the Interstate Commcrcc Com-
mission. Truck lines are elasscd as schctlulcd or non-scheduled car-
Railroad Freight riers, depending upon xhether the line offers a regularly scheduled
Although truck transportation has increased inarkeitly in tlrc past service b e t w e n t v o points or operates on a contract basis a t timcs
tcn or fifteen ytm" it is safe t o say that fcrv process plants could exist convenient to the shipper. Truck lines have been able to compete
ivitlir~ut awess t o at lcast one milroad. The railri~ads continuc t o vigorously with tlrc milroads on small shipments and in particular on
carr? the hulk of industrial products. Disrnssions 5~1thrailroad freight short hauls. Because of the competitive advantage in this phase of
agents conwrning frcight rates ant1 methods of handling in the various freight shipment, the truck lines have concentrated on the development
ronimunitics under consideration are necessary if a true picture i~ t o of efficient means of handling less-than-truck-load-lots (LTI,). As
hc ihtainrd for comparing the relativc advantages of *everal locations. with railroad freight, excessive transfer should be avoided. Location
A .study of the railroad freight structure n-ill reveal several funda- of a plant on the route of a major carrier providing direct connections
nrental r r c i l . Because of t l ~ crelatively high iwst ( ~ ft,ransferring to various shipping points eliminates the need for transfer and cuts
rlripments fronr m e railroad tu another, it is desirable t r ~locate plants costs.
along major railrmtd ruutes so t l ~ st l ~ i ~ ~ u will
~ ~ nfollo\v
ts the major I n considering truck transportation in a given community. the fran-
12 Project Engineering of Process Plants Plant Location 13
W a t e r Transportation
\v;lltT tr:ili,~l~nrtntioni. nnii i t p o l :ll!Y:iy. hc tilt, r ~ l l v l ~ ~ l ~ s t
IIIC:II I t i ~ ~ c ~ r :t t i ~ ,I I I I I of g e t I I ~ It . is
certainly an a,iv;rnt;~gefor n prow-s p h n t to 11c I~uateII: ~ d j i ~ ( , ~ton t
n:iaigal)l~~ a t c,vcn thnugli initial oper:rtions do not require n-atcr
sllipmenrs. \Inn? co~npiinics11:lre becn :ihlr t o ctirnprtc~rlfectivi~lyin
(Iist:~nt111xrkc,t-eren tl~ou!J~these I I I : I ~ ~ I ? Snrcx ~ e r 11y ~ p1~11ts
~ ~ in l tht>
~ilarket n r w .\ (':~lifornia ~ ~ r o ~ t u cill c r a n ~ n ~ m i Ia, : I I ~ slri]) li~lui(l
: I I I I I I I I ) I ~ ~ : Iin ?e:i-g~i~rg 1,arge.s to the P;rrifiv S ~ r t l ~ \ v e si itn ~ l cuuil~t'te
\\-it11 plants 1oc:iterl in tlic J'acifir Sorth\\-cbt rerrit,~ry. :\ h r g e Gulf
C'oa.4 r a w t i c 1 1 r o ~ l n ( w >hips 735 caustic by XI-going t a r r k ~ rto c a d Process W a t e r
roast tcr~iii~i:ilsfro111 ~11en1:cit is S c ~ r w i r i l ~11y ~ ~rtiil
l m d tniuk to east T h e ~ ~ O C Ci ~Si ~~ l u - t r irca~n k : ~ l ) o ~ -:ill
e uthcr. :I- users o i n-a(i,r. 1-11
coast u:ers. Here ~igain lor^ c w t water frc4gllt enables tlic p r o ~ l u i wto process plant cuuld operate \vithout rratcr 3 5 a rooling medium and :IS
c u n q ~ e t r1~it11~ i r ~ d w t in ~ r the
s ~ i i : ~ r k carc^
t ;I direct r:ix material in certain ] ~ l ~ a s icr fs :I process. T h e n.att.r i ~ ~ p l ' l y
In irilditim to occ:i~~ tra11sp~rtiitim1,tllc C n i t ~ dStzit?> is f i ~ v ~ r ewit11 d of an area, ~ I I I W ~ O Y C . IIIII-t 111: stuili~11IJ~EOTCt h a t area 1,:11i eveii IIC?
many ~ n i l e so i navigable s t r e a ~ n sa n d canal.;. Pcrllnps tile most ? p c - runsidered as a pussil~lerite. .id\-icc rhould be sought from competmt
taclllar c:ilial s y s t c n ~is tlic Intercoastal Canal \vl~irhI ~ I I X - i t lpre~tcrte,l ei iv:itcr experts, inrlwling grologists iincl cl~crnir~al rrrgini'rr.~ ;~~r~r~i:iliziirx
shipping I:ine.. for barge traffic iron1 Bra\\-nsrillc, T c m s to S e w Eng- in n-ater prol~lcuis.
land. Tlle Grc;it I.akcr am1 large rivers sue11 a s the ~ l i ~ i i ~ s i()trio, p~~i. Prior to the study, a clutaileil estimwtr of water rrquirclncnts 110th
Hu11sti11. am1 'L'rnncrsc~ llrovirle a d i l i t i ~ ~ r ~tlroos;~nds nl of milei 111 navi- for tile i~rescnt an11 the f n t w e luust 11c ~uacle. Thi? ~ I I I U I I I t11c,1i IIV
g a b k n.;it~.n\-:i>-s~nis>iugthrougli t l ~ el>ol~ui:~tiou centrr- ( l f the 1-nit~vl i'ollon-etl by wrcful study of the v-atcr a v a i l a l ~ l rin t h e rt,gion heinlr
Sti~tes. t~unsidcrccl. IS well n-ater is to III, used a. twmplrtc stud? of tlie II;I..(.
I 1 v o r c s ~11lants Irave iound it ;~~l\-auingcwus to ojrerate their Iliatory of the underground \v:iter table is necessary. Because o i their
OII-II .sIrip ;ir~d b:l~jir.<.:1ltlroug11 tllc. .wvicc.- of .Aipping coll~l~;~nit.; art, l o ~ e temperature,
r u n d e r g r i ~ u ~ iwater
d supplies arc prefcrrrd if :i~lcqoatt,.
I Y ~ I I : I I I I . Ti, *tin~lrl:ite I\-iiter tr:~nb]~orti~tion the i w l w i l gover11- Powell and Yon I ~ s s b c r g "Ilave clescril~e~l n ~netliod ior predictilig
~ i i e n tI I : I ~iur :i rrunlber o i years ol~erate(lR large barge linv rallcil T h e tire Suture a ~ a i l a t l i l i t yand rrlial~ilityof utidergror~~ld \I--;ltt.r bupl~ly hy
Fw11,r:iI I h r g t , 1.i1iw tpsting existing ivell.!. IYater lrvrls in obsrrvatiim n-clls are ~rleasurc<l
during tlie pumping of nr:lrl~y active n-rlls. T h e iur~luilx uf T l ~ e i + f J
Other M e a n s of Transportation is thcn ustvl to prcrlict t11c il~~:in-clon-i~ iinticipatui or-er :I long period r ~ f
Tllc, wrvirvs offcwcl 11y t l ~ c:tir linvs, expwss co~npariiw,the I'wt p~~rnpi~ig.
Ofliw Ik.part111e11t~aid pipt,Iincs vnry in illq~ortance (lcpen~lingupon R I ~ ~ : n.;itcrs
I ~ I , f r i m ~S ~ ~ ~ : I I I rlr
I S I;tl<cs also reqriirc r:1wf111t , o ~ ~ s i ~ l e r ; t -
the p s r t i ~ w l a r plant in question. Heenare of t l ~ ei n c r e a ~ ein airlinr t,ion s i ~ ~ etllcy
o arc often :~ffected scvcrcly I irason;d variations.
trnffic and the t r l i ~ j ~of o present d a y industry, i t is a~lvantngcuust o Fresh water streams discharging into the w e a n during tinies of low
he 111rated conveniently t o a n aiqlort if for no ot111~renron t h ~ nfur run-off can becoll~esalty due t o sea lvater 11;leli-up. Under these ~:miditions,
tllc convenience of company prrsontiel trtivrling ou plant hu.;ilicss. it may he necessary f(ir the plant to provide large stor:igc facilities for
Although ieiv process plants n-ill require eontir~uous air freight ship- fresh water t o be collected duriug the period of liigli run-off and useil
nwnt, it is I I O ~ uncommon to call for a n emergency air sliipliient o i during the season \illen the strcilm brco111es salty.
; > u t s for plnni cquipn~ent. Here again tlic eonvenimt location of a n I t i i necm-iuy to clri~rk:Ire 1listw.y of I.~TL.I.flon. ~ I YI i k l<.sel ~ for :I>
alr111)rt is :in adrantagc. i r i t ~ ~ iyears
y 11;1rlc us pwsil~lt:so that :i.surnncr oi :111 n d c ~ ~ u a t..11111ily e
14 Project Engineering of Process Plants Plant Location 15
can :it 1ca.t hc l~redirtrrlirom historical data. Indubtries niuring into A detailed kno~vledgcof tlie quantity of power and steam required
relati\-el? n e x areas oiten fail to consider the posribility of other plants for the operation of thv projrrted pliint must be (htuineil i~rfurctlir
fi~llo\vingsuit. The quantity of ~viltcrs1111ply sliould 110t only be ade- study can proceed. Tlie c o d 01 :dl fuels avail;~hiein the area slii,ulrl
quate for inture riecils of the prol111sed plant in question. hut alsu he carefully analyzcd S:rtural gar: l ~ i p e l i n r .are making ;I rlicap gas
:idequate for supplying the nnticil~aterlneeds i ~ iother industrie~that available in many parts of the country. Industrial rates for natural ga.
uliglit n ~ o r einto the area. I t is also desirable to mnsider alternate appear attractive, h t they mnst 11e ex:~tninrd carefully. Imlltstrics
sonrces of supply that may be required as the preicrred water sources located remotely f r i ~ n tlw l natural g;is snpply will 11e tile first to suffer
become delctcd. slrould a n interruption in pipcline service occur (17 a n unduly c d < l
In addition to having t l ~ cproper quantity of m t e r arailablc. the winter cause a taxing of the facilities. Further, c l ~ t qrates for indus-
quality of xvater must also be stu~licrl. Clletnical and h:~cteriological tries in cities served by pipelines often only apply to sunlmer coniiitii~nz
~xalninationuf the hvater d l indicate the extent of treatntent required ml~enthe demand is lo^. In such cases, alternate iuel supply tiinst be
nnrl aid in the development of n-ater cost figurrs for comparison with available for the winter months.
other 1oc;ltions. Possi1)ility of the (,ontamination of thc water source Evaluation of power costs is greatly aided by the rr:tdy c o o p r a t i m
I)? otlicr industries in the area should be anticipate~i. This c o n t a n - nf local utility companies. Most of these org:inizations maintain staffs
illation may consist o i only raising the temperuture of the water t o that specialize in industrial pmver. Tlic cost of produring power a t
sue11 a lr?-el that its use as a cooling rnediutn rvill be itrq10sbi1)le. the process plant n-liicll will include rriting-off the construction of a
l'lit~ cl~cmicalengineer is usually xell equipped t o tnakc cost c o n - p o w r plant, is prrhaps more diffirult to d~.termine. I t r i l l he l~aseil
parism;. of various water supl~lics,hut he rarely ha': tlic background on t,lie iuel :~vail:il)l~,in t11c arc:^, t l ~ cr m n p ~ n y ' sr x p e ~ i c ~ ~~vitli
c c other
ncccssary to m:lke intclligent conclusions concerning the extent and poxver generating operations, and particu1:rrly tlic eqirrit,rrce of u ~ i ! ~ .
relial~ility ui a particular supply. Such studies ilcscrvc tlic attention plants in the area.
of n competent water consultant trained in geology and meteorology. It is n d r a n t a g e ~ ~ uifs a progressive utility cotrlpany servils tllc region
being considered. Even process plants generating tlieir o x n porver iirlrl
Waste Disposal a n d Noise Abatement it necessary because o i rapid espan9ion to purclinw large anlriunts of
Tlic iorivaril-loo* engineer ~villconsider v a s t e disposal and noise power from time to time. Only a dependable and mpidly g r ~ ~ a i n g
al)ntenicnt just, as i m p ~ ~ r t a nint thinly populate~lareas as in a heavily utility system can supply such demands.
populattd rity having spevial ordinances related to these ~ ~ r o l ~ l c t n s .
Sothing is $11 in~principle~lor injudicious as duniping waste in tllc Labor
atmosphere or in nrarby streariie. I n addition to the moral or ethical
c,insider:~ti~)ns, it is not el-m good economics. Eventually the com- A large portion of the costs of any manufactured item is repreaentr~l
m ~ ~ n i t~vill
y rise in indignation and impose laws which may be so 11y l a l ~ o rcosts. Althuitgl~ 1:tbllr rates nrc inore nnll more 11rro11iinp
burilrnsi,me t h t profitable operation ~ o u l r l bc impossible. It be- similar in n ~ o s tparts o i the country, iactors su(,li as skill. labor t.rl:l-
Iioovt,~tliv engineer. tlit!reiore, t o study tlic miste dispoiial and noise t i m s , and [lie gmcral wcliaw of tlir Inhoring forre affect I d ~ o rp r ~ ~ h , .
lruhlcms and to i.onsirlcr the ruethods and costs of a n effective control tivity and efficiency m:~tcri:tlly. Earli region being consid~red ior
program for each region being studied. plant 111eatiun nlust 11e surveyed to rlcterriiinc the nvaili~l~ility and the
skills o i tlie lallor market. Thc skills need not exactly c o n i ~ ) ; ~ wit11
re
those required by the process plant. This fact was tnost effectively
rletnonstrated during the speculator influx of industry on the Guli Coast,
rlf the United States. Chemical plant operating labor a n s recruited
from iormer refinery operating men and oil field workers, both groups
of ~ v l i i c lhad
~ experience which required the same degree of responsibility
as t h a t in the chetniral plant.
Maintenance tncn make u p a large portion of any process p l m t lnlmr
force, and i t is necessary t h a t the crimmunity have availabl,, a t least
16 Project Engineering of Process Plants Plant Location 17
11 nucieui uf sue11 forces a> ell a; training facilities for proviilil~gn r n data frotn former years and experiences of existing plants. Air con-
men. ditioning in hot sections of t l ~ ccountry can no longer be ciinsidered a
The wage rates existing in a given conununity are i~nportaiit,but it, u s u . Indeed, companies endeavoring t o opcratc their office: nnil
~vouldhe a tlcfinitc mistake t o plan on the continuation of lorcr rates i control rooms vithout air conditioning \\-ill find it difficult t o obtain or
indefinitely. The t,rend in tlie United States has been toward a gradual I keep employees.
elimination of differences in wage rates betwrcn ~ a r i o u sparts of tile II
country. Perhaps, a Inore important factor is tile stability of such Community Factors
rates in a com~nut~ity.Some communitier; have beeu notorious for
xide fluctuations, a condition ~vhicb n~;tkc; c<nnpany planning ex-
I One of the most important aspects of plant location is oitr.11 orer-
looked or only regarded ligl~tly. l'l~is aslicct is the effect of t l ~ cc l ~ i ~ r -
tremely difficult. acter and facilitiw of tlic conmninity Ilcing sturlieil. I t is most diffi-
A further cotisideration is the history of labor unrest in the region. cult to obtain objective infornmtinn on a community bec:iure the u ~ u d
Some cities in tlie United States, particularly the older industrial areas, sources of information, such as Chambers of Commrrce or Inilustrial
have a history of lal~orunrest vhich began back in tlic days of earl? C o ~ n m i s s i o ~tend
~ s t o prcscnt eou~owllatbiauerl i ~ l ~ i n i ohcr:lusc n of t l ~ r i r
union organization and apparently has continued periodically to the natural entl~usiaimfor t h ~ i Or T T - ~home to\\-11.
present tinic. C'onfcrenccs ~ i t hother plant nianagers in the area and h study of the cu~nnlunityshould hcgin \\-it11a I O I into ~ its hibtoricxl
local onion officials n-ill aid in evaluating the general labor picture. A dcvclo]nncnt. Froni such a study! tlrc charnctcr o f a city ill emerge
roufcrcnce >\-it11local union representatires will also serve to begin the
cstahlishn~ent of amiable relations. Talks with the managcmcnt of i including its general :rttitude toward industrial cievelo~iments.
Asswning that the historical study yield- a sati>factory report, tlir
gencral facilitirr offered by the coniuiuniry should bc rrriexr-ed. .i m n -
existing plants \,-ill yield data on the imllortant problem of lahor turn-
over. A stable labor force is valuable in successful plant operation. A tented group of p ~ o p l ertyrriro a ccrtain mini~numuunlbcr of facilities
look a t the liotnes of the laboring force in a c o u n n u ~ ~ i tand
y knowledge for satisfactory living. I f these do not exist, it often becomes a burden
of the percentage of home ownerships slrould give some clue t o the for tlie plant t c ~rubsidize such facilities.
contentment of the laboring group. Bank8 must bc reliable and staffed wit11 competent r~&cialsand of
I n addition to federal labor laws ~ v h i r happly throughout the United surb a size that. t h y \\-ill be r:ilial~le of l~anillingplant :IS n-ell :IS e n -
States, various state? and. rmnmunities h a r e enacted l a w affecting pluycc accounts. Tlre v a l w of ;dcquate sl~oppingfacilities, cqicciai~y
labor relations and ivorkmen'.- cmnpen?ation. minimum age, and otllcr for the fetnale melnl~ersoi fa~nilyunits, cnrmot, I)? ovcrempliasizwl.
la~v-:related t o lahor pmrtices. Tlrrsc l:~\v.ivary from rrgiou to region Larger cities iifTcr thc advantage of factory \\-arcl~ousefacilities
nncl competent legal advice is necessary for the porposc of interpreta- that replacement parts for plant equipu~cntcan be tcnilily olilainrcl.
tion. .irlequatc and gracious lrotcl facilities a1.e alvays \wlcome, esl~wially
T V ~ C I Iit beromcs the job of plant iifiicials to entertain ri.siting dignitar-
Weather ies. At least one or nlorc hospitals fully accrcditctl by tire hmeric;m
V'eatlier data for a numhcr of years sl~ouldbe assembled for each Hospital Association sl~ouldhe located in tlic area. 111 larger cities,
con~munity heing studied Particular a t t r n t i m ,sI~ould be given t o transjlortntir~~~ brcrnll?~a p r ~ ~ i l ~ c m ~ .I n n y~ ~ - o l k ejlrefcr rr to use public
severe eouditioni of ~vcathcr snch as hurricanes, eartl~quakcs, and transportation becnux (if t l ~ edifficulty oi parking in certain areas.
floo~ls. These catastrophic events. 1vliic11 must be assumed as prob- Such pu11lic tranq1ort3tion must 11c cfficicnt and c:e~~nomical.
able, increase construction cost. Extremely cold \yeather often Iiam- Thc cultural facilities of the community are in~port:int t o sound
per;; lirocess plant operation and requires special construction features growtlr. Churclres, lil~r:~riw, scl~ools,civic t111~1ters.uincc~!t awlcia-
to protect iquiliment frotn freezing. Predominantly warm weather t i n : I I n i i l r g r i p , if nctivc imd I y n m i c , I 11111(:11 to
permits che;lpcr con?truction, but clas~ically it is said to reduce the make a comniunity prwgessivc. Fornmcl-looking plant n1:magern will
dlicieney of a labor force. Suclr a conclusion must bc v i e w d wit11 realize tlmt tlte yuung people in a community will 1w the crnployees oi
r c q ~ t i c i s n~vheu
~ the production rceords of process plants on the hot tomorron.. and a good school ~ ~ P ~ P i1nd I I I advqunlc cultural opportuni-
and h~nnidTexas nnd Louisiana Gulf Coast are con~pnreilwith those ties d l in the fin:tl analysis makr ilettcr rmploycrs. 1lecau.c thv
in o t i w part? of the country. j)r,~cessi~xlu.~tri(y ~ k ] i c n ~011I ~ , T ~ I I I ~ I , : II I~: ~ I I I ] I ~ I K ~ ! I ! ,il 1.2 $lt+ir:~L,lv111;it :i
C0.t. i ~ Ii r r n t i ~ yor air conditioning may be estimated using m a t h e r unirersity of the first rl:ws lie 111carriliu thc st:ite umlrr con~i,l~:ratiun.
18 Proiect Engineering of Process Plants Plant Location 19
I t s engineering and science departments should be accredited by the the data necesbary for t l ~ cinforliintion disrwrst~dalmvt. can he ol~tilineil
appropriate agencies (Engineering Council for Professional Derelop- u-itliont actually visiting tlir are:1.. The final site wlecriim. Iro\\.cver.
uient. hmcrican Chemical Society. etc. !. require- careful x r u t i n y hy a c o ~ p sof mperts. I t is preferable t o
h study of the population trends in a community is often revealing avoid pul~licizing snch risits since real estate vnlnes invnriat~ly rise
sincc it indicates the gron-th and trnor o i a conn~innity. .ihrcakdorm upon rnuior of nexr- pI:rnt construction. This necc~;;nry secretiveness
of population statistics into age groups is liell~ful in l~rcdicting the is often hest accomplislied hy dealing 17-ith only one rcliahle real estate
,.
poesiblc vitality of a region.
llic problem uf recreation deserres special consideration. Recrea-
firm. Topngraphy and soil condition of each site must he evaluated
Foundation c o ~ t sare greatly increased on site* liaring soil of Iorv hear-
tion nil1 inclurlc, of course, the cultural entertainment already men- i t i a i t Good natural dr:iin:~gc is another ~leeir;iblrfeature; a n d
tioned: and. in ailrlition, outdoor activities and otlrer events ranging if tlie iitc is lorated near a streani or other 11ody of \r-ater, f l ~ ~ ohistory
d
from country club dances t o sulall gatherings in homes. The disaiiran- should t ~ e carefully cl~eckcd. O f t r n seemingly excellent sites have
tage of the extremely small communities or company tinms is t h a t the soffercd from pcriodic flouding that nonld never he predicted on in-
couipnny n ~ u s t*ul~si~lize the constructicln of parks, golf courses, and spection of tlrc nrca during noruial conditions. I n :1dditio11 to tlie
cluhs. Furtherl the so-called company torvn is predominantly occupied advice 11i competent soil experts and constructim engineers regarding
I)? e~ilployresand their fanlilies. M a n y people find such a situation the feasibility of the site. officials of the neighboring plants can give
ni~rron-ing sincc most of their friends arp other t,ml~loyeesand their helpful hints concerning the nature of r a r i o w locations in the area.
fn~nilir.san11 all too often a f t e r - l ~ ~ i u rconvcrsatione
s ric~elopinto "shop
t : k Tliis geiicraliaatiou, l ~ ~ ~ n e ri*c rdangerous
, since it depmds so FINDING INFORMATION
uiuclr ion the individuals i n ~ o l r e d . I t ~ u i g l ~bet said. nrvt,rtheless, t,l~at Tile forcgoirig brief sulunxrry of factor;: that ninst lie ~ I ~ t c r m i n cind
it requirc,s people ~ v i t hIxtter than average imagination tn avuid thcsc a. plant lucation study indicates the need for a vast amount of i n f o r n ~ a -
pitfilll~. t i m both quantitative (statistiral) and qualitative. Rerause of thc
Extremely small couiniunit~icsmay fail to offer the opportunities for large nmul~er of agencies, puhlic and private, rvllicli u l l i useful
rrcreatiorr required by yonng prople and discontent often develops. inforn~ationof this type little actual original gathering of data must
Plants located near large rities i ~ a wavoided ew11 situations, rvhile some bc done. All sources of printed information rliould be cxliauded t~eforc
remotely icicatcd plant;? have overcome thcsc difficultica by the est,ab tniiking a private survey on a given phase of the study. T o ;lid in the
lialnuenf oi active recreation ~ i e p a r t n i e ~ ~and t s clubs. These hunian search for printed information, a euggeytcll list of sources tugc,ther ~ v i t h
~ ~
factors :ire all rather netn~luue, t n ~ tnone tile less important. They types of iniorm:ltion offered is giren in outlinc form belun.. The n.i~rkso i
dionld not be overlooked in any analysis of plant sites. ltigglenian and Frisbeelo and Cornan" aided greatly in prcpuiiig
The efficiency, clmracter. an11 history of both state and local govern- this wtlinc.
tuent shonld he evaluated Ilocalitiee 1vhic11 liare snffcred long yrary
nf corrupt 111. inefficient porern~ucnt are pour risks. State and local I. Inriirrs and Aids to Scnrrhing
.i.US. Gowrnmcnt Pablirntions*
Iarw and repulatii~nsnliicli will affect plant operation and living con-
1. Hi~.slihr~.~. H. S.. and hlelinnt. ?. H.. Suhjrct Guide t o 1'nili.d S l o / ~ sGo,.-
ditions require the interprrtat,ion of a co~npetent attorney. These crnrrrrnt Puhlientior~s,.Imcl.icnn T.ihrarr .isuoci;~lion.Chicago. Ill. (19471.-Dr.
include d l tax ordinancesl especially those applying directly t ~ r the ser.ihrs gorrrnlnmt, publirationr and p i r ~ csmmw [or n numhw of s c l e ~ r ~rq)iv-i. d
industrial ~,oniniunit,y. The existcncc of lorv taxes in not in itself a 2. Srlinreckehcir, I,. F., Gu~.r,-ti,iientPublicalions nrid ?'iir.ii- 1 s t . The Brook-
favorahlc situation unless the commnnity iy already well devrl~~peil i n g ~Institution, FTashington, D.C. (1936).-Anollicl. drscl.iptiw guide to g~vern-
a r ~ dis not in great deht. It is certain t h a t a e ~ r n m u n i t yhaving un- nirnt publications, although sonwwlint imldnted.
3 . . I l o v / h i ~ Cntnlog o / thc 7.niicd S l o l c a Goswi-nmrnt Pzihlic,i/ions-lliijor
<I?\-eloped srwer systc~ns,roads and other similar facilities iliust soon indrx oi gmwnment publicniions. .A ypal.-pnd issue contains annual suhjert index.
increase taxes. Lists prtietirally all pnl,liiations h t h rongrcsaioniil :md rl~p.i~~t~nml:rl. tinil rtnrtinp
In 1936 has included many proceeaed (mimcogloplird, rtc.) puhlirarioni iirmwd
FINAL SITE SELECTION oi intrwst to the puhlic. Most large universities and puhlic lihl;iries serve as
Alter an area or regio~i ha.; h e m s~,lccted for plant location, the
next i o l ~is the selectiut~of a sl~ecificsite. A c~~,nrirlcrable
mlonnt of
i,rrclt Scxirr,, o j Cortg,i,~.~-C;i~Ulr t o Cong~wsion;tll i t w ~ t m c .
7 . C<,~<gs.c.~,<i<,rt<~lD i r v c / , u ~ - I . i s t ~ ofrici:~l ~ 1 : ~ f fr. ~ ~ . ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ r ~ ;and
- i l :wl~vitics
~iliti~~s
u i r ; d l dcl~;~clorvni, Inncan, and n g m v of ir,ll.ld g o r r ~ ~ n r n m l G . ovi~~.nmml
o~.g:inizittioneli;cnps from 3-r:u to ycm. m111t h D ~ i ~ w l o ~ . (is- l j r I ~ ) h lin tlw I ~ T O P C I
1,uuting of Ipttwa of inquiry.
8. I'.S Gon m m r r i l .lluriiinl-Di~scril~~s oi.y:inizntion and dutirs o i goi.ci.nmcnt
n g m r i m Hrlpfrtl in locating sen-iccs formrvly li:mllnl b y :rlmlish~dngrnrics.
9. O!!iriol R r y i s t r , . of t i t c I I (yearly)-1,iit.i pcwuns occupying
:~,lniinist~.:~tivt~. ,inilicial :and Icgiilntiv~pwitiun; in t l F~ P ~ W I( I: o ~ m m i r n I
10. l>,y;,rI,,>?,,l;,l m d B,,W.,,I l,,,liw-.\ ,I,,,,, I r r "ig,>,?rn,,,,~,lt < l c ~ l ~ : ~ ~ t ! l ~ ~ n t ~
:dI,nrc~noslxll,li.ll inlliccr oi tllris u v n ~ n ~ l , l i ~ . : ~ t i o'nl- l. w ~inclwk tlw f ~ ~ l l o v i n g
-~unmorirc:
,,. 1,i.d ,,/ l x ' lj,,,.,<,,, ,,I Y i , , , , < i ' ~ , l , I i ~ " l i , , i , ~ .191I~-l!i;9.
b , l n d c z 1 0 I ' ~ t l d i w l i ~uf~ ~I / ,~<s, C-.,S. l k ) , f . 01 A y ~ ~ i ~ ! t l t v tI W
! !, . G l W
c , ( ' , t l d , ~ g 01 l . . S ( ' < ~ m m
i!ttwo,8 P ~ t l i l i w l i o m ,1?!1~1--1'?~.?.
I S I . i,J Co,,i,,iric<~ P i i l ~ l i c o l i o n s (,'iifolog f1%?)-3lr,ntlrIy l i s t of
22 Project Engineering of Process Plants Plant Location 23
3. The Conference Board Management Record, Sational Industrial Canierenrp
Board. Sev York, S . Y . (monthly).-Discusses labor trends and presents statistics.
4. Labor Union Publications.
o. Economic Oittlook-CIO, Dept. o i Education and Research, Kashington.
D.C.
Cl~iriigo,Ill.
6. Ofici,ri Sterrms1,ip r r , d A i i l u w G u i d e , Trmipu~.tntionCuiilea. Inc., S c w Ycrk.
1 . T l i ~ l - w uo f Census.
ci. Digrsts of s I : ~ t e l a w rrlulinc: to t:<xrs ((:or. Div.).
h . City fin:ini.w :md rmpluyrnent (Go\-. D i r . ) .
r.. Census of pqulntion.
2 . h!iili.~lirs o/ l r i c o m ' , RIIIP>LLI of Intetnal R ~ v m u r ,ITS. T ~ . ~ a s n t .Dek~t..
y
IVasliingtrm, 1j.C.
3. . I l i i t ~ i c i p r i l I , 1 1 t I City l i n g .hw,.i;ttion. ('liii.;~go.
Ill-I.irts offici:~lsand f o m ~oi m y gui-ernment.
4. .11~8u~u~?vze?t! A ~ ~ ~ ~Satin~xtl
L o c , I n d w t r u l C o n i c v ~ nBmrd,
~~ SW Y w k ,
S.Y-Givrs c o n m n r r a prire indicrs in GO cities.
'5, Ai<to,ttobiic FCC/* ri. F i g u r n , .Aolomohilr hlmnif;ir.t~~srri' .ii;wi:~tion. Dr-
troit. \.livh.-(;iyrj rcgistlxtion dnta.
*6. Anwrican Twtisit .Assw., SPX Y d , K.Y.-ITntc i m i n i w w > t i m on lural
trnniporlntiun svstrms.
* i .h~nrriuanT:ixicat, .Association, Clrirago. Ill.-\l~.itc i w d;ili> on t;ixi srt~tictlc-.
U. Lahor * X . i n ~ w i w nT~'lrpImnc& Telegraph Co.. S e ~ yYmk. S.T.-Conrart iol. itatis-
1. Bnrrwu oi I.ahor Statistics. U.S. Dept, of L:nhol., IV;rshinglan. D.C. tir:il ~ I onR pllones.
a. Monthly cn~ploymcntreport hy etalrs. "9. I T S . Post Oflicc Thpt., ITaahington. D(:-Contart iol. ~wwiptsfor inrli7-~hal
b. Cost of Living Indices. {post utliws.
e. Handbook 01 Labor Stotis!ics. Puhlisl~ed irregularly since 1926-Wages.
10. Drj,al.trnrnt of Commerce--Statistiral data on bucmra* onrvatmns n i all
cast of living, f t e . kinds.
d. Jfnntidy Labor Ret,i~zu-Wagc surreys. statistical dnta, hihliug~.apIr? oi 11. Ranker's 1)iwi.turier.
N . Rand-hlrSdIy. Chicago, Ill.
CONSTRUCTION PROJECTS
Cscd in setting proper design conditions ipounds per square foot) for
tvind loads on exposed rtructurcs, equipment. or hildings. Certain U. S.
Gulf Coast areas, for instance, use 40 pounds per square foot because of
After a rlte has been selected for the construction of a process plant, ~ x ~ s s i l ~ i lof
i t yhurricanes. The final value has considerable influence on
a large amount of infurmation must be acculnulated hefore design work structural and foundation design.
ran begin. Engineers, purchasing agents, and construction supcrrisors
must h a r e detailed information about the site and surrounding area.
Several experienced men \vitl~backgrounds in both engineering and con- TJsed in process design, in the selection of insulation, in determining
struction management ran obtain the nccdcd preliininary d:tta on a visit plant-building typcs f l ~ rilrocess equlpnlcnt prote~tion,in building design
to the construction site. The information they gather includes data on for personnel ~ , u n ~ f o rilnd
t , in selecting inaintenancc procedures. The
engineering for use in design, procurerncnt pr:tctices in the area, and design of the cooling vxter system and selection of equipnent are also
informati~~n necessary for planning construction. Tllesc preliminary data influenced by atnlwpl~eric tcn~pcrature rengrs. Tctnpcrature ranges
plus psocess requirements set tire hasis for design an11 constrnrt,ion of should he studied over a tvo-year period: or longer, to provide the best
the plant. estimates of arerage values.
TYPICAL PRELIMINARY DATA REI.ATIVE H U M I ~ I T(range
T by day, month, and seasonal :iveragei
Preliminary data outlined below are typical of tllat gatllcred hy the Required for design of cnoling towers, air driers for process air, and for
engineer on his survey visit t o the job site. determining personnel cmifort requirements for buildings.
Plant Terrain
11. Soils I I ~ I -l,c
t c q > l i ~ r c dfor fonndation or load-canying character-
is ti^,?. Elec:ric Power a n d Fuel Services
11. Chnror~rmnps sl~mvingground e1cv:itions ~\-llicIl:ire useful in plan-
ning 111nnt ~ i r n i ~ : ~and
g c plant roiid\\-ay ayitenls sl~onldbe prepared.
c. (I<~ncrnlslopr or I~crularitieiof the site, a r e also nccess:uy in pstimat- IYl~cnrlt,ctric pinver is to 11e p ~ r c l l n ~ c rthe l , 111c;ltionof incoming p w w r
Ing l,i.clir~~innrpar:~diug \\-hiclr in turn inriicales t h e type of construction f ( ~ ~ l i , r:tml
- . tlir plant sul~st:ltirn~ nrnst 11e rlctcrnrirrmi. Priuii~ryvoltages
gr:lcling c(l11ipment. I I I U ~l ~ e deterniined early, in orllcr ti1 start cnginrcring :ind p r o c u r c ~ n m t
11i t h r I I I : I ~ 1)lant
~ t r a n r f ~ r n ~ and
c r switcl~gcar. Tlic preliminary sllrvcy
s I ~ o l ~ ldctcnuinc
,l the (1ire1,tion from ~vhirllthe lilies ~villconic; ~vhether
~ i i ~ i v cSro~n
r tila llropcrty h i t to tlic substt~tion is to bc ove~11e:id
i ~ n ~ l c r g r o u n\vlretlirr
d. a zinglc fccder systrm \~-illhe pr,>vi(iril,or \\-l~etllcr
a . Promas n.atrr (n.atcr used in the 1n'occss).
t w or liiore sources i11.c to he conncctrd. h singlr sopply fccder system
I,. I ' n m s cooling rvatcr. is 1 - 1 1 1 I I t i l l be I - i l l . I n r w t a i l ~arcas snl~jtwtt o ievcrc
c. Sirnit:~rywater (tl~iai l l l h t he 11otiih1~ \ \ R I ~ c ~ I.
:~tinr,>plioricclwtril,ul disturlxinccs. Ilowevcr. p n . i , r fnilr~rofr<qui.r~cyis
d . Gtility water (n-ntcr 11wd for general clr;uiing and n~iseclluneous :I s r ~ r i ~pr~il>lwil.
~w 'IYic ~ I O T T s- ~~ ~~ p p l i m
c ra y he :t11Ic to reduce f r q n e n ~ y
scrvirw I . r ~ r~ ~ r o l ~ d ~ iofl i E:lilure
ty by ridding one or nlorc n(lditiuni11 frciicrs pro-
e , S ~ V X IgIrIn w : ~ t i o ~IIII:L~XYI~I
l \\-:it~rfor l x ~ i l e r . ~ ) vi~linypo~~-\-rr i r i ~ ~nnd i f f w n t dirrction. Pa>t I~istrlryof p o ~ fr; i i I ~ r e z
f. Fire protect,ion x u t e r . !l!:r)- 111. !I?tcr~nini'd1'1.~1111tlw s ~ ~ p l ~ l i r~r ~ ' st w r or
~ lfro111
s 11t11wli1(.:11IIWS.
g . \Vnter f o r constvnetii~nu j i Iqu:intitic:: of conbtru~.tionn-ntrr dcpcIId 'I'hr . q i l l l i r r I I I U ~:?Is0 Iw givrm, 11s c w l y :IS l ~ r ~ s s i l ~t l eh, ,late I V I I ~ I L
on type of l ~ r o j r o t nu11111cr
, of construotii~nc~i~ploy(,cs, :mil the lcligtll 01 t l ~ c111:1nt xill start opcr;~tionI I ~\vl~enl m w r will be required. Ii tclu-
the cor~structiouperiod). porary power is t o 11c provi~leilfor construction uses. i l ~ cnecessary nr-
JTater f o r process cooling, sanitary nse, and steam generation must be r m g e m r n t s for inrtnllation ~ l ~ o u l be r l made early. Poor electric utility
che~iiicallypure or trcatcd t o thc extr.nt rrquircd for the pror.ct:s. T h c - . m i c e or n rrrord of high frequency of porwr failures ninst be considered
source of r a t e r supply m a y be fro111 *trennr he& or other natural Water n.l~enparts of the process becon~ehaanrdous under power inilurc condi-
provided turbidity and scdiulcntation is not excessive. Brackizl~ tions. I n certain processes many prime movers must be provided ~ v i t l ~
or ~ 3 1 t\\-ater is oftt.n I I S ~ ,f~o r vmiling, l x ~ tc:rrefnl selection of the 1u:ltc- spare steam rlrivrrr for safety reasons. I n a major installation t l ~ c
rials uf construction is necessary in order t o 11revent corrosion and ilrq~licatimof drivers inay he rostly.
de~m?its. Small paclc:~gr-typcstennl .rcenerntors are nsnally nmrr i ' r o n n n ~ i r ~t hl : ~ n
30 Project Engineering of Process Plants Preliminary Dato for Construction Projects 31
iliary pressure vessel or capacity t a n k since the system ~ h o u l dprovide
tlie required capacity. Pressures above 30 t o 40 psig for plant fuel syp-
tenis are unnecessary. Csually gas supply pipeline prrssurcs arc much
ahol-e this rang?. Ordinarily the prohlcui is more one of reduring pipeline
prc.;.ttres ti] range.; suitable for plant services. For this reason thi, clue.-
tion of supply pressure should he dieruseed as early as possible. If the
FTELSOI.HCK.:H gas is to he used primarily ior fuel, a slipply line pressure range frmu
T h e selection of the ty11c of fuel d r p m ~ l son heating value and scllinp 50 to 75 psig should be sufficient ti1 allow for plant surges ~ v i t hadequate
price aud i~ elusely rrlatc,,I to tile rconomics of purcliaml 11o~r-1.r.S m i e of i~pstrcaltipressure for satisf:rctory control and capacity in tlw l ~ l a n tfuel
tlte sources are: ( 1 I Kntural gns; ( 2 ) fuel oils and liquefier1 petrolcum systeni, Pressures a t thc point of usage are ordinarily in tlic range of
gas; (3) c o d 11s (1t11er si liil fuels; (41 plant n-astes. 20 to 30 psig, and ;ire l o ~ ~ - for e r hurncr headers.
Snturirl gas is often user1 as a raw material in certain proceiscs. \T-hcn Fiiel oils arc usunlly drlirered by railroad tank car or uiotor tank
tllc process requires naturai gas as a raw material, gas is also used as [llallt trurk. Facilities for storage of the liquid fuel niurt be providctl. l:su>rIl>-
fuel. S m i e oi the plant uses oi gas arc as fucl for priule mol-ers such heating iurtst he provided for unloading. Tliis is more fully disrlissctl in
as large internal cmnbuation engine-driven compressors or gas turbinrs. Chapter 21. I n the preliminary survey, thought should be givcn to proper
fucl for steam gmer;rtiou, engine iuel for el~,ctriralgcnernturs, ;md for location of railroad or truck unli~a~ling p i n t so t h a t tlie initial p l m t
produrtim of inert gases fur purging or blanketing srrvices. \\-hen arraugrnicnt stluli(.s vill inrhldc this facility.
natural gab il to 11e porcl~asedit is important to ohtaiti d ; ~ t aon tllc snpl~ly IiqlieJied petvoieii~~i yrrses or gases held in a liquid stnte arc t ~ c ~ o m i n g
pressure and an :inalysis i1f the g,zs as 17-rll as a guarantee of its coniposi- a n iml~ortantsourrc of foe1 for donic.stic llcating in some arras, Iioi\cv~.r.
tion or the liluits of v a r i a t i ~ ~ n .Xatural gas in solnc areas is \vet or tlicir. usc as indu.;trial furls is still souicwl~atlimited. If the p1;tnt is
carries a certain nui,)unt of condmsatc. If such is the case. n trill> sl10111d small, this type fucl may he used to an arlwntage for i.datctl huililing
be provided near its entrance to the property. I t uiust he decided and hating.
clearly pointed out in thc mntract for supply. rvl~icliparty shall furnisll Coal is not ordinarily used as a plant fuel fur t l ~ cprocess plant : h o w
the t r a p and ~vliercthe responsibility for drainage of the t r a p d l lie, i.c.. r r e r , coal may 11e used ns a powr-generating fuel if the projcct is located
~ v i t htlir rupplicr or. tlie ~ I I I T C ~ I ~ S \Vhilc
P~, rrrtain of the liquid tuatcrials in a r.oal producing area 01. if other iucls pr11vc uncconoulical. Neressary
n-ill immediately ev;rporatc upon dischargr, other coti~poncnts~ u n yre111aiu facilities ~vould)Jc require<l f(1r unloading. storage, and l ~ a t ~ l l i n g .h
iu a liquid state producing ;r l~azard. I n conge-tcd iudustrial a r e w the nuuilwr oi solid fuels other tlian coal exist; liowever, t l ~ r i ruse ~vuuld
ilrninagc o i trapped r,indcnsate from natural gas can hecome a i,onsirler- proh:il~ly rcquirc f i i d i t i ~ ssiiuilar to that for coal handling.
able prohlem. LTnless there r ~ d he l some process use of these liquids it is Plnnt imstes are oftell an ilnpi1rtaut s w r c r of fnrl. Their availnhiliiy.
hrttcr to insist on a dry gas, furnislicd at a certain prrssurc a t the user'; of cuursc, dcpcn~lsupon the 1,rocess. If plant wa.stc? ~ u a yhe h r n e d as
meter. iuel, the prohlmm of waste disposal may he airnplified. Plant wnstc.; tl~itt
T l ~ cpurcliaser lnr~st also ascertain precisely where tllc natural gas arc to t ~ eintcrtuittent,ly ~ l s e das fuel lllay 1)r0dwc a storirgc proI)1?1u.
pipeline ~ i i m l t r r t h r property and decide which party shall supply the
turter, the primary device, thc meter house, valving arrangetnent, and tlie Product a n d R a w M a t e r i a l Transportalion a n d Sforage
pipiug acwssories. The a h u w suggestions are for supply services in the T h r p r ~ ~ l i ~ u i n adata
r y roncerning plant terrain iuay 1r:rvr ronsiclcral~lc
order oi niillions of c u l ~ i rfeet. They are not of itnlmrtnnce for wuall eff'ect on tllc 111c;ltionof w(,h iacilitiw ns ailr road unloa(ling and loading
installations ~ v i t hservice connections perhaps of 3"-pipe aim or less. points, and packaging and storage facilities. C:rrtain plant. l o c n t ~ don
Ho~T-ever,it sliould always be clearly understood which party supplier sIq>iug s i t e h a w the liquid pr~lrluetsturagc :~rriingc~l so that ;ill lilading
and installs the equipn~cnt. is hy gravity. T h e location of st,,ragr puints for hazarrlous prwlurtr tilust,
\Then the final c i ~ n t r a r tis entered into with the supplier a drawing Ile rarefully (,ousi(lrred since in order Lu m c ~ ts;tfct:- r~y~tirrtnerrts :tdd-
should be prepared locating the cmnccting point of tile owner's piping tional :rrre;lgi, nray be rerluircd
and showing the type flange, valve, joint, etc. to which plant piping will It i s vcry import;lnt to dcterniiuc the dcgrw oi intcrpl:mt tran?lwrt:i-
he connected. Tlicre data should be given the l~urchaserby the supplier. tion : ~ n dthe storage ~cquireulentsbeeituse uf their effect on plant nower
Natural gas supplicd by pipeline ~villnot ordinarily require auy aux- rc(lr~ireliietits.
Project Engineering of Process Plants Preliminary Data for Construction Projects 33
32
Ran. r ~ ~ n t e r i a so~iietinies
ls enter plant;. and prodncts Icavc the ~rl:irit lierioil of crcrtiulr. Tlw iollon.iug il;ltn I U I I \ ~ I E IICCUIIIIII:I~(YI :IS I Y L I . I ~
hy pipeline. TVherever any piping enters or learrs the plant the cxact possible.
p i n t s should he determined a;. early as possible si1 that interference ~r-itll Labor
{plant f:~ciliticscan be ax-aided.
o. Awn I\-RP(, rates, trade union rontrarts in forw and ~spirntirm
Procurement D a t a ,I:~tw.:IIUI:~v:iilxl~iliry o f lo1,:11~killml~ , r : ~ f t w r e n
Prelilninary data :~ffectlngprorurcnlrnt arc: 11. Tr:~ilcu~iionrr,lm,wltnlii~n:nanlr-.. ;i~idrc.ss~s of all 111c:il or arcn
~lriiolibrwinc.s :tgmts.
1. Earlicat date xlren inaterials rliay hc rrwivcil a t jdliite. r . Otliw project.: planned in area nrld times of peak erup1<1ymrnt.
2. R w i c nl;1terials r ~ fmn.4ruction :rv;~iI;il~lcin a r c > . (1. I-niou permit.-if ~,onstructionpersnnncl arc t o be lnmugl~t into
3. Connecting r;lilru;i~isand nearwt sn-itch pi,int, councrting i n scrvi11n r l tllcil. work 11y ngrce1111wt I 'I~I(...,.
:trr:\. ~ruiiln) r e m i t s rll~litI)? ~ h t a i ~ l efor
motor truck lines. ::re usunlly n w r r ~ : ~ ~ m p l e tsatisfied
ely but sliould be a t t e m p t c d ~
4. Slain iligil\r-ny locatime. c. .lr:<ilability of personnel hou,qing-this will he rr.?olscd if joh is
5 . 1,ocatioil of ncnr<,fr rnt:lrol111litan :irc:~ near a large n w t r ~ ~ p o l i t narea.
n
6. Types of industrial equipnlent u-.e;~hlein l ~ l a n tcrr~,tion:~ruilahlc f . Food and recreation facilities available.
in tile imnlediate nrca. g. .tIcilical facilities and special cliniat~csondition~11-llich n1:ly affrct
7. Types of industrial drops in the immediate area suitable for repair persnnnc,l (most illqjul.tant on foreign project ~ o r k )
ur maintenance or 1,arts snl~plyf , ~ construction
r ~~pipuient. It. ;\rca practices-these qur.stim; may nevrr he r o l n p l r t ~ l y:~nsxcred
8. Storage space and itorage area fur plant e q r i i p c n t and c o n ~ t r w - since lal~urpractices vary c o n d c r a h l y . See Cliapter 25.
timi material. i. Transportation rrquircd by certain liersonnel-some crafts requirc
9, is intimately related to jirojcct t h a t transportation be furnisllcd or require a n allnwinee inr trarel time
Pr~~cureluent, as diicussed in
~ o n l e ~ ~ lsimilar
lat to portal-to-portal lmy.
xlleduliug and planning (Chapter 7 ) . Tllc procurement org:illiaation
j. Ci~nstructionpcrs(1nnc1 parking facilities-if erection is to take place
will be rrlort concerned with plant equipn~cntand construction material
n-ithin an ol~cratingplant nud constructi~~n employers muat l c a w their
transportation. The nietllotls of tmnapurtation, t i n ~ erequired, ireiglii
o w transpilrtation at the plant gat?, it is someti~nrsnecessary to rea,,li
rates, constru~tionlunterinl, storage facilities ( a t the jobsite), field fub-
;in :tgrcmunt 1%-it11ihc ovncr on p r k i n g facilities. T h e rpwtion nray
rir;rtioii r ~ f certain parts of the equipmtmt, and delirery data all affect
souictirr:es be r e s d r c d by pn~vidinga parking area for construction per-
~ x w u r e m e n t . Transportation and jol~site storage l m s t seriously affect
sonutal witl~inthe plant. These points must be completely underito~l,l
prelinlinary procurcmerrt planning or sclleduling.
~ r c v i o i l rto start of work.
Tlir most vital question in procurenlcnt is a h - n y s iklirery or deliver?
k . ('haugc aud sanitary f:rcilitics for construction prrsonncl-it is he-
dates. A 11rojcot a t a reiuote locntion with a possible tmnsportation tinic
of mie ulor~tli\,-ill require all scheduling t o iuclude t11k t r a w l tiluc. Arnil- mining colnmon 1mcticc for r m i t r u c t i m pers,mnr.l to h a w sllecific spnc~,
:~llotti.~l for tllcm to change elotlling. This may require constructiorl of ;l
nhility of con11non materials in the :rrr3;t uf construction tlrgethcr wit11
11rice data rnust he ascertxinetl. Price differentials may ~ v a r r a n ttlrc pro- t t w l ~ u r a r ybuilding. F::nitary faci1itit.s of course innst 11c proviile~lcnrly
in I r c t If plant farilitit.~exist, the offlier sliould nralie imilities
curing 11f a large pcrrmtage of materials locxlly and thus jlistify a lo(':ll
av:iilable.
procurenlcut ol~emtion. Certain materials such as ready-illisid cr~ncrctv
1. C,~ustructionpersonnel identification-on rertain work, pliotogrnpili
or t l ~ enratcrinls required for concretc art. aln-ays l,urelln-id locally on
rind finger-l~rilltsmay be re([uired. Badges arc usually required. JVllen
~louicsti~. ~wojcctr. Sourws of supply ;tnd )".ices for t l ~ e a r~lr;itrri:ll- illllit,
lw :iscc~~~t:ri~~wl :ls :I 11:~rtof l,rrlin~ir~::ry~ u ] , v v y<liit:~. 1.uvtil .-:~ler t : ~ s m work i. to he ilow in all existing pl;tnt, a11 ovner'a requirements must, i ~ c
detennine~l.
uluy atiect price and, tl~ereiurr,nlust be cunsidered ill t11v s u r v ~ ~ y .
nl. Location of construction material and plant material and equip-
Construction D a t a r w n t storage areil-the location often seriously afi'rcts jurisdictional
All collt;trur.tion pllase> are rtfferttd lly locill wm,litii,w sil~cctlw con- ~jroblemsill unloading. transporting, and the handling of materials. Tlic
d t , c t i o n uf the storage area, tlleref~~ri,, aside fro111the best location for
struction orgn~iisationulrrst beco~ne:L liiirt of the locale for the x11ole
34 Project Engineering of Process Plants Preliminary Data for Construction Projects 35
Permits
Construction Interference
T l ~ rcrrction of plantu in foreign countrirs. d i e r e most of the equip-
Tlirse questions arc not usually as iniport:rnt for a complete p r l ~ j e r tas ment ur ni:rterial n-ill 1x2 r n n n u f i ~ ~ ~ t u rine dthe Irnited State?. require?
for \ \ - , I I ' ~ \vitiiin a n ol~erntingplant. certain overall per~liitsor licenses in order to export the various i t e m from
C)~KHIIE.ID OR VSDER(:HOISDELECTRICAL ~'OS'ER LISES. Location, height tlw T~-niteiilit:it?s zn(l wuiilly import perniits or licenses in nrrler to move
ahovt! ground, depth lielow ground, voltages, source of power, area sup- the equipment inti^ tlie rountry ~vlierethe plant is to be erected If tlic
plied, uwier or o p w a t ~ ~nearest r, srrit~,lipointfor q~cnirigcircuit ~ i u he d countr?. is l:rnriln~~kccl; ~ n dsl~ipnimt; riiurt move through an adjacent,
deternlineii. If guy derrick is used, ~villguys clear cal~les? Location of rountr)-, crrtain ]lcrniits for i n - t r a n ~ i tsliipn~entswill he requirrd
dea~l~nen. A nunil~cr of niatcrials have heen classified by I1.S. (:ovcmnient;d
O V E H H EOH . ~ L~SIIERGROGTD P I P I X ASII SEVERS. i)cterlnine location. ;~gcmcie~ as critical to the national economy. Explicit permits niust be
size, e t ~ , . Existing 11iping in tlie operating plant is often a sourre of con- ubtaincd to move these n~atcrialsout of the U.S..4. Tlie destination and
sillerablc extra cost to tlie cmstructor of the nen- facilities. ~ ~ ~ 1 11hllt.~ 11y uzr of s ~ i c ln~atcrials
~ nffcct the granting of exl~ortpcruiit;. (:11n111lctt!
( l u not I I R V ~ ,exact or reliallle rerurdt; of the locntious of underground lines. lists of all critical materials: tlie applicable rcstrictims on destinatiou
Tlie resl~onsibilityfor removal of such lines should he establialied. and explanations of the ncecssary procctiurcs are available from the U.S.
PLAST HAZARDS.I n many operating plants nliere work is being per- Government Printing Ofice.
f ~ ~ n n obnoxiousc~l or llazardous vapors or funies may be relrased I n An :~pl~lieationt o the 1J.S. Government for a n expmt license niust
smne cases work may I I con~pletcly ~ stopped until the condition is cleared. ~ ~ l j u a l be
l y accompanied hy a complete listing uf all materials aud equip-
Tlie r1~s11onsihilit,~ for costs of unprc~ductivelabor during such periods ~rleritc , , ~ n p o n m tusrd
s in such equil~mcnt,together ~ ~ i t w 1 1i g h t or v1111uue
shoul(l be understood. Often serious restrictions exist on f l a ~ n ccutting ( a s required] and dollar valuc for each item. A numericnl and alpha-
or n-elding or the use of any open fire on tile premises. I t niust t ~ edeter- hetical designation has been rleveloped fur mrious items. ~vliichdesigna-
niined if any s u ~ , rrstrictionsl~ trill be in force. I n many h y ~ l r m a r l ~ c ~ ~ i tion must he u w l in l ~ r e p ~ r i ntheg lists. The d ~ i p p i n gdates by yearly
psoceljuing pl:ints and other plants processing hazardous n~aterialsall quarters must also be included. I,ater, as shipnicuts proceed tlie specific
niatcl~csand pocket lighters must 11e left a t tlie plnut gate. Smoking items must again be listed for each shipment anti checked off the rn:ister
arras niay 11e ~lesignatetlor snoking may h r permittril in runstrurtior~ list.
~ ~ e r s m n i cliangc
cl liouses. The preparation of the detailed lists is ro~newliatsimplified hy the in-
K ~ c m v r r .ANII ~ ; H . ~ D L I S OF
G P I A EQUIPMENT.
~ If the \ w r k is ill a n tent of the governmental control, which is more con~wmedr7-it11 runxinunns
ol~erntirigplant, tlic owner niay require rert,airl periuita or receiving pro- than ~ i t preciseh or exact evaluations. Care must he taken, ho\wver, to
cedures for material or e q u i p l e n t delivered L I rail ~ or truck. Permits account accurately for items as they are sl~ippcd. Since export license
niay be required for trucks or cars leaving tlie plant. If all materials restrictiom change frequently, i t is mandatory that each issue of all ap-
are received by the owner, the responsibility for the diipnient, proper plicahle govcrnmcntal publications offered by the various agencies be
accounting, Iiandling, and delivery a t the construction site 111ust he deter- c:lrefully slutlied.
mined and clearly understood. The data necessary to meet the cxpurt license requirements 1\41 only
K A I L ~ A ASD Y H I , ; H ~ A YCONSECTIOSS. Exact loeati~lls shouki be t,ent:itirely permit sl~ipnient. All itenis shipped niust be arcomp:rnic(l
determined for p ~ ~ s s i h lpersonnel e transportation use. T h e handling of in dctnil by the standard export documentation to meet 1 - 3 custonis ant!
plant and construction materials is greatly simplified by laying a spur sllipping rerpiretuents. l\Iwemcnt of shipments: t o dr~ckside. Ti-arr-
railroad track directly into the plant frum the ncarest railroad. housing, lighterage, and handling and preparation of h i p p i n g documents
36 Project Engineering of Process Planrs Preliminary Data for Construction Projects 37
arc ea~.lrspecialized fuiictiuns requiring ronridcrabl(: expcricnu!. 'rllc5c or 120 ?u i t , Iim\-n'<>r,:11i<I011 ~ I I I ,cul)i~,11:isis tlit, ircight vill lw l12~1/401
are lxst I~an,llt.<lby firills knor~-nas freight for\\-:irder~ or for\!-nrclin:: x $30.00 or $90.00. SIialw also usually affects the freight a-scszrntnt.
ngrurs. Such firms 11-ill un~lertakctlic coinplcte handling of all h i l ~ i ~ i c n t - , .\ssunie that the above pill^ is fabricated as a n ~ I ~ J I I \ 11-itI1I - t\vo 15-ft icy..
i~icludingshipping notifications t o vendors. c o n ~ ~ ~ l e t iof o ntraffic agrcc- ( ' ~ i l ~ imeasurenient
c ~I-illthen he 15 X 1,5 X 2 or 450 IYI i t n-it11 freight
1111.nt~\-itllil~~mesticr:irricrs. and the p r c p a l ~ i t i mof stand;iril ilocu~iit~iits ;i~scsscda t $337.50. Thi. is admittedly a n cxtreiric condition. C'lwc
for a very small fee. This fcc may be as little as ?b of IT;, of tlic rleclnrcd :tttcntion nwuld have to bc given t o sliapcs and ~ ~ c i g l i t ifs . this rntiirg
cxp'rt value of tlic sliil~inent. -1s :I iiii~tter01 fact. in inany of tlrr large i tinsis Iiappciic(I to Ile in effect.
L.S. llort. it is prilcti~.allyiillljossil~lcor a t lcart complctcl?- ilnl1r:lctic:ll. It is oftrn lii~szil~lc tu n w t materials. or paclingr ~linteri;ll~ to nlaxiuiizi
to lianrlle export slripuients in any other way. Furtlierinore, the rlu:lri- I the x~wiglitper unit voluiiic v h c n cubic meaiuretnmt governs r.o.>t. 'i'lic
tities of iiiatcriais or tlic number of s h i ~ ~ m c nxliirh
ts n.oulrl he uccesm'y above 24-in. pipe, for inst:~ncc: could he made to carry considcrablr 1111-
for ;i project xill rcquin: ;I fairly large orgniiizatirin of cslierienr~rlPer- ditional ~\-cigllthy plnl.ing s~nallcrcliametcr pip? inside ti113 large j~ipc.
.onncl to lian~llethe innlunerable shipping problems. T l ~ u .it, ~ i. ~~-il:tlly ! If uiaterials arc to 11e crated or lmckageri, by packing rclatiwly light
justifinblr to retain a fir111cxpcrimccd in tliis ivork. ~n;itcrial-. slrcli as in>olation. together x i t h h(,avy ~iiatcri;rl-. >11cl1:Is
luosc pilw filtingh, the ruliage can be made to appro:xh its freight n-eight
Planning Export Shipping r ~ t i n g . (:oniinudity Cln.4fication R a t r s 111ust Ire r;ircfully studied il:
The n:;ij~~rcost. in cxlxlrt diipping is orean frcigllt, n-l~iclris mted by iuclr t.arc,s. Ccl,taiii co~niiioditiesrequire a Iiiglicr rate hecamc of 11ccu-
the ton or hy cubic uieasurement. usually 40 cu ft. ~vliicliewris greater. liaritics of s t w l g e or liandling. h llnckage or cr:itc containing a iiighcr
The ti111uscel ilia>- be tlie short ton (2000 111'1, the long ton. 2240 lb or tire rate coiiiiliodiiy m:1y cause a n i n c r r n ~ cin basil. i r c i ~ l i tr;:t(, r v m t l r ~ ~ i g l i
metric ton 12204.6 l l ~ j . \\-eights may Ilc based on gross. l~ackagedTI-cigllt, the iiiajor 11ortion of tlie contents n.oulil ~irilin:iri\ytr:ivel :it a l i n w rntr.
or net n-eight, drpmtling upon destination. .\kn>urrii parkaged din~cn- h,lditional dock and lighterage diarges called licavy hit cli;u'ge. nrv
1
sions arc o v r a l l ~ncawrcmentstaken a t right angles m l y . Requirements :iplllied to single sliipments if the xcight cxccerlr a errtain liniit. These
for ~ w i g l i t sand nieasurement vary x i t h tlie intc.mati~~nal nrc:i served. clinrgcs c:ui beconic a considerable portion of t l ~ ccr~strequired for ccjuill-
uild luiiy also r a r y rvitli the carrier, tlie coii~iiiodity,or t l ~ ccs111irt agree- ~ n c n ttr~11qiol.ta t'lon.
u~ent. All charges d r ~ ~ u lhe d carefully ascertaineri hut11 for the priirii~ryU.S.
The forwarding agcnt cnn usually save tlie shipper his fcc many tilncs llort (or docki and for the receiving dock a t the dcstiniition. h funotioii
overl hy tiluely adricc on tlic pcculiaritics of the a s s t ~ s ~ m e noft ocean of the for\\--arclingagcnt is t o warn thc sliil~perof tliest, costs and 11rohlcrn~
frcight rliargcs. JTllilc oceiui freight rates for all areas li:%vchecn set in :ind wl~erc~ ~ o s s i b ltoe effect savings. T h e forn-arcling agent. Iio~\-c\-cr,
certain international agreements, tlie area into ~ ~ l i i cshipment il
:nnrlc should 11c investigated thoroughly. The standard rate?, roinmodity
is t o ilc iI cnu do little wit11 a piece of cquilnnent after it is fal~ricatcri. Thus these
limitations should he considered in planning initial design.
limits, tlic stcamsllip linei serving the xrca, awl partirnlar rer~uirt~ll1ents T~.:iveltilue is a i i ~ i s tiniport,ant factor in foreigi i q x s n t i ~ ~ nsin(%'
s , this
of the nwa ~ I i ~ ~hci lconsidcrcd.
d tinic must he adrlcd to tlic deliwry tiine prinuiscil tiy vendors or fahrica-
Alarinc sclicdulrs arc subject, to seasonal riiangcs ]~roriliceliby cargir tors so t h a t cquip~nrnt\\-ill arrive on schc~lulc. A roulplcte study sl11111ld
requirc~ncnts. Tlic mariue sailing datc, exccpt for ecrtain Iiasscngcr I,? niacle of marint, freight carriers serl:ing the entry-port, and averagc
liners, is usually a t c n t a t i x one. Hcrc :~l,sotlic forn-nrding agent can travel tiuic. devclo~~rcl.It will oniinarily he n~lvantagcoust o utilize :I
save tlie siiip~ierexpense hy holding h i c k heavy piwcx I I cquipii~ent ~ and siiigle stcamship line. Frciglit agrccuients iiiay bc rearlie11 and rnore
aroiding e x t r a ~ ~ n l i n a rdock
y or liglrtrrngc clmrgcs caused by early reccillt i pref~~rciitial liandliiig may be ohtaincd.
of tlir equipment. Marine fwight carrirrr usually do not follow a definite iisrd echedule
As a simple illustration of possible occan freight chzrgcs, a s s ~ i n ct h t throughout the year. The schedule may vary from 11ort to port according
a section of 24-in. pipe 30 it in length, weighing 3000 lb is to ile sliil~ped. to cargo and loading. If a singlc carrier is rclccted it inn? be possible to
Rates are t o he a s s e ~ s e ~on l weight or cubic mcasurc~nerlt,11.1iicli~v1~ is ~ o r kout definite srlicrlules so t h a t narchousing end storage costs arc
greater. Assmuc the base rate for this coinii~odityto IIC 530.00 I I C ~toll rcduced. Forewarning of the shipment of pieres ni equijr~rrcntwith es-
12000 1111 per 40 r n f t (r~liiclicvcris g r c : ~ t ~ r l .TI:? irc~iglit will 111, tr;iur<li~~ary ~ ~ ~ Ix givm to tl>,>c:irrit,r it$ 1,:kriy
1vciKIlt or d i u i e i i s i , ~sliuul,~
11.! X $30.00 or $45.00 1111 a weight basis. The cubagv xill 11t. 2 X 2 X 30 ;la Ij~issibleso tlint sli:ivc can l ~ cp~,ovirlc,lfur the diipnirnt.
38 Project Engineering of Process Plants i Preliminary Data for Construction Projects 39
T h e capacities of the serving rail systenis, incluilirig tlw type of rnllirig
Export Packing stork and operating srlirvlules s l ~ o u l ~bel inwstig:ite~i. In soiur of t l ~ c
Prrrautions should he taken to protect equipn~ent being s11ipl)ed to w n l l e r countries, sliip~ncnts of heavy industrial e r u i ~ n i e ~may t be
trol~icalrwuntries against exposure in sbiptnent, or during its dorage .ser.i,111,~1ycielapd due tn the 1a1.k of propel. r.ar.- t o 1i;inillr p n r t i r ~ ~ l a r
~wiilrto prcction. .1nunit~erof plastic (non-honding) materials d i i c h are l<la<ls.
easily reinored arc a n i l a b l e for coating rt~ccl~anical
working parts, or Man!: foreign railroad s y s t c m are n:irrnn.-gage. Hail car sizes. and all
inacliined surfaces during shipwmt. liinitations on size or w i g h t orer the particular route ninst he ol~tainetl.
There i> considerable argument for and against extensive export prep- If the service is orer a narnlwgage carrier, dimmsii~n;illimitations wili
:iratim or packaging. If tlie shipment is to be unloadcd essentially a t thc seri(lusly affect the size of fabricated equipt~ient. This inforination niuit
jobsite nnil ~5-ouldthus 11e transferred itntnediately fro111 tlie original be available early in the project so that manufacturers and fnhricat~~rs
rarricr (sliil~lto the oxyner or erector, there would be little nced for any can be instructed by specification and rlra1~-ingr. Size limitations often
prep:rratii~n otlier than the nurlnal shipping precautions. If, however, require partial fabricatio11 of major equipli~clitwith final fabrieatioii at
tlir j h i t c or erertion point is inland and subject to arl~litionnlcarriers, the johsite by the construction forces. \VIien this proccdurc iv required,
lay-mers in foreign freight yards, or open sidings, the matter of pilferage the necessary tools and the particular type of skilled personnel will h a r e
may beconic serious. This is particularly trur in some of tlie Inore prinli- to be provided.
ti\-(, countries. It \~oulilappear iinpractical to assume that dolnestir. I h c h tilnc a picre of heavy equipment is loarlcrl or unlowderl labor and
lirepiration. which is usually tlic absolute minimuni, can suffice in all lifting equipment time is expended. Rail connections dirwtly into the
~,;t-cs. Crrt;iinly s~liallloose pasts sliould always be consolidated into project site providc the least expensive method of transportation. The
larger crates or packages. For this reason it is often desirable to retain I
I preliminary survey sliould determine rail connections nearest the jobsite
a ~varchousingor export packaging cotnpany a t a cnnsoliriation ylint. and obtain necessary permits for extension of a spur track into tile plant.
Tllese firnis also should assist the owner in avoiding heavy lift charges Obtaining pcr~nitsto connect t o a railroad in a foreign country can br-
m i l nlultiplc consolidations of cori~~nodities where a higher tariff due t o come a time-consunling operation. Negotiations shwild he started as
one of the coil~nir~dities will alrply. early as possible. Track equipment in the more primitive countries is
often scarce. The erector will probably save timc and costs by furnisli-
Planning Freight Movement within Foreign Country ing the necessary switch, frog rail, and other appurtenances for the con-
I n osdcr to develop litnitations in equipn~cntsize or wiglit, this 1"''-
liniinwry sun-ey d ~ o u l dinclude an investigation of a11 tlie foreign railroad
and seaport facilities. The installations a t the initial port-of-entry of
! nectinn (mil past the sx~itchor turn-out may be second-hand). Turn-out
specifications and rail u.eights must be ~ ~ b t a i n esince
tl the frog, lea&rail:
and switch-block are often eloscly specified. Railroad specifications and
first foreign destination should be thoroughly inspected tu deterinirle !
corirtruction rnethods are more fully discussed in Chapters 21 and 25.
(locking capacity. tlie eapacitics of cranes or lifting equipmmt, storage If rail facilities do not exist, tlie erector m d l have tu pruvide tlic iiccca-
or n-arrl~ousespare, and the degree of protection afforded. Dock, storage, i sary trucking and lifting equipment and j~erbaprprepare roadvays out-
and handling charges sl~oulclbc ascertained. I t is often necessary t o side tile plant. The so-called low-boy, a ~nuItiple-~~lieele(~ loir--b~~dicd
liroviilc l~ersnnnelat the port-of-entry to process documentation and t o
insure that the shipn~entswill be properly llandled and expedited to tlic
jnilsite. 1
I
dray. nlay be obtained for alu~ostunliniited caparities; I~owever.studies of
t,he heavier pieces of perinanent plant equipment a h ~ ~ u be l d made. Rcduc-
t i m in fnbrirated sizes will enable r e d ~ i r t i min transportation rqnipmmt,
Direct rail connections a t the entry-port will utiually eliminate addi-
tional handling nnd storage costs since heavy shipments can be unloaded
by ship's tackle dirrctly onto railroad cars. Railroad freight rates, routes,
i size
Manufacluring Cost
The total mnnufacturing cost can be estimnted ns suggested liy Dybclal'
and as outlined in Fig. 4-3. I t is the sum of labor: orerhcad, fixed cliarges
and maintenance, raw lnaterials, utilities, laboratory expenses, and royal-
tics. JIultipliers for obt,aining the annual fixed chnrgcs plus maintenance
:lnd tlie general orerliead arc given in Fig. 4-3. Where nossible liowever,
56 Project Engineering of Process Plants Process Engineering 57
rwnomic evaluation should supply tlie ini'ormation esrential for choosing artor 11c*.ig11 n-ithout cxcwsive experin~entati,m I n ~ n a n yri~scc:I I ~ T ~ - ~ ~ c L . ,
the unit operations required. Experimental ~ v o r ki i nut a l ~ a con~~)lcte.
~ s the reactions are so complex that rational analysis hy the principles of
and tlie process design engineer must recognize any deficiencies V-Iiicli applied kinetics is too diffildt a t onr present state of knon.ledge. I n this
exist so that additional data can be requested. Plants have been designed case. the empirical pilot plant procedure must be used, in \vhich the
and built bawd on experimental data for production of a new product, optimum operating conditions are determined by a planned experimmta-
but without data for t!ie purification of this product. T h r pnrification tion program requiring many hundrrds of runs; and. tl~crcfore,consirier-
operations ~ l i i r l in-ere designed TI-ithout the benefit of lahorntory data able expense. The application of kinetics and ma.ss transfer theory in
proved inadequate and caused the entire operation to fail economically. pilot plant x~-orlisl~o~llil he a t t n n p t i ~ lwl~crercr possihle since it d l
Assuming there is ;rdequate inforn~ationtllc procer? engineer s1111ulil grc;ttly aid in limiting tlir n~nonntof E~lismian-typeinrestig:ition r r -
construct a schematic diagram in~lirating;ill the operation- required for quired.
the production of the dc~.&d ilnnntity and quality of finished prot1u1.t. .I large portion of the other unit operations equipment comn~only
Each of the unit opcrntions necessary may offer e r e r a l alteru:itcs fro111 eniployrd in process plants is in thr: second category. I t is not actually
an economic st:rndpoint. l\Iaterial an11 energy halances around each unit designed hy the 11rucess ~wginccraltl~oughkno\vledge of the theory rr-
should then IIP ina~le:in11 the results recorded in an orderly fashion s r ~ lated t o each item of equipment is extrcn~elyhelpi~rl. Itrnrs such as
that they may he used for the many ~lesigncalculations of individual screens, crusllers and grinders, classifiers. settler? and thickeners, pumps.
equipment itenis and fur the n-riting of specifications. Orderliness and romllressors, licat exchangel.s, filters. centrifuges, rr)-.4allizcrs, agitators
neatness are raluable x-irtucs in this T\-ork. Hnl-ing an easily understood and evaporators are a11 purchased from conipanies that, specialize in one
flow diagram and an accurate material energy bnlnncc early in the proc- or morr of t l ~ c r citems. Theory for the design of niost of this equipmmt
ess dcsign of a p1:int eliminate+ error and pcrmitr a numher of people t(, is vcry sparse and empiricism is the only guide. The proper selection of
work efficiently on vnriuus phases of tlie design. an agit,ator, for instance: must he entrusted to a rnanufacturcr who has
specialized in the building of agitators and has a considerable backlog of
Design Procedures experimental and actual operating data. The manufacturer can, hy ap-
The usual process design proreih~rrmight be srparated into tivo major plication uf the princ,iples of dimensional similitude, specify a large
diri~ions. The first inr-olres the actual design of equilment to be built agitator installation on the basis of tests n~arleon su~nlllaboratory equip-
to order. The se~.onrIc ~ l n ~ i sof
t s specifying the ollernting i:onclitions for ~ n e n t . Similar procedures are follo~vedby the manufacturers of filters.
st:indard manufactured cquipn~ent. I n tile first catcgury, there is e q u i p ilryers, centrifugals and other equipn~entof this type.
mcnt, such ns distillation t o ~ c r s absurl~ti<~n
, tolvrrs, adsorption and cx- The process engineer must be familiar with the n~etlmdsof selcctior~
traction units an11 reactors. Thoac items inrolviug niass transfer are used by tlie manufacturer so t l ~ a tthe operating specifications required
designed by calculating the iileal numhrr of stages or the nun~bcrof for each item of equipment ran be intelligently conil~ile~i.Then it will
equilibrium stages (in distillation this \vonld be tlic number of t r a y s ) . uot be necessary for tlie manufacturer t o carry on voluminous corrc-
The actual number of stages is then detern~incdby the application of spondcncc in order t o obtain additional facts required for the selection of
appropriate empirically d e t e r m i n ~ efficiencies.
~l the desired item. I n subsequent chapters information is giren t h a t d l
I n some cases it has been fuund illore desirable to e~nploya (IifYercntial aid in the selection of different types of cquipmcnt.
stage instead of an equilibrium stage and deterininc tile nun~l)crof trnns- I n specifying operating conditions for equipment or in the original
fcr units by an integration. The hright of a. triinsfer unit can he r s t i n ~ a t e ~ l design of process equipment: it is essential that the design engineer select
by certain grneralieed correlations. The design of packed colunnls is done the niaterials of construction. h-o one is more fa~niliarwith tlie process
in this manner. rhan the process engineer; and he, therefore, is in a farornblc positim t o
Reactors are designed by the apl~licationof clic~nicalkinctics as dcs- aid the mechanical designer in the intelligent specification of materials
cribed by Hougcn and Watson:l Rate equations art, determined from wliicli will resist corrusion and erosiun. There are many handy tables
experimental data, and empirical cunstants for the equations are rvalu- ~ ~ l i i ch ha r e been printed to aid in selection of a material of construction
ated. If the effect of temperature on these constants has been establislie~i, that d l resist the corrosion of a given substance. There tables arc in-
it is possible to calculate reactor sizes for a nmnber of assulned operating tended only as preliminary guidcs and extreme caution niust be eniployeil
~ n ~ l i t i ~ This
t ~ s tccl~~iic~uc
. cn:ll)les con~pI~,ti, w ~ ~ n i ~ l:tnalysis
nic of till. rr- in their use. Often a sligl~tchange in tcn~perntureconditions can cause
58 Project Engineering of Process Plants Process Engineering 59
a inctnl to corrode ~vhich~vouldordinarily withstand the attack of tlie :~ccumulatingoperating data. Such data siioi~ldnot just he placed in the
Hoi~lin question. Tlie study of corrosion is still largely elnpirical, and i t company files, hut it slionld he analyzed n.Ilile still "fresl?" a11d made a
is nut porsihlc for the average cngineer to k n o x the latest d e v c l ~ ~ p m e n t s definite part of tlir organization's operating experience.
since the wmhinatiorl of material:: and corroding agents is ahnost limit-
I This .suggests
~ - that for a11 bnt the zi~nplestcases a conipctent corro- SOURCES OF BASIC DATA
.ion cngineer should t ~ consulted.
r The excellent periodicals in the field
I n addition to the experiniental rlata in operating data nhirh arc uscil
\ d l also pro\-e liclpful.
in the design of equil~nient,a large amount of hitsic pliysiral an11 clieniical
.Is the design and selection of the prucess equip~nentis cninpleteil,
data are also reqnircrl. M a n y cnmpanies niaintain very cscellent rlata
specifications for each item should be sumlnarized in a n orderly fashion.
hooks in u41icli such data are accumul:ited and periodically rrviscd. A
U a n y organizations h a w developed f o r m for the various equipment
single ~lepartnlentis often charged u-it11 the full-time d u t y of maintaining
items. There insure neatness and also prevent tile engineer from over-
the data book. Tliuse engineer:: who do not h a r e such information avail-
looking somc important item of information. T h e con~pletedforms can
able ran aecuniulate data hy requesting reprints of basic infiirmatiim
be reproduced and distributed to other departments in the engineering
appenring in the literature and hy obtaining comldations of data that
organization for integration into the complete plant design. I n addition
have appeared through the years. Tllc following list 1.rpl.r.icnt.i soink'
t o these specifications, i t is desirable t o produce a final process flow
rec~~nnncnded conipilations of rlata which have proved useful and 11oplllnr
dingrani. This diagram slion-s all major items of equipment, gives ten>-
with practicing engineers. S o atteinpt has heen made to list the vast
p c r a t u r c , pressures, and H o i ~rates t~hroughoutall parts of the process.
anionnt of data t h a t has a l q ~ r a r c din the periodioal literature i:ir the rx-
Tlie diagram then bcco~iiesan invaluable aid t o specialists \vho murt
ccllcnt data that is pihlished I I ~n~nnufarturersof r a r i n w rllenlicnl
15-ork on the ~nechariicaldesign of tlic plant.
~voilucts. T h e list of referenres is not to be considrreii coniplcte, :in11the
T h e proress engineer should prepare a brief hut complete written de-
omission of certain material dues not necessarily indicate tllat it is not
scription of the operation of the plant. Such a description aids both man-
recomniended. Certain of these rcfercnces arc desirable as part of a
agement and all othcr engineers and draftsmen who must contribute t o
p c r s ~ ~ n alihrnry
l and are so indicated by a n asterisk, hut inany arc ex-
the finnl design. Distribution of this information, I I I I ~should ~ ~ ,be
pcnsir? and are best ~ i i a d ea p a r t of a company library fur general
made ~ v i t hcaution. IVorkers ~vitli incomplete background for under-
tedmical use.
standing of terhnical process data may misinterpret the information with
possihlc disastrous results.
" .
C. (!.. H o g c r s .lloriuol of Inriusfrinl CIw,,,i.i,y. 6th Xd.. T~iuSohtmnd
'li. F u r n : ~ ~
Co., 1-en l u r k (1042). Good de6~1'l/1lireidormiition on well-rsti~hli~l~d III.OI,PI*C-.
'18. Sax, X I . , Huridbor,i: of Dongei-our JIalei-inis, Keinlmld P ~ h l i r l i i n gCo., X C W
I-ork (196l).
:iwl P V T
1 . . h w 1 r q l ~ c ,1 ) i s l i l l ~ i l ~ ~P~,~uilil~ri,~xn.
~n.
C h , J u (:IUI,, K . J . ( ; ~ i t y .I.. 1'. I{rrnnw!w ;d It. h l l , ~ i . s ! i l l n f i r mEqliiIibiii!7n
Duta, K r i n l d d k'\hlishing Cu.. SCW Yolk (1050).
I)~.eishilrh, R. R., Prcs~u~~c-l'~,li~,t~~~-l'e~~,lprrntii,i. Kdolior~sliips uf O r g u i i i c
Cornvmnrls, 3rd Ed., Handbook Publishers I n e , Smalnsky, Ohio (1952).
Horsley, L. H., Ateolropic Data, American Chcmical Society, Washington, D.C.
(1952).
2. Fuels
P m - F b i c Goses, Amwican Gas Association, S e w Yo& (1941).
Gnwoira FacLv, American Gas .issoi:i;~tion X\:m- Yark (1918) 7. Solvcnls
S p i w s H . X , T d m i c d l l r ~ l o,,i F,trl, 5118 Pil., B r A 4 S ~ 1 i m : dColnn.. I V d d >li.llnn. I.. Inr/~i!rinlS o l ~ x n f sRcinhald
. Puhlishine Ca.. New Yark (19501.
I'oivvr ( ! o n i ~ w n ~ w .
London (1930). C!;hrifi,. v ; d i ~ z .Ir:inily i.li;~rlcand ld,lcs (01.
,,,:,,,y l?],,'< ,us [,,,,I>,
62 Project Engineering of Process Plants
Process Engineering 63
I,iotiiila. Eng. l?xp St;ttion Rullctin S o . 34. Louisiana Sttltc Univ.. I h t m Koog~.
,I!
3. Hnrrir. .I. \lr.;\.. J I - . Cltr.,,~.Eng. Prow,-., 4 $ , 333 (1848).
La. 119521.
4. Houg~n.0. :mil Ii. Xf. Watson. C l i i ~ n i c n lProcevs Pn'nciplrr, Vol. 111, ~ o h n
Striniioidi o! tiir l'zihalal. Ezehongcrs .lirn,ufuelureli. .4ssocinIion, 3rd Ed..
Kiev K- S m j . SPIT- I-ork.1947.
5. Long. If. J.. ('hrnt. Ertg.. G ,KO.6. 112 (1948).
6 . Sirliols, W.T., Inri. Eng. Chem., $3. 2295 (l!El).
7 "P~.oce?sEquipnlmt Estinrnlion," R ~ p o r tCIi<m. E o g , jj. S o . 5 , 103 (1947).
8. Sleveni. R. Q., C h r m Elrg., i;,KO. 10. 121 11947).
l i m n a n . J . 11.. mil J . Iiayc, T h r ~ m o d l , , m m i c P ~ m p c r t i wo j Air, John Wiles &
9, Killianrs. R.. Jr.. Chem. Eng., 64,KO.12. 124 (194;).
Sons. Inc.. S r w Yolk 11915)
10. Zirn~tiw~n:m. 0. T.. :mi I. Lnvinc, (~hemicr,l Enwin<v,.ing Erpip,n<rtL Cost,s,
*limnan. J . H . I . . Kryrs. ?'h<,i,nr~riii,in,,iic Piopeiliea of S i ~ n r n ,Jolm Lndustrial Kcsoarcb Scn-ice, Dover. N c w H:inrpsInrc, 1950.
Kilcy 6 Sons. In?.. Scm York (1936).
Properties of ('mnmonly L'aed Rejrigc~orita,.Ail. Comlitioning and Refrigcrating
M.lnc1iiner.y issociation. ll~;isl~ingtun, D.C. (1946)
Zirnnwirn;m I). T.. :mil 1. Lavine. P ~ y d ~ ~ - o n , c l iTable.* .ic & CIiarLs, Industrial
Rwrarh S ~ r ~ D i ~ c r S. c w Hnrnpi-liirr 11945).
i w
D. Materials
1. E ~ w h a r t J.
. I,.. rt nl., Jlr~clwriicid Prr,pv,-tiis of J l c l o l s it Alloys, Burrnu of
S t m d a i d s Ciw C417, I~a4unjirun.U.C. (1943).
2. D u l l o n d . T. C.. E,iginwiiriy Ilrilcrinla JIoniml, Reinhold Pnl,lishing Co..
Sm 1.d (19511 (;mr~xliai.ilmil in simpk terms.
3. Hn1,;ilil. E.. (',,iriirion Giiiilc; Elsevic~.Puhlisliing Co.. Hrnwton (19.51). Handy
tnhlri ui co~.roiionrwisiant milierial rrcommcnrlationa.
4. Sinmnds. H. K.. A . J. Kcitll, and XI. H. Rigclowl IInrdbook of P b s l i r s , 2nd
Ed., Van Swlrand. S r w Yolk (19491.
5 Tecit~iicidD o h on Plmlics, hlnnufavtwing Chemists A w x . , Washington, D.C.
(1952) Pwpexties and M;inr~fnrturrrs.
REFERENCES
1. Cldton, C. 1 1 , ('lictn. El~g..i i i . T o . 6. 97 (1949).
2 I l l . . J . Eng. f'rog,.. $fi. 57 (19501.
CHAPTER 5 -
CHARGE
75% Propone
25% P r o p y e n e
Flow Diagrams
START
Section 500
FRACTIONATION
- Go5 to Fuel .
*
-
Secton 100
(95%Ethylene Recovery]
Butones and
Heouter to
CRACKING FURNACES
AND QUENCH
Conversion: 65%
Inlet Furnace Temp.: 110F
t
Section 400
Storage
Process Equipment
1
'11 i t ~ m sof l w i ~ w sc q u i i ~ ~ c nnrc t slion-11. inrlu<ling i11nr~s. TI11
Oiapraurmntir cketcllca ;we ~ i i a d ct u r c s r n ~ l ~ tl hc r c q ~ l i [ ~ ~ n:I-.c n nrnrly
t :I:
pos.~il~lc. thus aiding in risn;ilization of the items I J ~d l users i ~ f t111
diagraul. Siluple clrration r i r w a r r grnel.ally uscd. but t h r y arc altvrcc
iuclr a ~ - a yt h a t all ronncctioni appear on th<, plant of the diapr:rl:i
.inIllis
,
~ ~ ~ o c e t l makes
urc for s i n ~ l ~ l i c i t yS. o z z l ( ~arc loc:it~il in tile prolx:
rclatirc p,isition; i.?.. at the ] ) r ~ ] p ctrqy r in 8 fr:~ctionatingci~lumn. I t i:
i n q ~ r n r t i r n to
l nrnkc tllcsc diagrams ti1 scale; since smallcr items TWJUIII b~
u1i<l111y . is desirahl(!. hon-r\-w. t o 11rcscrve a supgc>tion nf t111
r c ~ l u c c ~ l It
rvl;itix-c iiac diflrrcucw: ;iurl tltis ~ : I I I s o ~ n c t i ~ nl vx : ~ c ~ ~ o t t ~ p l 11: isI
u.il~p :I diffwcnt rcalc for tlrc l ~ o r i z u n t ; ~tl~iui l for tl11. r(.t.tici~l.
S i n w equipuirnt rarir; cmsirlcml~ly.it is not jmc.il~lr, t o li;irc -t;ind:il.~
. k c t c l ~ ( ~fors caeli itcni. T h c re]~rc.?t!ntatiousof ~ U I I ~ ~in(tors: I S . a l ~ ( tur.
l
biues. lic~wcrcr.can t ~ citi~ndardizetln> in Fig. 3-5.
Notations
Certain cssenti;~linf~~rnxrtion must 11r provirlc(l n~ljaccntto e:wh itcn
of equipnrent. Tliesc notations must suplily in a concise nianncr tlie dat:
required liy ear11 user of the d i a g r a n ~ . Expcricnce has dictntcd t h r infor-
~ u n t i o nrrquired for tlic eilnnnon items such a s p u ~ n p sand r c s s c l ~ . Fol
spcci:rl cqiril~~ncnt. the irrer;rll rlimensions and ~ i g n i f i c m toperating c h ;
iwtcristics :IK often givcn. Tlrc following notations arc suggrstrd:
I t e m Numbers
All pieces of equipment s l ~ o u l dbe given a n item number which s h o u l ~
appear on or next to the equipment. If t l ~ citcnl numbering s y s t c ~ ui!
planncd with c a w , i t aids inimeasurahly in t h e use of t h e flow dingrau
n :ill 1d1:1wiOT 11111 (lesigl~::nd ronstn~ctinnx n r k . A
:11111 ill tlit. e x ~ c ~ l t i oof
typical s y - t c n ~TT-hichhas been used nit11 suwcss, in casc? wlrcrc the l l r w
-
Fig. 5-4. Engineering flow dinpram: ~olvmerisationunit reactor section. (Courtesv of Foster Wheeler Cornnmtion l
- p~ --- ~ ~ p~~ ~- ~~
Fig. 5 5 . Engineering flow diagram: gas treating plant. (Courtesy of Fluor Corporation.) Thia diagram is typicel of n flow
diaaram in the d e v d o ~ m e n tstare. Line numbers h a r e not vet been assiened.
Flow Diagrams 69
1111it is
e-. divi<lcd intu area,< or xctioi1.s. r~npli,y$a numl~er sucl~;IS
P-101. Tiic letter indicate- the type of equipment, in this case a pump:
the 101 in<lic;~tr.:that the pump is the nunll~crone pump in area 100. If
this pump has a n identical sparc, it, can he labeled P-101A. Common
letter designations for equipment are giren in Table 5-1.
Process Information
Important process information sirould also be listed. Thc folloning
:ire .suggestions for sevcral cullnllon iten~s.
Service
1)innrctcr; height, thickness
Special feature^ (lining, etc.)
llesign conditions
Operating conditions
Hent Exchangers
Service
Diffewntial pwssurr. across sh?11 and t , u h
Heat transfer arca
D u t y in Btu/hr
Design conditions
Temperature and pressure a t inlet and outlet
P1i"lps
(This information may he given on the flow diagram or on accompany-
ing attaclin~cnts.)
Sewice
Size and type
Fluid
Puuip t e i i ~ p c ~ a t u r e
Density a t pump terl~perature
Design GPhI a t pump tcinpcrature
Design differential
SPSII ( S e t positive suction liead)
C'o~~ipressors
(This infortnation may be given on the floiv di~igliunor on accompany-
ing attaclllncnts.)
Service
Stages
Suction conditions
First stage suction
Seeond stage nuctinn
Serond stag[, ~lisrll:~rge
70 Project Engineering of Process Plants
Flow Diagrams 71
BHP (Brake liorsepowcr) first stage
B H P second stage each line cxtending from one piece of equipment t o another is given a
Capacity SCFN separate number.
These numbers can be recorded on forms together xvith the flon- rate.
Piping and Valves
pressure, temperature, and fluid floving in the line. T h r linc number
changes ~vlienercrthe linc size or linc specificatiiin cl~anges. T o avoill
.%I1 process lines and utility lines serving process equipnicnt are slro~vn confusion, a linc number is eliminated when a line is rlclctrd. Thc line
on engineering flow diagranis. Often the main pruccss lines arc ~lra\\m number can inrludc tlic arca designation. One typical system employs a
heavy so that tlic primary flow sequence will be more apparent. IJtility number such as 3"06403E (Fig. 5-4).
3" 0 6 403 I<
TABLE 5-2. Typical Valve and Pipe Symbols for Flow Diagrams
Line size Fluid class Area number Line number Piping spec.
ITEM SYMBOL
Since, as explained in Chapter 18, piping specifications are writtcn in
Valves B F l f t t n g Line Oer,gnof!ons detail for each class of service, thc piping designer can obtain all the
Angle V o l v e
F Main Process information required t,o layout and design tlic ~iipingf r m i the f l c ~ ~
diagram, the line list, and the piping spccification. These line numbrra
furtlrcr serve in the marking and identifying of shop-f:hricated pipe. A
poorly numbered flow diagram, thcrefure, can rausc considerable con.
-
Figure B F l a n g e -8- Condenrote fusion tllroughout the project.
-
Valves are identified on thc flow dingram, lioth hy n u m l m and hg
symbol. The numbers refer t o detailcd valve specifirat,ions and are
Gote V o l v e Steom
very helpful t o both designers and material procurement men. .\lthougl~
Globe Valve S t e m Troced -- - - - -- some organizations do not number the valves on the flow diagram, alni~ist
H O I ~Connection --C Woier -.. ..- all use numbers on the piping drarings.
P l u g Coch Nose: Uruollv no otternot is made todirtinouirh
Instrumentation
Reducer - All instrumentation for the controlling, rccording, and indicating of
plant operation must be shown on the flow diagram. Fsunlly. the process
engineer indicates in a schematic fashion the essential instrumentation on
the prricess flow diagram. This is further enginccred and added to the
lines are ilra~vnusing various synibols (Table 5-21 to pcrmit ready diffrr-
engineering flow iliagram x i t h all other required instrumentation.
entiatim of the several scrviccs. Arrows are used wherever neressary to
The Instrument Society of America has prcpared a set of standard in-
aid in following tlic flow. All required valves and check valves are
strrnncnt ~ynrbols~vlrirhshould lie followc~lt o avoid confusion. These
indicated, but flanges and fittings are not shown except a t equipnrcnt.
are reproduced in Tablc 5-3. The instrunrcnt number is generally in-
Common synibols for the valves in general use are given in Table 5-2.
cluded in tlie syml~ol,as shown in the tabulation. Control valve and
Sizes of valves for those other than line size are shown adjacent to the
relief valve sizes should be shown adjacent to these items to aid in piping
valve.
design.
Since the piping designer uses the flow diagram as his main source of
information, much data must be supplied on the diagram. Temperatures Arrangement of Diagram
and prensnres, flow rates: and a description of the fluid flowing must be
.4 well-planned arrangement of the engineering flow diagram can do
provided. I n addition, the specifications for t,he lines must be given so
much t o assure efficient and high quality norknianship tliroughout all
that the size, material, and thickness of pipe, class of flanges, and rating
stages of the job. If some idea of tlie actual plot plan is known ~vhentlie
i r f fittings and valves u-ill be known for each line. This information can
flow diagram is drawn, it is very helpful t o have the diagram arranged
be 2onveniently provided by means of a linc numbering system in which
in a similar manner insofar as it is practical. Such an arrangement aids
Project Engineering of Process Plants Flow Diagrams
TABLE 5-3 ( I ) . Instrumentation Flow Plan Symbols. Instrumentation Flow Plan Symbols.
(Reprinted by permission, Instrument Society of America, (Reprinted by permission, Instrument Society of America,
Tenfotive Recommended Practice) Tentofive Recommended Proctice)
BASIC INSTRUMENTATION SYhiBOLS TYPICAL IiViTRUMENTATION
SYMBOLS FOR FLOW
DISPLACWIENT-
TlPE FLOW METER
now RECORDEA.
PNEUMATIC TRANSMISSION.
TRANSMITTER LOCAL.
RECEIVER MOUNTW ON BOARD
BASIC SYMBOL BASIC SYMBOL TOR BASIC SYMBOL >.WAY BASIC SYMBOL
TOR FLECTRICALLY TOR PISTON. BODY FOR SAFETY
DIAPHRAGM OPLRATLD VALVE OPEIATW VALVE FOR ANY I R P I P 1 VALVE
MOTOR V A L E SOLENOID OR IHYDRAULIC OR VILVE
MOTOR1 PNEUMATICI
r L o w RECORDING
COMROLLLR.
PHFUMATIC
TRlNIMiSSlON
WITH RECEIVER
BASIC SYMBOL BASIC SYMBOL BASIC SYMBOL SHOWING BASIC S Y ~ O L MOUNTW ON BOARD
TOR sur. FOR MANUALLY PNEUMATIC TRANSMISSION SHOWING PNEUMATIC AND LOCAL
ACTUAFD OPERATED INSTRUMENT tnCCTRlC CONNECTION FROM TRANSMITTLR
IIPmGRALI CONTROL VALVE TRANSMISSION SAME INSTRUMMT TO
REGULATING EXCEPT FOR TYPE OF DIAPHRAGM MOTOR
VNVE CONNLCTlONl VALVE
Project Engineering of Process Plants Flow Diagrams
tBLE 5-3 (3). lnstrumentation Flaw Plan Symbols. TABLE 5-3 (4). lnstrumentation Flow Plan Symbols.
(Reprinted by permission, Instrument Society of America, (Reprinted by permission, Instrument Society of America,
Tentative Recommended Practice) Tentotive Recommended Practice)
L T Y U ALARM.
INTLMAL TIPC
Project Engineering of Process Plants Flow Diagrams
TABLE 5-3 (5). Instrumentation Flow Plan Symbols. TABLE 5-3 (6). lnstrumentation Flow Plan Symb~
(Reprinted by permission, Instrument Society of America, (Reprinted by permission, Instrument Society of America,
Tentative Recommended Practice) Tentative Recommended Practice)
<tONMYO(I BELT)
n
1 P M R MACHINE >
0
MOISTURE RECORDEL
LOCALLY H O U M m
PRESSURI COHIROLLFR. PRCSSURE RECORDING CONTROUL11 WIPrUCNTIALI.
BLIND TYPE PMUMATIC TRANSMISSION: wnn PRESSURL wcomn
Ishow con,roll.r COWINCD INSTMUMINT BOARD naumm
dmcoy...ha &+rap
il 0
' rn0""l.dl
Project Engineering of Process Plants Flow Diagrams 79
the layout men and pil~ingdesigners t o visualize tlie plant more readily
and prevents thc ovcrenrphasis of a line that is artnally w r y short hut,
TABLE 5-3 (7). Instrumentation Flow Plan Symbols.
appears long hccxuse of the arrangement of thc flow diagran~.
(Reprinted by permission, Instrument Society of America, There arc many methods of accomplishing good arrangement. Pumps
Tentative Recommended Practice) can he placed helow other equipment as shoxn in Fig. .5-5 or all equip-
ment may he arrangcd above n common hase line. Process lines ran he
TYPICAL INSTRUMENTATION SYMBOLS
FOR COMBINED INSTRUMENTS shown on onc dra~vingand utility lines on another. Or. 110th utility and
process lines can be slro~rnon the same drawing. The lattcr is done so
that the full picture ran he seen on one drarving. Oftcn, liovewr, this
results in o v c r c r o ~ d i n gespecially if utility connections hecorne eucessirc,
such as on large compressor installatione.
Thc flow diagram, t o he read and understood easily, must not appear
crowded. Oftcn a numher of scpnrate dra~\-ingsarc needed tn rcl~rcsent
a process. l i n e s passing f r o ~ nequipment on one sheet t o that on n r ~ ~ t h e r
are nlaintnined a t a constant elevation so that tllc continuation of the
line on the next ihcet can he found ~ r i t hease.
CONFIDENTIAL I N F O R M A T I O N
Because of their coml~lctcncss,process flow diagrams, engineering flow
diagrams, and a t times hlock diagrams, contain confidcntinl information.
They should never bc distributed indiscrirninatcly or alloyed t o he rc-
produced by unauthorized persons. If unscrupulous individuals are per-
mitted t o copy a flow diagram, they arc ahle t o ohtain unfair advantage
by avoiding the time, effort, and cxpcnse requircd to originate a colnplete
flow diagram. Such practice violates all known codes of ethics.
Plot Plans
I z
&
PLOT
PLANS
After the engineering flow diagrams are completcd and before detailed
piping, struct,ural, and electrical design can begin, the layout of process
units in a plant and the cquipment within these process units must be
planned. This planning is done by a group of cxperts including the
project engineer, i~ipingand structural designers, and the process engineer.
The results of their work arc plot plans: the lnartcr plot plan and the
unit plot plans. The master plot plan (Fig. G - l i shows the location of
each process unit, road\ray, and building. The unit plot plan (Fig. 6-2)
shows the location in plan view of each piece of equipment ~vithina single
process unit.
The preparation of a plot plan is the mrist important function in the
design of a process plant. Onc key to good operation, economical con-
struction, and eficicnt maintenance is \wll-planned, functional ;mange-
mcnt of equipment and building$. A key to employee satisfaction and
good public relations is a neat and esthetically pleasing plan.
Each plant differs in many ways and no tnw plant sites are exactly
alike; hence, there is no one ideal plot plan. I t is possible, i~o~vever,to
describe some of the more important rules wfiicli insure a satisfactory
arrangement.
No of KO.of
Month h1m hIanhourh
* Incl~,dpip u m ~ s ,compressors, hpnt exchnngms, and :my t y p ~m ~ c h : m i r n l eWil,-
m m t not ~ I W W L .
I)~.awingsfor Teaseli
Category No. Drawings Total Manhours
D. Teistds 3 Vessel dr:iwings (;ill details are nx~allyon a single 1 ,tj00
A . Foundations 8
druiring for each vessel) B. Structural 7 1,100
A. Fmmd:itions 1 Far above, T-101, 102, 103 C. Merhanical -
B. Structural 3 Ladders & platforms for T-101, 102, 103 D . Teasels 9
F. Electrical 3 Electric:ll 6 instnnnent conduit & lighting E. Piping 9
G. Inctrrnncnt 1 Schenintic riraxrings of instrumrnt installation F . Electrical 6
Insulation 1 Indntion dctnils fur T-101, 102, 103. Insulation G . Instrumentation 2
is not shown on the pererntap. list since it is (Insulation) 1
gener;~llyneeligible with respect tcl total deiign- -
drafting. Total 42
-
Subtotal 12 Dmn-ings for D. This example is very incomplete since no piping was inclu<led in the
first list for tlic three vesscls. Other drafting which \vould be included
For machines snrh as C-101, 102, 103 a shdtcr of some kind would he in a complete list is process and utility piping for the vessels, utility
mnnilatory. piping for heating and plurnbing in t h e compressor building a n d mcchan-
ical details for vessel appurtenances and for 1111isting apparatus in the
Drawings for Mechanical Equipment
building.
A . Foundabions 3 Compressor building, phn, section, details
Foundations 4 Compressurs C-101, 102, 103, fnumlntions T h e reliability of a n y d a t a sucli a s t h e percentages of r o r k distribution
B. Compressor bnilding 1 .krr:~ngemmt plan or manhours per d r a ~ v i n gdepends greatly upon operational methods and
Comlirehsor b ~ d i l i ~ i g 1 Structural steel extent of statistical data. Such d a t a is subject to many variables even
Comprrsmr huildinp 1 Hoof pl:w & rlcv:~tii~ns within a n organization and cannot be applied with confidence unless
Comprt~sorbuilding 1 irchitwt~~r;rldetails
continuously tested. Statistical d a t a on labor should be acculmulateu
.
ll. Miscellaner~nsv e s d ?
for compressor regularly and regularly revised.
auxiliaries 6 Comprrssor buttles, starting air battles, water I n scheduling drafiiirg nlanhours one must realize t h a t the total m a n -
bottles, x i t e r syitm,, f i d , lrtbrication -rstrxm hours required for each operation cannot always be continuous. I t might
E. Piping 6 Process piping he assumed for instance, t h a t t h e 1800 manhours estimated for vessels
Piping 2 Cooling watrr & Iubricutim tystcms
Piping in the previous illustration could be completed in one month by 10 men.
1 Starting air system
F. Electrical 3 PInn.s, seetiuns. details power & lighting Such thinking cannot be applied since certain vcesels will require t h e
G. Instn~mrntations 1 Inrtallariim details maxinium inanhours while others will probably be under the minimum.
- Furthermore vesscl design usually proceeds to near a 60% point when i t
Subtotal 30 Drawings for C must be stopped to await finalization of piping. .4 further 10-20 per cent,
-
Total for D and C 42 Dmwings may then be uscd completing urientation of nozzles or supports to suit
piping. After this, another period of waiting nus st ensue while thc vessel
Frotn the original list of 6 items, T-101.102,103 and C-101,102,103, 42 fabricator cmnpletcs his shop drawings. Vessel designers then must
drawings have been listed. B y applying a tnanhour value per drawing, check the fabricator's drawings for strength and accuracy b&rc original
total manhours can be estiniated a s follows: drawings m a y be completely released since t h e fabricator's design prac-
100 Project Engineering of Process Plants
ticei :onictinirs affect the original design. Screral months may i l a l ~ i c .
therefore, h e t ~ r c minitial design effort and completion, most of i~hicliis
consumed in awaiting data either from the originating orgnnizatiiin iJr
the fahricntor. For this reason sewral jobs in varions stages of corn-
letio ion n-ill serve to maintain a relatirely cou;txnt v o r k Inad.
I t is necessary in ~cliedulingwork for an organization to attempt thc.
masinrum use of all personnel. One aid in accoiuplisliing this is the
preparation of a bar graph or monthly time chart sllorriug the various
pro/ccts in an organization. t11r4r starting times, and the anticipated tinrc
for ear11 ph:w of lvork. Then a dra\ving -1irct coiint can hc utilized t(l
detrrn~inctlie possible m a r i ~ n u m or
i ~niniu~unrsof iuanpowr. X e ~ vjobs
should be srheduleil to start during anticipate~iniiuimum vurk li~nila.
Regardless of the nunlher of men available only one p r r o n can 11c
em[iloyed on one drawing a t an:- particular time. I t ip; thereforr, not'
good practice to use large draxi-ing sliects. Uettcr use of inanpower ran
ENGINEERING
he realized by rcduction in dra~l-ingsize. This will i n e r e a s the numher
of drarings and thus increase the possible use of manpover. There is,
of course. a practical limit in size rrducti(,n: but the use of larger scales
DESIGN AND
serves t o increase the number of drawings required.
SCHEDULING DEPARTMENTS
DRAFTING
Contractors as well a s operating companies that do a consiiler:~hlc
amount of their olvn engineering design and drafting hoth find it desirable
to establish a permanent scheduling dejlartlncnt. This ilcp,zrtment must
After the project engineer has received proc,ess specifications and
be staffed with men having adequate bac,kground in all phases of thc general mccl~anicalsl~erific:itions:x preliminary plot plxns, and prilject
design and construction of a process plaiit. The sclicduling of ir nlulti-
schedules, the urork of tlie specialty engineers and design draft,smen may
million dollar project is hardly the job of a 10~7-paidclerk. It requirea a
bcgin. It is the job of thesc men to conrert the calr:ulations and decisions
man of broad experience ~ h iso thoroughly familiar with four stages of of process and project engineers into dran-iuga and specifications which
process plant construction: namely, process design, mechaiiical design are indispensable in the procurement, fabrication, and erection of process
and drafting, procurement, and erection. plant facilities.
Contracting firins have found the use of a scheclu1ing department Engineering design and drafting efforts :ire usually rliriiled anlong
advantwgeous since such firms are ordinarily engaged in the execution of
groups CIE specialists in thc various phaws of t h r ilcaign. The work of
tilore than one jol~. I t is preferable under such situations t o have tlic
these specialists may bc divided intu tn.u n~njorcnteguries: equilin~cnl
scheduling done by a group of men who have an overall vieir-point and
specialty engineering and dcsign drafting.
are not interested in only one particular job. If a project engineer
schedules his own job, there is a tendency to favor t , l ~ a tjob. It is EQUIPMENT SPECIALTY ENGINEERING
essential, however, that the pmjcct engineer assist the scheduling group
Equipment specialty engineers in cooperation with process engineers
in the preparation of the pruject schedule.
develop the detailed mechanical specific~tionsfor process equipment. I n
REFERENCE * A p u r t ~ uui llir gmel'hl n~rel~uuical
specificatiuna air uilru m p v l i d by !lie
campany for whom the plant is being built (see Chapter 11). These a1.e incorporated
1. Mattori, M . Oil and Gas Journal, 61, No. 46, 304; No. 47. 180: No 48, 100: with the usual specifications of the design organization and become, upon approval
KO.49, 102 (1953). I,? the rustonlrr, llie gmerul guide f u r 111 ~nech;mival design inrlu~liog piping,
structural, elecirirnl, and equipment design.
101
ENGINEERING
DESIGN AND
DRAFTING
After the project engineer has received process specificntions nnd
gcnvral n~cclr:iiiical specificntions,* preliminary plot plans, and project
xhedules, the v o r k of the specialty engineers and design iiraftw~enlnny
begin. It is the job of these nlen to convert the calculations and dcei s ~ o n s
of process and project engineers into drawings and specifications d ~ i i : l i
are indispensable in the procurement, fabrication, and erection of process
plant facilities.
Engineering dcsign and drafting efforts : ~ r cn ~ n : ~ l l ydi~iilcd alllong
groups of specialists in the various p l ~ a a w( ~ ft l ~ c'lciign. The v o r k of
these specialists nxty be divided into tn.u 1n:rjor categories: equip~uent
specialty cnginccring and dcsign drafting.
Labor Clauses. A typical labor clausc might be: "The vendor agrees limited to those protecting against fraud and cont,ingenries beyond tile
t l ~ aall
t labor used in the manulnrture of the specified itenis furnished shall control of the buycr. Certainly man r i l l never devise clauses so cleverly
be employed and paid uuder the applicable regulations of the Fair 1.al10r n-ordcd that they will protect against practices which are legal hut never-
Standards -4ct of 1938, and its subsequent or future amendments. The theless unethical and damaging. Tlic bcst protection is a reputable man-
vendur further agrees that all invoices submitted to the purchasrr shall ufacturer.
bear a written certification of his compliance n-it11 the abovc regulations."
A number of laws cxist regarding discriminatory practices. The par- "Acceptance" Order
ticular area in which the work is to be done and the type of labor used all Lcgally, the purclinse order hccomes a contract only after arceptancc
should be investigated previous to order placenlent with unknown firms. hy the seller. I t is, therefore, conlmon practice to send an "acceptance"
Serious difficulties may bc caused hy the use of an open-shop firm if copy of the purchase order to the scller .so that he may sign and return it.
closed-shop workers are erecting the equipment. Shop fabricated pipe The signcc for t,he vendor must be an authorized agent of the manufacturer.
may be a source of many labor entanglements, particularly if the pipe is
not fabricated in the area where it is to be erccted. The piping specifica-
INSPECTION
tions should include a requirement for a stamp ccrtificati~inon cach piece
of pipe giving the manufacturcr'a association with the applicablc labor .In important phase of procurement for procesa plants is the inspertion
union. (JI equipnent during and upon completion of manufacture. The advan-
Subcontractor Clmrses. Thc purchase order ia frequently used as an tages gained through careful devclol)mmt of specifications and drnvings
instrnmcnt in placing sulicontracts. The standard niltes in the purchase hy the purcllasing conipany can bc h a t by careless ~vorkniilnrhip and
order need not repeat the phrases in the subcontract. I t is suficicnt to errors made in the manufacturer's shops. Particularly on major items
state: "When equipment, materials, or services are bcing furnished under [ i f equipmcnt, therefore, it is ~vorthwliilefor the purchascr to send his
a subcontract, the executed subcontract, form shall apply and become a inspcctor to the vendor's plant. The pririlegc to inspect equipmcnt a t
part of t,his order." The subcontract form itself is legally an addendum the plant is usually agreed u p m prior to the placement of tbe order and
or attachment to the order. is included in the purchase order. No reputable manufacturer vill d e ~ i y
Shipping Imtructions. The point of origin and tiic tlcstination of inspection privileges and many wclcome a competent inspector's sugges-
material corcred by thc purchase order must bc listed for use by both tions.
vendor and purchaser. The mcthod of transportation is sclectcd early I t is the inspector's job to witness tests on merhanicnl equipment such
in the negotiations if possible and should bc indicated on the purchase as pumps and emupressore, to observe and approve fabrication nicthods
order. When t,ime is limited the purchaser may request truck shipment, of vesscls, pipe and structural steel, and to encourage the bcst worknian-
, air cxpress. If shipping methods cannot be decided
railway e x p ~ s s or ship on equipment bcing manufactured for his cmployer. He should be
a t time of order placement, the statement, "Shipping instructions will be a person of considerablc practical kn~~~v-lioru xvith an ability to spot
issued later," should be included on the order. The vendor must bc in- mistakes and also an ability t o get along wcll with p e ~ ~ p l e A . large
formed of shippit~gmcthods for large equipment so that assembly of the portion of a competent inspector's work consists in preventing mistakes
equipment for shipment can he planned. before they occur.
Patent Protection. Since the patent law holds the user of a patented Thc inspector's reports are made directly to the purchasing department.
item just as liable for suit by the patentee as the sellcr who has knovingly The projcct engineer should be notificd about rejeetcrl equipment. t ~ u i
or unknowingly infringed, the patent protection clause is inserted in pur- :tiljustments on rejected items are handled by the purrhasing drpar'
chase orders to protect the purchaser. It requires that the vendor com- ment. If inspection is madc a t thc sitc of construction, arrangements
pensate the purchaser and/or ultimate user of the material for all custs are made for replacement of rejected material and for returning it to the
vhicli may develop due to suits filed by the party claiming infringelnent." vendor. I t is sometimes possible, in the case of equipment surh as pumps
Many other special terms and conditions peculiar to the particular and filters for the vendor to correct faults in the field. For this work a
transaction may bc included as part of the purchase order. All such technical representative of the vendor is sent to thc jubsite at the vendor's
notes shuuld be clearly pliraped and above all sbould be kept to the ixxpenre.
minimum. I t would secm that clauses protecting t h e buyer should be Beranse of the high cost of inapcction, only ~nnjorequipment items ran
132 Project Engineering ct Process Plants Procurement Operations 133
I I ~inspcctcil prior to .;hipment Stwl; it1.m- such as T X I ~ E S and instru- IIc must IIC certain tliat the vcsiel design groulj coml~lrtrsthe final dc-
ments must 11e cliccked upon delivery a t the construction site. rilcd dran-ings on schedule so tlie fabricator d l not he delayed
.liter t l ~ cmanufacturer receives final dravings and fabrication begins,
EXPEDITING the progress of the ~vorkcan be reported by the purchaser's inspector n-bo
The ]iri~n:wyfunction of expediting is t o assure dclircry of purchacd IIILI.;~ observe the shop operations daily. The expediter need only visit
n~:itrrialsa t the jobsite in acc~~rdancc n-it11 the project schctlule I\I:~tt,rial tlic shop occasionally, but he continues to follow the progress of the vessel
such as valves and fittings arc- ava~lablcfrom supplier's n-arehouses anrl until it is delivered. JTlien the inspector'r report indicates that x o r k i*
ran he dclivcrcrl a t ally ti~nt,. The 11rogrc.s of specially h i g n e i l equi11- Ilcing delayed, the expediter will visit tlie shop, determine thc causc of
~ncnt:Iiu~vcvcr,such as 11rcsurr ve-..cis or large wmlwessurc, must l ~ r tlie delay, and help tlic fabricator overcome it. If the falxicator has :I
fullo~\-cdcontinuously by employees of the purcliaser cnllcd expediters. ilumbcr of orders from other companies, the expediter niust make more
llanufacturers estir~xttcprohal~ledelivery dates for equipnrnt to be fall- frequent, \-isits to he certain illat liis job is not unduly delayfd bccansc of
ricated in their shops, but tlicsc e.stimatcs depmd on proiiipt dclivcry IJE ~\-orkon other orders.
~n:~terialsfroin tlieir supplirri; efficicnt srlicill~lin:, ( i f s l i ~ ~~vork,
p mil I n sununary an expediter's duties may bc briefly 1iut1inc.d as f o l l ~ t ~ s :
early receipt of draxings from the purchaser. The l~urcllaser'seuprditer
can do nlucli to :Issure that c~tiniatedddi\-ery dates will be ~ n c tlly 1. Accumulate data wbicli may affect delivery.
vorliing with botli the manui:icturcr and his 011-n organization. 2 . Anticipate delays and bottlenecks and resolve tllcse directly with
His ~ v o r kcan be explained more clearly by describing tlie progress of the vendor.
a large steel presmre vcsscl from the inquiry stage t o delivery. 3. Assist vendor in obtaining priorities.
.In inquiry is sent t o three or niurc inbricators and it includes s p c c h 4. Assist vendor in resolving his procurmlent problems.
wtions and a preliminary sketcli of thc vessel. The vessel diameter, 5 . Change delivery schedules when necessary.
plate thickness, type of liead.; and number and sizc of nozzles arc given. 6 . Correspondencc with the subvendors and suppliers of the primary
From this infornlation the vendors are able t o develop tlieir quotations wndor.
wliich give costs and estimated delivery time. 7. Be a x ; m of changes of engineering schedules in his 0x1-n orgnniza-
During tlic inquiry pcriod ( t ~ too tlircc m e k s ) enginecring w ) r k tion, and to relay this informntion to the vendor or ial1ric:ltor d l e n
proceeds in the purchaser's offices and by the time tlic or11c.r is plaretl nccessary.
the nictal specifications and vearel sizc and tlrickncs.; h a r e been cr~nfirnie~l. 8. Expedite his own organization to complete vital dra\\.ingi ori
If changes have been made, a rcvisc,d sketcli is attached to tlie purcliax
order. The fabricator is informed by a note on the order t l ~ he t is
"relcased t o purcliasc all materials on the basis of tile preliminary Although delivery on time is essential, early delivery nlny bc a (lip-
advantage. llaterials obtainable from stock should not bc ilclivereil
sketches." The expediter reccives a cupy uf llic purchase ortlcr a t the
until needed or extensive warehousing facilities u-ill hc necessary. Spc-
same time it is sent to t l ~ cvendor and it then becomes thc responsibility
of the expediter to re? that delivcry is mule on tinic. cially built equipment buch as a vessel must be lifted twice if delivered
before foundations arc ready. The cxl~editcr,therefore, must aid iu
After tlie f a l ~ r i w t i r11as heen told to prucccd xith thc ~ ~ u r c l i : ~111
se
: i u d i n g surli early deliveries.
materials, tlie purcliascr's expeditrr visits the fahricatoi.'~ ~11011 autl
AII expeclitcr must have a ~vurliingkno~vlcdgcof fabricating l~roccdurcs,
obtains copies of all material orders. H e then cIle14<s hy telcplionc or 1muxnnnent methods, sources of supply, and slripping practict,s. I n
personal visit with the steel mill t o be certaiu tliat a definite rolling
:&lition lie must he able t o work effectively ~ v i t hpci~plcin his o ~ and
n
schedule for the steel plate has been arranged. H e also confirms tlic the fabricator's organizations. Since liis priniary duty is to encourage
delivcry dates for all otlier equipment ordered by the ninnufacturer.
When tlie materi:lls nrr delivered to the fahriratnr. riillin~of pl:itr to people t o finish a job on time, his actions must be diplomatic in order to
void resrntincnt,.
f u r n ~the alldl can begill; but lab~.icatursu w relurtit~ll1 1 1 (10 lu1,tlicr
work until final desigu drawings are reccived from the purciiaser. I t is
difficult. anrl costly t o start n o r k on n Iargr vessel and then he forced t o GENERAL PURCHASER-VENDOR PRACTICES
iiiseontinuc for a short period until some d~xigncli:mgc is made. Tllc next
iniportant ]oh of tlie expediter, tl~ewforc,is u-itliir~his ow11 o~.ganiz:ition.
134 Project Engineering of Process Plontr Procurement Operations 135
1. I n general all transactions between purchaser and vendor should be changes in scope of the project, tlre vendor must be formally notified t o
kept on a formal basis, i.e.>in writing. "immediately stop work and incur no further costs t o the account of the
2. Instructions t o vendors shall always be sent in the form of a changed purchaser." The vendor is then a ~ k e r lt o submit. cancellation elrargc.
purchase order or addendum to original order. This should be a docnnient accompanied by proof of his costs up t o tlie tinie IIE cancellation. Thi;
similar to the purchase order, carrying the signature of the purchasing purchaser may accel~tdelivery of materials purchased by the rendur for
agent, and identified with the original purchase order hy some similar use in co~upletingthc order, or the materials may bc retainc~lin the
nunierical designation. vendor's warehouse and their value deducted froni tlrc c:inrell a t ion '
3. It is good policy for only procurement personnel t o discuss prices. charges.
materials, or equipment with vendors during the inquiry stage. Since it, Even if equipment is cancelled because of tlie rmtlor's failure to per-
is uncil~ical to disclwe a n y vendor's proposal t o another vendor, the form satisfactorily, cancellation charges are incurred by tlre purcllaser.
fewer persms having this inforination, the l e ~ schance there is for acci- I t is the purchaser's responsibility to have some kno~vledgeof tlrc vendor's
dental disclosur?. capal~ilities.
4. Price re-negutiation may or may not he permitted after a. formal Cancellalion slrodd never he undertaken \ ~ i t h o u tcunrplete iinodcdgt.
prnlmal is rcceircd. This is usually a matter of policy ~ i t hthe pur- of the costs involved. These include the vendm's labor rosts, inaterial
chaser. If one vendor discovers an error in the purchaser's inquiry or for costs, loss of profit, and the purchaser's loss of time and engineering
some reasim is allo~vedto revise his quotntii~n,all othcr vendors pnrtic- manilours.
ipating should hc allo~x-edthe s:une privilege.
5. Suffivient timc should he allowed for receipt of proposals before PROJECT ENGINEERING AND PROCUREMENT COOPERATION
deriding the successful bidder. The many duties and responsibilities of the procurement department
6. A good policy is to require that all changes, additions, or deletions can be met only through cooperation bctveen procurement and project
be handled by the procurement department only. Under certain con- engineering groups. Mutual understanding of the duties and problems
ditions this policy may require additional time, but i t avoids confusion. of each and an atvareness of their interdependence are needed.
It should be the complete responsibility of the procurement department Projcct enginecrs should remember that changes in dcsign produce
t o negotiate the con~mercialpart of an order (pricc, terms, and delivery), delays in fabrication. A change that may actually be rather simple can
regardless of the technical requircments. become quite complex when large organizations are in~rolved. Drawings,
If equipment is being manufactured in accordance with the purchaser's orders, and suborders must bc altered before the actual e l r a n ~ ereaches
dcsign, the fabricator may ask a nnmbcr of technical questions which can the manufacturer's shop. Only alterations whirlr are absolutely ncces-
only be answered by the engineering department. These questions should sary should be made during the fabrication stage.
always be addressed t o the procurement department and then relayed
t o the engineering department. h iurmal reply is then forwarded b y REFERENCES
engineering t o procurement for transmittal to the vendor. I n this manner
1. Hnrl.iman, Norman F., Principles of Srirnlific Puichnsing, MiGraw-Hill Book
thc procurement department can retain full responsibility for all changes Co., X r w 1-ork,1928.
in price caused by design alterations. 2. Hcinritz, Stua1.t F., Purchasing, Prenti<:e-Hall. I n e , Kerr Yo&, 1947.
7. Order cancellations of fabricated equipment or materials of special 3. Johnson, E. R., G. C. Huehncr, and G. L. Kilson, Transportalion Economic
design may be required because of changes in design or scope of work Principles and Pmctices, D. Appleton-Ccntory Co., Scrv I-urk, 1940.
4. Lewis, Howard T , Pmczrrrrntnt Pi.inciplcs and Cnscs, Richa1.d D. Irwin, Ine.,
which are the fault of the purchaser. Cancellations may also be madc
Chicago, 1949.
because of failure on the part of the vendor to manufacture the equip- 5. National Association of Purchasing Agents Handbook of Purchasing Policies
ment properly. Cancellation clauses are written into the purchase order, and Procedures, Volumes I and 11, Piational Association of Purchasing Agents, Xcw
by stating simply, "This order may be cancelled within 30 days after York, 1939 and 1942.
placcnient without r w t ~ I tlic
I purchaser." This statement is used when 6 . Revised Amencan Foreign Trade Definitions, National Forcign Trade Council,
the intent of the purchaser is to limit the vendor's action until the pur- 111 Broadway, Yew I'ork, 1941.
7. Rindsfass, C. E., Puichnsing, McCrnw-H111 Book Co., Xcn Vork, 1915.
chaser is ready to prureed with the work. \Vhcn work has been started 8. Stuffleb~am,G. T., The Trofic Dictiurrory, Simmons-Brondrnan Puhlidling Ca.,
by the vendor and it is decided t o cancel the equipment because of Kew York, 1950.
CHAPTER 10 Office Procedure
TIlimility is one of the most essential personal trait; in any field
xicncc. Any true scientist is aware of the many assumptions and gaps
137
11f kno~rledgein his field and never prceumes knoving everything. Being
Iiumhle, howcver, does not mean being obsequious. Tcntativc l~ositions
i,sn he held vithout reticence.
Open-mindedness is important in dealings hoth individuals and
groups If two ideas of equal technical merit are proposed. one by you
nnd mother by a pcrson ~ v h omust executc the idea, it n-ill 11c ailranta-
peous to use the otller pcrson's idea. I t is logical to :~ssutnctlinl lie will
do R I ~ t t c job
r using his own method.
I n large confcrmces, too: open-niindr~lnesspays iliridcnds. I n thwc
-ituations it becomes tlic ability t o listen to utht,rs. Often in conicrenc~.~
:in ;rtiuusl~licreis created ml~icliseems to com]~cleach particillant to
OFFICE p r f o r n i . B y resisting this tcmptation and rcrnaining open-minded, onc
can ci~ntrihute imnieasurably a s the confcrcncc procccds by offering
carefully conaidered conclusions based oil au analysis of t l ~ cprublcn:
PROCEDURE and the ideas presented by tlic othcr mcn.
11ost pcople have had the merits of court,esy drillcd into t h c ~ usince
cliildliond. Thew lessons are often forgotten when antliorized visitors
arrive during busy moments. Sales engineers, in particular, arc giwn
Enaineerine
- - is only one of the functions r~f the project
. . engineer. I n iinproper treatinent a t times ~rlicnthcir arrival is inopportune. Com-
addition to technical duties, he must manage his officc. The stalt' of this pctent ?ales engineers have considerable k n o ~ ~ l e d gabout
c tlieir particular
office usually consists of assistant projcct engineers, a secretary, and a fielils, and aid the cngineer in keeping infonned on nexv developments.
file clerk. It is, of course; only a small part of a large engineering office Timc spent ~ r i t hthem is not ivastcd cvcn thougli no purclmse of thcir
vhich includes other project engineers or project managers and tlieir 1)rotlucts is anticipated a t the time.
staffs as well as departments such as accounting, purchasing, drafting,
and engineering specialties. Formal Conferences
r.
There is a constant interchange of ideas and instructions between the 1IIC f o r u ~ a~onferencc
l has bccomc an important tool in m o d e r ~indus-
project engineer's office and the other dcpartments, as well a s direct con- try. For the proccs.; plant project it l~erniits:r sllnring of ideas hetvccn
tacts and correspondence ir-ith people outside the company. Therefore. kc? personnel and specialists rvhich ~vould tnkc wccks if handled l g
he also must develop facility in holding conferences, correspondence, and correspondcncc.
filing. A discussion of each of these functions i d be of vnlnc since poor T o be successful, liowvcr, a fornud confcrcncc must h a w a c:ipal~li~
crccution of any of thcsc will produce mistakes and faulty design no ltxder :lnd a defillitc pllr]lu6~!Idlirh should ile knon-11 serrr:ll day:. beforc
matter how competent the engineering. tlic niccting. TIE 11urposc must be a specific o ~ i cif niucl~is to Lc ac-
coinplished. C d c r e n c c s on gcncral subjects require too ni;n~yl~eoplr,
CONFERENCES accomplisli nutliing, and often creatc misunderstandings.
Thc project engineer must exchange ideas with many people during V-hcn need r~rircsfur the discussion of n specific phasc of work. only
a working day not only by means of formal policy-making conferences, 1 1I K V~ J ~n-110
~ I ~ can
~ contribu(c inost to tlic ~lixussiunsliould l,e rrqrlwtt,il
but also by informal conferences or get-togethers ~ v i t hmen fro111 other t o attend. Thc conference leader should then outline the course oi dis-
departments, customers' representatives and sales engineers. cussion and see that the original plan is folluwcd but refrain from strong
As is always the case in dealing with people the intangible, and for the d:~t~w~rm of t shis oivn ideas.
most part unteachable, qualities such as humility, open-niindcdncss, : ~ n d ('otril~lctenotes of tlic vonfert~ncc.sl~uuldhe itii~rl~'.F P I nietiiories
~ are
courtesy are important. inl':illibl~~,;ind it is desirable tu liave ~.ccorclsui ;ig~.cr.tlrcntsi m ~ l,lcci~iui~s
136
138 Project Engineering of Process Plants Office Procedure 139
so that responsibilities are clearly outlined and xvork assignments com- employees. There is no one perfect form. Usually the one used by a
pletely understood. Thc conference room should be well lighted, com- firm has evolred as the company developed, and it p8rticularly suits that
fortable, quiet, and furnished in good tastc. A blackhoard is alxrays organization. Management and other personnel become accustomed to
useful in group discussions and should be part of the permanent equip- the for111 and much tinle is saved because of this familiarity.
mcnt of the room. \Vitllin thr <.onfines r ~ f the form the engineer is free 111 rxcrcise llis
The conference technique is often misused in modern business. Too ingenuity anrl vriting talent.
many unnecessary conferences are convened. Some organizations have The most import:int consideration in report xwiting is the audience.
so many that there is little time for work. If one man can make a In writing a report for the president of a largc cllemical company. for
decision, i t i t senseless to take the time of other persc~nncl. Conferences instance. an engineer should realize that niost of this man's tiuic is
shi~uld t ~ rcalled only when a decision must be made requiring the spcnt in management. He no longer practices his technical skills and
knorrledge represented by many backgrounds. its intricacies are no longer part of his thinking. If it is necessary to
discuss theory in tlic report, background should he sul~plicrl anti. if
TECHNICAL WRITING possible, it should he described in terms understandable to the laylnan.
Tlic engineering graduatc is often criticized for his lack of ability
Technical Articles
in expressing his ideas. Gcnerallp the undergraciu~teengineer takes one
or two courses in report I\-riting and these pro\-ide his only gui~lancein Periodical technical journals are distrihution centers fur n w theories
rwitten expression. and ideas. Technical men must read articles nr abstracts of nrticles in
Tllc?e courses are invaluable, hut good self-expressinn in any form thew journals in order to be familiar r i t h tlic latest dcvelopuents, and.
can nevrr he developed snlely through courses that teach tlie tecl~niques when possible, sliould contribute n c a ideas and experimental data to
of the art. Good self-expression, rather, is a by-product of thoughts the general knowledge by submitting papers for publication.
and experience beyond the limits of the individual's specific field. The quality of such contribution reflects on both the author and his
I t is unfortunate that the rigorous curriculum of a formal engineering employer, and great care should be exercised in their preparation. As;1' 1111-
education leaves little time for reading and study in other fields. Many ing the information presented in tlie article is reliable, tlic nest ~ n n s t
practicing engineers realize this lack and use some of their free time for important aspect is the mode of presentation.
rcading nonscientific literature. Technical writing should be free froni long, ponderous sentences and
n i i t i n g done by the project enginccr must bc suited for rvi~iclyrarying slioultl be as clearly w i t t e n as possible. Since the suhjrct luatter is
audienres. Such writing includes: often difficult to ~,ompreliend,tlie least a writer can do is make tlic
TECIINICAL REPORTS. ( a ) Contract proposals; ( b ) descriptions of individual sentences easy to understand.
plants visited and their operations; ( c ) detailed conference notcs; ( d )
Correspondence
technical instructions such as operating instructions.
TECHSICAL ARTICLES(written for publication in trade or professional Correspondence makes up the major portion of a project engineer's
journalsi. writing. If correspondence is excessive, the projrct engineer is little
CORRESPOSDENCE. ( a ) Interoffice; ( b ) design instructions; (c) various more than a "paper shuffler."
types of letters outside the company. Nearly all large business firiiis are confronted \ ~ i t h a tremendous
volume of paper. Althougli in thesc modern tinier, conirnunic;rtion~have
Technical Reports been greatly simplified, the written word is still thc only legally aeceptuhle
The preparation of a technical rcport as such has been described in neth hod of indicating respmsibility. Recording reasons for actions by
many forms"&"." and is usually a part of the engineer's training. Each one party as instructed by anotl~erin many organizations is practiced
firni has its own niethod of composition. Generally the first page is a largely because of a lack of individual trust, initiative, and usuallp self
letter to a superior often called a letter of transmittal. This is followed confidence. The phrase "get it in writing!" is a common stateuient in
by u title page, an index, a summary, and then the main body of the industry. From this idea lnucli of the needless correspondence evolves.
repcrt. Tlie engineer-contractor's propusel is one type of report. External correspondence is necessary but can bc reduced by careful
The form of report used by a given firm must bc followed by its planning. Internal or inter-office correspondence is used for issuing
140 Project Engineering of Process Plants Office Procedure 141
itistr~~ctionsor ili>filiing rc;l~ou:ildity. TT'lic~i rrrl):~li ~ ~ s t r ~ ~ c t \\-ill
inns The example is a transniittnl letter common to larger firms. It proridcs
snffice,Lion-crer, it is ~rastefulto insist on )nitten n~eniorand:~.Of coursr, a reronl for icreral files and nlro in this case s h o ~ sthc status of a
iudg~nentninst he nsed in dcciding whcn rcrhal instructions arc ailcquntc. I r i n g . .ill numbereil itenis cxcept 9: 10, 11, 12 are printed on the letter.
Certainly romlilcx instructions invoking nrlniprical 1 1 t ~11<n11d he Item 6 identifies the firm and is necessary since copies of such lettcrs
n.ritten. but a simple request or order seldom need he witten. arc sometimes attached to formal external correspondence. Initials of
;\notiler rn:~,ior sourcc of useless corrcsponricnrc in lt~isinrss rnn he recipients of copies. (Itcnt 4 1 , are often used on interoffice communica-
traced ti1 exrcssirc restriction of authority. TYitliout autliarity or n.itliont tions. Files (Item 8) refer to the particular record files for the depart-
clear-cut instructions the inilividual m u d seek to "corer himself" at 1~cr:- nlcnt or project and aid tlie file clerks in filing tlie letter. Second sheets
step lty vrittcn proof of his actions. (~vhcnthe Ictter is longer than one page) omit all printed hcadinga
All husincw organizations can profit hy an objertirc :~nalysiso f their except, 6. Tltr ilatc and project nunihcr is addcd hy typing. Copy
correspondmce procrilures. I\Iucli intcr-office correq~ondcnrc i,xn IX sliccts are simil:~rto second shccts showing item 6 only.
elitniniltcd altogether and that d i i r l i is necessary ran i ~ cliniit?(l to an
original and onc ropy for the joh file. Forms ~~-liirll ran iw fillcil in It!.
11:~nilor I I a~ fi.w simplr typewriter mnnipulntionn sar(, 1)iitli tiriic and lortns are soii~rtimcsurcd for interoffire comnn~nir:I t '1011.
3lcni~trao~li1ni
,~slx~nsc.TIICFC:lrc discusscd l~rlow. They arc generally lettcrsizc (8% s 5 ? 4 ) . The firm niunr a p p w r on
thesc forms, and itcniu 1 and 2, 6 and 7 arc usually includcil an the
lnlerofice Correspondence Ileading. Such nien~orantiamay bc llandvritten notcs.
The interoffice lettrr, not?, or nlcnlorandi~nlis usually i r l r ~ n t ~ hh).l
n printtd lieailing on some type of fornl. Intcritfficr or Intcr,lirisiiill
correspondenre in cnginrcring scrvicc i)rgnriizations is oitrn also 111:rdl~ General instructions to personnel are usu:illy issued on sonic type of
rcadily irlcntifiahlc hy use of colored stationer?;. Some typical forms r e ] ~ o ~ l u c i forin
l ~ ~ c so that distribution to several people can hc made.
arc s h m n here. The follon-ing fornl is sonletinics used.
Drarving KO.
Projert KO.
(12) 1I 1 1 1 1
G F S P V
------ H h l E I / Proc. EF 1 CF C Total
(~-i-lT~-lT-~TITITIT~
n/nI Ko.
Items 1, 2, 3 are self-explanatory. Itcm 4 s h o ~ thc
s contract number
Vendor Print Vendor as assigned by the contractor, "ABC Eng. Corp." Thij tylle of nu~nerieal
Approved Kindly revise as noted designation is finding \vide use in industry where autolnatie accounting
Return to Vendor systems are used. In this instancc the first number refers to tlic type
Approved as n o t e d .
of general work such as design and erection of a cllernical plant. The
Release for fabricntion - Release for construetiun first digit of the second numbcr refers to the type of contract, the
For your use in design For your use and record next four digits are the consecutire contract number. Thc last number
indicates the part of the project.
For preliminary use only
Item 5 givcs the subject and numbcr of the instruction. The subject
When revised, please return prints to writer. in this case is E (electrical dcsign) ; 6 sho~vsthe basic design section
or group to which the instructions are directed primarily; 7 is a sheet
~ E S I G X~SSTRTTC!TIOS ~,F.TTERS numbering metilod designed to prevent misplacing of sheets.
I n addition to the gencral instruction letter it is desirablc to provide a Items 8, 9, 10, and 11 provide a means of designating the type of
npecial fonn for engineering and dcsign c l ~ ~ n g e 1;ngincering-contracting
x information in general. In this case! 9, vendor, and 11, specification,
firms use different names for this correspondence such as "Design Instruc- are checked because the information concerns a vendor and is a specifi-
tion," "Engineering Memo," or sometimes "Design Letter." The most cation. If a drawing or bill of material ncre involved, items 8 " 1 . 10
important requirement for such memoranda is a visible difference from would be checked.
Office Procedure 145
144 Proiect Engineering of Process Plants
Gentlemen:
Itrm 12 pro\.ides a simplified rnctl~odfor in,licating t l ~ c(Ii.;tril~utim
and nuu~bersof copies of thc Design Instruction. The lcttcrs refer to I n order t o effect a possible saving i n driver
~lcsignsections or departments as follorva: c o s t s i t h a s been decided t h a t t h e s p e c i f i c a t i o n f o r
motors above 5 H . P . w i l l i n c l u d e t h e words " o r equal"
G Grnernl B Buildings a f t e r t h e Gyro E l e c t r i c Co. c a t a l o g number.
F Foundations P Piping
S Struet~~ral,
s t d or concrete H Went apparatus For o t h e r acceptable motor manufacturers p l e a s e
V Trseels E Electrical r e f e r t o o u r Approved Vendor L i s t t r a n s m i t t e d i n o u r
M Mrchanienl equipment Proc. Procurrment, l e t t e r No. 55, November 16, 1 9 5 5 . It i s s u g g e s t e d
I 1n.ztrumentation (IF' Contract file t h a t o n l y two ( 2 ) b i d s b e r e q u e s t e d i n a d d i t i o n t o
EF Engineering file p r o p o s a l s from G y r o .
C Customrr
Yours t r u l y ,
I n this vase copies are checked for E, Elcrtrical; Proc.. Prorurement; XYZ C h e m i c a l Co.
EF, Engineering Filc; CF, Contract File; and C, Customer. E. G. M a r t i n , C h i e f E n g i n e e r
Commercial Correspondence
The types of lettprs written to outside firms may he ( n ) correepondcnci.
between an ovner and contr;~ctor; ( b ) l w t w r n purchaser and vcn~lor;
(c) various engineering or procurement instructiuns to subcontrxtors,
vendors, and consulting firms.
Example of a Letter from Contractor to Owner
OWNER-CONTRACTOR CORRESPOKDENCE
AUC Engineering Corp.
Operating firms usually carefully restrict cxtcrnal correspondence to 1223 Eighth St.
executive officers or kcy personncl. Corrcspondcnce between an owner Principia, PIT. J,
and contractor originating witli the owner usually will all be signed
( 1 ) C o n t r a c t 6-25316-2
by an executive or in the name of the cxecutive by the originator (see
example). ( 2 ) L e t t e r No. 85
Contracting firms to the contrary cannot restrict thc I!-riting of corrc- ( 3 ) F i l e s 5 , 7, 15.
spondence since Inany functions must occur eiinultaneo~~rly and any such F e b r u a r y 6, 1956
restriction ~ o u l dbe impractical. Tlic project manager, l~oaever,should ( 4 ) Mr. E . G. M a r t i n , C h i e f E n g i n e e r
see copies of all correspondence as it passes into the general contract file. XYZ C h e m i c a l Co.
All correspondence betnccn thc owner and contractor will ordinarily Dinwiddie, F l a .
be directed to 'the contractor's projcct enginecr regardless of subject. ( 5 ) A t t n . Mr. S. S . S h e a r , P r o j . Eng.
Some examples iollow: ( 6 ) S u b j e c t : L e t t e r 168 a n d D e s i g n I n s t r u c t i o n
E-22. Telephone C o n v e r s a t i o n
Example of o Letter from Owner to Contractor 2/2/1956,
XYZ Chemical Co. Gentlemen:
Dinwiddie, Florida
E. G. Martin, Chief Engiueer L e t t e r Number 168 This w i l l confirm our telephone conversation
F e b r u a r y 2 , 1956 i n w h i c h we a d v i s e d you t h a t y o u r l e t t e r No. 168
ABC E n g i n e e r i n g C o r p . ( F e b r u a r y 2 , 1956) w o u l d n o t a f f e c t t h e o r i g i n a l
1223 8 t h S t . s p e c i f i c a t i o n of o n e m a n u f a c t u r e r , Gyro E l e c t r i c
Principia, N. J. Co., f o r motor d r i v e r s .
A t t n . Mr. A . L . Gerund
Following our u s u a l p r a c t i c e t h e procurement
S u b j e c t : App'n No. &2324. ABC C o n t r . 6-25316-2 d e p a r t m e n t o b t a i n e d t h r e e b i d s f o r motors b a s e d on
D e s . I n s t . E-22.
146 Proiect Engineering of Process Plants
Office Procedure
preliminary data. This was unnecessary since your
original specifications had indicated only a Gyro Electric Company
single manufacturer. Proposals received were 2286 Enoch Ave.
analyzed, as is our practice for all equipment. Portland 6, Pa.
Gyro was found to have an acceptable delivery, and Subject: Proposal 3427, October 23, 1942
the prices were lower than other bidders on all
items. The analysis in this case was not Gentlemen:
transmitted to you because the low bid was
received from the manufacturer that you had Please accept this communication as a letter of our
originally specified. intent to purchase equipment essentially as described
in your proposal 3427, provided:
A letter of intent was issued to the vendor a. Prices quoted are firm.
January 2, 1956 in order to place the equipment on b. Delivery promise of six (6)months or
an early schedule. Our confirming purchase order, better as based on our priority rating will
based on final specifications, has now been issued be maintained.
to the Gyro Electric Company. If our priority is c . You agree to proceed with engineering,
not changed, delivery can be expected in early design and manufacture immediately by
June. placing this equipment in your schedule.
Please acknowledge receipt of this letter immediately.
Yours truly, Our formal purchase order will be issued together with
ABC Engineering Corp. complete specifications at an early date.
-1
to all connected receivers sirnultaneously. done with minimum rlisturhance of other staff mcmbers. h secretary
with initiative will prove inralual~lein catching errors. In addition to
all these qualities tlic sccrctary sl~ouldbc pleasant and neat in appear-
Either teletype or telegram systems offer continuous or instantaneous ! ance since she ri~ustalso serve as receptionist for the project engineer
service by means of leased wires between points. If a leased wire is ob- and his staff.
tained, the machine instantaneously operates connerted machines. The
cost is high, since this amounts to continuously holding a line. The leased
i FILING SYSTEMS
wire may prove economical, lion-ever, when the number of messages per h filing systeni for :my typc of lnwinese operation can hecome extrenicly
day to a given office is very large. 1 cuuil~erso~nc unlcss it is kept in a consistent and logical manner. Thc
I
1
152 Project Engineering of Process Plants
Office Procedure 153
funilm~entalpurpwc in keeping files is to p~.ovi<leu rwo1.11; thc inlpor-
2.0104 P u m p . PI!-iti~cIliq~luccnicnt.
tancc of records varies, of course, ~ ~ i tthe
l r type uf business.
2.0105 Turbines, etc.
General File Thc only information which should hc filed in the General File is that
Any engineering organization should maintain some type of general which may be useful in establishing general policies. .is an illustration
file x-here policy and other general matters applicable to all operations assume that a certain type of pipe or plate mxtrrial specification is heing
may be reconled. The folloxx-ing is a typical filing system used for a discontinued becnusc of n~anufacturer'spolicy I t should be of imme-
proccss plant project general file. The numerical dcsignutions arc used t o diate interest t o all persons concerned that the partirular specification
has hecome obsolctc. A general letter 77-odd be eirculatcd to thc intcr-
indicate filc categories mi :dl c o n i n ~ ~ ~ n i r a t i oson sthat filc clerks nced
not be rcquiscd to decide on the proper file. ested department heads; a copy of this information n.ould he filed in
2.04. T h e actual filing of data in some ,single l m a t i m sue11 as a general
1.00 Ihginecring, l)cpartmental Policies. file enables anyone intcrestrrl in the l~istoryoi tlrc various policies t o
1.01 Process Ihgineering. find wanted information aithont disturbing a particular depart~nent.
1.02 i\Icchanieal Engineering. Hcnce, thc gcnernl file has some features of a library.
1.03 General.
2.00 Design Data. Project File
2.01 ;\lechanical Equipment. Any firm engaged in contracting services should establish some single
2.02 Electrical. t,ype of filing system xs-hich shoilld be used lox all projects. Such systems
2.03 Instrumentation. have the dccided advantage ol being familiar t o all pcreonnel, and the
2.04 Vessels. training of clerical personnel in filing hecoulcs a minor task. If each indi-
2.05 Piping. vidual establishes his oxvn private system of filing, there x~-illresult as
2.06 Structural Steel. many systems as there are individuals, cnch of which xill be completely
2.07 Foundations. foreign t o all other persons cxccpt those directly involved.
2.08 Architectural. The following project filing system is simple and easily learned.
3.00 Specifications.
3.01 l\Ieclranical Equipment. 1.0 Contract.
3.02 Elcetrical. 1.01 Estimate.
3.03 And utllcrs. 1.02 Contract Extras.
2.0 Design Instructions ( M a y he in loose leaf hinders).
Tliesc files can be extendcil as much as desired. Additional sections 2.01, 2.02, 2.03 (Divide the sanle as for general file).
might be, 4.00 Material Listing; 5.00 Construction Operations; 6.00 l'ro- 3.0 Correspondcncc t o and from Custonier ( E x r c l ~ t1.0 and 6.0).
curement; 7.00 Contract Pdicics. The n(lvnntng? of thc clecin~alsyst,eln 4.0 Correspondence t o and from construction Department.
is apparent. As an illustration, 2.04 could bc subdivided: 5.0 Progress and Cornmitnrent Reports.
5.1 Engineering, 5.2 Procurement, 5.3 Conutruction.
2.04 Tcsscls.
6.0 Accounting Correspondence.
2.0401 Forged Chan~bcrs.
7.0 Procurement.
2.0402 Plate Vesscls.
7.1 Shipping, Traffic, I':xpediting, 7.201 (Divide same as General
2.040'3 T l ~ i nP l a k Tanks.
File 2.00).
2.0404 Bins.
8.0 Conference Xotes.
2.0405 Elevated Storage Tanks, Water; etc.
9.0 Daily File (copies of all outg<~ing correspondence filed according
or, 2.01 l\leclranicnl Equipuient, cxtmded:
t o date).
2.0101 Pumps, l<cri))rocilting.
2.0102 Pu~r~lrs, C(t,!ltrif~~gill. The last file, 9.0 is important since it ])rovides a pmitivc means of locat-
2.0103 P u ~ i q ~Rotary.
s, ing a letter when only the approximate date of vriting is linox~n.
Office Procedure 155
154 Project Engineering of Process Plants
2. H o ~ d l ,A . C..I l n ~ r l h o o k of English in E , t g b w r i n g I!soyr. 2nd Ed.. Johu
IVi1e.v 6- Suns. S c , w 1-ork. 1940.
HUMAN RELATIONS AND PERSONNEL MORALE
3. brrvkes. F.. and R , IT-infrry, K,poi.l PI-epncolion,Iona S t a t e C a l l ~ pPress.~ 2nd
The office functions that 11avr 11ern di~cuascil:rnd most of the technical Ed., .4rnes, Iowa, 1851.
phases of thc project engineer's duties all inrolvc contact v i t h other 4. Kobc. I<. A , . C h c n ~ i c a lEngineering Reporls, 3rd Ed., Hernplrills Rook Store,
.instin. Tpxai. 1950.
people. High personnel morale, and skillful human relations niake the
5. Mills, G., and d . Walter, Technical Il.,.ifing, Rinellart Broa.. S p w York, 1954.
many personal contacts in an ofice pleasant and profitablc. 6. 5Yci1, B. H., The 2'ech,~ical I<ryol-I, Keinhold, S e w T o k , 1954.
Few individuals can ignore the fact that nearly every function in life
is based on relations with others. An cnginccr may be extraordinarily
capable in lris field and yet be completely unsuccessful or limited in his
usefulness because of his inability to work x i t h others. There are doubt-
less as many approaches to the problem of human relations its there are
personalities, and tlierc is no sirnplc solution for all situations since no
t v o persons nor groups of people react in the same pattcrn. It is certain,
hori-eyer, that few people are callous to a ronsistcntly pleasant personality
or to thouglltiulness on the part of another inriiridual.
Organization moralt? is affected by many iactura. I t may be produced
by salary inequities, poor working conditions, incompetent executire per-
sonnel, or a lack of inccntire for advancement. Salary problcnls arc
always difficult ior thc engincer who sometimes ieels that bargaining is
unethical.
Altllough working conditions are often not as important to the engineer
as to other types of personnel, any environment wliiclr is pleasing to the
individual sliould improve his general attitude and thus his production.
The usual complaint of the young engineer is the feeling of being
"buried" in a large organization. The group leader who consistently
takes over all details or iails to distrihutc responsibility is only creating
a bad mmale problem 1vhic11 oftcn results in higll labor turn-over. Many
times the intcrest o i younger personnel can be held by added responsi-
bility. Bottle-necks in engineering organizations can often be traced
directly t o a single individual, who fails to undcratand the advantage
both to himself and the organization, of maximum work dist,ribution.
The engineer's admirable faculty of becoming absurbed in a particular
prohlcm oftcn results in misunderstandings. Thus engineers sometimes
gain the unfortunate reputation of being oblivious to everything but their
work. They become accustomed to rcducing everything to somc factual
or logical basis. Huulan relations, holvevrr, arc seldom factual or logical.
Cnless the engineer makes an effort t o ~ w r dunderstanding the require-
ments of compatibility hc may find liimsclf isolated by his personality
regardless of his technical ability.
REFERENCES
1. Crouch, W. G.,and R. I,. Zrtter, A Guide Lo l'ech,iicnl li7riling, 2nd Ed., Ronald
Press Co., N e w York, 1954.
CHAPTER 11 the wrx-icv- of :in ~mginec~ring
Contracts and Contractors
:ln,l c ~ n ~ s t r n r t i ofir111
31.e reqnir~(1. An e x p c r i ~ i i ~c ~~ n~tlr n ~ t i norgnni~:~tiong
157
~ i K I I , ~ ne~x-f:irilities
V : I ~ :iln-:i?- (lo n
better and nlore rspcditious jilh of cnpinerririg nnd ~ . ~ ~ n < t r n r t ithan on
engineering an11 cimst~.~ir.tion f < w r c s of t l l v oprvatinc I~olll)~:lny i!llil+ lllllst
usually be ha-tily cxll:~niled for :I nvw lilant pro.iert.
l y 11y Y O I I I I ~~ I I T I ~ I P is t l I~elirf
E r r o n ~ ~ ~ n sIrclcl ~ tl::~t rontrn<Ting firrn.?
re often i ~ n s ~ ~ r r ~ ~1\I:ij,lr~ ~ l o ~r ~r ~n p. i ~ i ~ ~ c r i n g - c o ~ i sfirnis.
t r ~ ~ ~Iiiwerer,
~tiiln
operate much tllc sinic as any 11t11erlarge hosiness orgnnizntion. Con-
tinucil fnililrcs. nixgligrncr, l n d ci~stonicrrel:~tions.or poor pcrfimlli~nce
by the COSTRBCTOR.
~ ~
-~
TOMER shnll reimburse the CONTRBCTOR for a11 billed costs, un or beforu
the 5th dav uf the month follomine the month in r7-hich invoices lire submittiid
~
pcnx: of prrsonnel living away fnun homr, trn~eling,or nthe~n-ise~ni~lrrgnin:
espewe st the requwt of the CIISTOMEK, u p to thr :lnlorint; ileccriliid in
~~. .
b. The CUSTOMER. if he elects to do so. mav withhold from . nxvnients
"
COSTR.~CTOR 5% oi billed lnbor costa u p t o completion of contr:ictetl iiorl;
to Scht,dule of (losk, Eshibit 111. The travel timr for suclr COXTRACTOR'S
percunncl shall be fro111 tinic of departure from COXTRACTOR'S home <dice
:in11full neccptnncc by CUSTOMER of CONTR.ACTOR'S ~ o r k . If the CCTS- cil)- l o linw of r r l u r ~ lto point of ilcpnrliire.
TOMER elccts to pay CONTR-4CTOR in full 3;. inroicrtl, within the i n t c r ~ n l
for payment specified above, CUSTOMER shall he allowed a reduction iu hillell Articlr 11. Iloiirlays. T'acutio,~ I'eriuds-C'O.\~TRAC1'011'S 1'er.sonuel
lnbor costs of onr-half (%) of one per cent (1%) on labor charges. All monirs a. The COSTHICTOH n-ill :il~iUhall enst; ill c o n n ~ d o nxith paid holid:~>-s,
rritlrheld h r the CCSTOMER shall be due and ~ a v a b l ethirtv 1301 d a r s aftcr rlr \:w:ition p e r i d s nonn:~llyn l l a i d CO?;TK.\CTOR'S per-onncl rmployeil r n
recell~t of -final regular bllhng from C O N T R ~ ~ C T Oand
by CUSTOMER.
R ac"ceptnnce narkof CISSO\IKIt'S work nhrn such periods frill rrithin the dnratirin of tbis contract.
b. The CUSTOME:R may reqwat of the COXTR.iCTOK that ccrtain per.
so111d be wurked o w r neek-ends or on hulida:-s. When n ~ n t ~ ~ sngreed lly with
Article '7 L'O'V7'RACI'OR'S Labor and Cust Accoanli~igI'roced~ire tlic COYTK.iCTO11 the CUSTOMER shall rcimbursr the COXTRACTOR for
CONTRACTOH h l l i ~ ~ a ~ ~ ldiiily t : i i ~records
~ of time rxpendrd by COX- such costs according to the personnel polieirs of the COYTRACTOR, and such
'I'KACTOK'S huwly rated pcrsonnel and weekly records of time expended by pxynlrnts shall be handled according to overtime or premiuni paymentc.
monthly salaried personnel. CONTRACTOR shall maintain sepnratrly records uf c . The CUSTOMER may request the COSTR.ICTOR to postpone vacation
:dl rwts ap111iwblr to t l i ~cvntr:~ct including ~xryrolla,n1ntrri;il invoicri, eslrw-~. pr4o<lsfor rrrtain 1,ersontirl: lio\revrr, the CUSTOMER will not br rc?pon?ible
nccuiinte, cunmli~nicatiunrecords, :lud any other records n.hich iir:ry bc ruqiiirtrl for vnc:~tion pel.ioil 11:1y111lnuto COX'I'lLACTUll'S personnel in the evelit all
166 Project Engineering of Process Plants
Contracts and Contractors 167
rmplo!-rc's vacation is postponed, unless and escept mutual agrrrmmt is reached
for s ~ m i f i cimplo?-rrs between COXTRACTOR and CUSTOXIER. involved for transfer to CGSTOXIER. T l ~ cperiod of time requirrd for turning
l X P T m r l ~r c ~ o r & I I ~data shall in no c:w escrrd thirt!. i30l h\-iirnln dnte
Article 12. Empimyrnent of A'l'pir Personnel. Severance, and Twmination Pay-
ments, COKTRACTOR'S Personnel
a. -411 COSTR.iCTOR'S prrsonnel shall be consirlrrrd to be in the employ
of the COSTRSCTOR and the CUSTOMER accepts no wspunsibility for pay-
~ n e n t ito iuch prrsmind :~ccorrlingto COSTRSCTOK'S policies if terminated
by the COSTR-iCTOR.
b. Khere COSTRACTOR rmplo5-i personnel according to COSTRACTOR'S such as may be espccted for n~atcrialsor labor in connrcrion iiith the tninsier
estimate of rrqnirrd u~ork,CUSTOUKR a?sumes no rcapr~nsibilityfor duration of data to CUSTOMER.
of such work nor in any TT-ayacrepts an). obligation to COSTR.iCTOR or prr- e. Plus-percentages shorrn in Schedulr of Costs, Eshibit 11, for s11:iries and
sonnel 3s 10 length of n.ork or m~ploymrnt. wages shall not be applied to labor costs for manhours espmdeil :xftcr COX-
c. COSTR.ICTOR hall have complete freedom as to employment of persr~nnel TRACTOR givrs or receives notice of cancellation.
according to his past policirs, excrpt CUSTOMER d l not aceept incwnses in f . COXTRBCTOR may cancel contra(.t by ( 1 ) giving CUSTORIER initten
~ w s o n n d131m1. r:itrs orer average rates shown for various cat~eoriw
" of ner- notirr of such action thirty (30) days in advance and ( 2 ) iu the t:\,.n1 only of
&m.l in schrdulr of costs, Exhihi 11. failurr on the Elart of CUSTOMER to f~dfillhis part of this agreement. Such
d. Chanpes in ratrs of COSTKACTOR'S kev nrrsonnel. if mut~rallvanreed failme may be considered to be in effect if the CUSTOMER refum to r e i m h ~ r i e
rlpon bet& CIETOMER and COKTRACTOR, may be acrepted by CCS- thr CONTRACTOR promptly, or fails to n h h m r s e the COXTR.iCTOR aitcr
TOlIER; l ~ o i r v r ~ tlii
~ , CUSTOMER r i w r w s the right to rcjcct any and ;a11 receipt uf COXTRACTOR'S invuices wilhiu tlii ugrci.,l perincl of tinli,.
re-classification.., rate ch:mges, or any changes in rate structure, which would g. Tn the event of rancellation by t h i COSTRACTOR, d l fonni s h l l apply
tend to increase custs. as written imd(,r this Brticle I1 as applicable for cancrllntinn b y thi! CVSTOlIER,
Article 13. Completion of 1rol.k. O r c h m e escept that t 1 1 ~im~cellationnotice shall he given to thr, CCSTOlIER by the
a. COKTRACTOR shall make every effort to complete work as early as pos- COY-TR-\CTOK thirty (30) <la?-sin advance of such nitinn
sihlc. CTXTOMER shall not hold COXTRACTOR responsihlr for work hold-up
Article 16. COIfTRACTOR'S Drawings. Calc~rlatio~~ Shrcts, Dnta
clue to lack of data to be supplied by or through efforts of CUSTOMER. CON-
TR-iCTOR accepts all responsibility for nccnmulation of data or the rspeditiug a. All drawings, sketches, tracings, rrpmductions of any Orawing or tracing
of data from manufncturers for eqnipn~mtlisted in proposal under Exhibit I, used in the work urr the propert.y of the CUSTOhlER nu11 i11:ill be turned orer
as ile~-elope~l and/or designed b?- COYTRACTOR. to the CUSTOMKR a t any time upon receipt of mitten demand by the CUS-
b. In the event actions beyolid the COSTlLICTOR'S control, strikes, firm, or TOMER.
an?- other occilrrmcea not thr result of COXTRACTOR'S actions 81ffert CON- b . .411 calculatione, copies of calculations, rough drafts, or other data ~ w r din
TRhCTOR'S work to surioudy delay completion of the work, thit. ;xgrrcment the iwrk prepared by the CUSTOMER for use of the COSTR-\CTOK or pre-
may be r:mrrlled I1y mut1~11 cmsent of both parties. pared by the CONTRACTOR are the prolirrty of the CUSTOXIElt : ~ n dsliall
c . CONTK.iCTOK may ~ w r kcertain personnel overtime hours if it is mutn-
be turned o w r to the CUSTOMER a t any time upon receipt of n r i t t m demand
ally agrerd iipon by both parties that such rvork is necessJry. COXTRACTOR by the CUSTOMER.
c. All material list?, hills of material, or othrr rr4:itive data are the proprrty
r i l l nnt lw rt%nhurird for excess manhours nor overtime pay to personnel whew
prior conseht is not obtained from CUSTOMER; ho\vrvrr, COSTRACTOR of the CUSTOMER and bh;ill br tunled over to the CCSTOLIER upon rwi,i~>t
may, if he so desiri.d, n-ork personnel overtime hours up to n rnnximmn of 10% of written dcmanrl by the CUSTOMER.
of normal vorking hours, with such excess hours and preluinm costs charged d. Crmcellation of the contract by the CUSTOMER or thr COSTILICTOR
to his own account. shall constitute a request for the return of all data covrwd in the :ibove parn-
d. COYTRACTOR agrees to work prrsonnrl ovrrtirne hours as requested by grapla a, b, and c of this Article 15, of Part 11, of this agrerment and the CON-
CUSTOMER ,lp to :r ~nasimumof 20% in exmrs of normal hours per week prr TRACTOR shall proceed irnn~eiliatdyactwrdingly f.xrrjrt as follo\vs under e.
employee. Thc COKTRACTOR shall be rcimburied by CUSTOMER for all e. In the event the CUSTOMER fails to reimburse the COSTR:\(:TOR
rrs~iltingrosts far overtime work. \~-ithinsixty (GO) da>-s zfter prrsmtation and receipt of CONTKCTOK'S in-
e . Plus-pe;rcentages s h o ~ min Schedule of Costs, Exhibit 11, for salaries and voices COSTRACTOR may withhold all data, drawings, and othw pertinent
rrages ~11nllnot be npplic,l to premium payments to CONTRACTOR'S personnel parts of the work drscribed in this Article 15 up to such timi, as CCSTOlIER
for overtime hours. meets his obligations or some mutnal agreement is reached by br~thparties.
Arlirle 14. Cancellation of Contract Article 16. Insurance
a. ('USTOMER may canr1.1 this agreement a t any time upon giving the CON- The CONTRACTOR shall provide insurance coverage in acconlmce with
TRACTOR written norir~!t m (10) working h y s in ndvimce of such :iction. instructions from the CUSTOMER: (a) for all records or data, or an?- of the
b. In the evrnt of cancellation, the CUSTO.\IER will allow thr CON- CUSTOMER'S property located on the CONTR.4CTOR'S premises or in his
TRACTOR a reasunable period of time to prepare records or any of the data possession; ( b ) for any automobile used in CLTSTO\IEIt'S n-ork; i c ) f i r any
employee of the CONTRACTOR traveling a t the request of the CUSTOhIER.
168 Project Engineering of Process t'lontr Contracts ond Contractors 169
The CYSTOAIER sgrccs tu reimburse the COSTHACTOK for all such insurance h t i c l c 20, Assig~inie~it
of Co~itract
premiums. Irirlwr p;lrry rhnll aizign this Agreement in rrhole or in part \I-ithont the con-
sent of the other.
Article 1 7 . Patents. Royalties
a. The COSTRACTOR agrr- to save the CUSTOMER harmless from all or
nn!- costs ariein~from patrnt infringements in any desipn ntilized by tllc COY- T h e above paragraphs include most of the terms ordinarily ft!und in
TRICTOR except for proerss design initiated b?- the CUSTOMER or (leii~n contracts for engineering services. Tlic policies of the organizations
in aceordance vith CVSTOhtER'S explicit, instrnctions. in\.ulved a n d scope of the contract affect the t e r m and conditions.
b . The. COSTRACTOR will irnmcdiately bring to the CUSTOMER'S a t t i w One of the i ~ a s e sfor a n y agreement must be some statement of intent
tion drsigns req~~ested by CrSTOMER xhirh in COKTR-4CTOR'S opinirm
on tlie part of both parities. If either p a r t y can show t h a t the intent of the
wor~ld constitute infringement.
c. The CUSTOMER ~villnegotiate for and be responsible for the payment of otlicr was fraudulent a n agreement can usually hc dissolved. .Inother
all royalties, fec?, nssewments, or other costs arising out of use of licensed proc- rcquirenicnt of a n y contract or agreenient nlurt b e a n understanding
esses or ~nrthodsor materials the use of which require lirensing. or "meeting of the ininds," a s i t is sonietinles called, ~vliichis essentially
Article 18. CONTRACTOR'S Qualification, Engineering Design undcretmding bet~vccnt h e parties of t l ~ c i robligations.
a. Thr COYTRACTOR represents that he is a qualified designer of the equip- Generally most contracts include statements, sucli a s tbc follon.ing,
melrt and processes for which he accepts responsibility in Exhibit I, Proposal. to indicate the general understanding and intent.
h. Thr CONTR4CTOR accepts full responeibility for all basic mcclianic:il,
strnrtuml, end elrctrical design rnrthods used in engineering vork performed Article 31. Intent
bv him. The COKTR.4CTOR and the CUSTOMER mutrlall:- agree that these docu-
c. The COXTRACTOR accepts full reqmnsibility for process designs inclndcd m r n t s form tlie b:~.+ of a wurking agrrmrnt vhereb)- the COSTK.iCTOR is
in Exhibit I. t o perform ecrtain aerricrs diligently and as ccnnoniicnlly SI: possible and the
CUSTOMER is to reimburse the CONTRACTOR for a11 normal and rmsonablc
Article ID. Guarantee. CONTRACTOR'S Liability costs plua a percentage xvhirh constitutes the CONTRACTOR'S overhead and
a . Thc CONTRACTOR guarantees all equipment basically designed by him profit. It is further agreed that neither COXTRACTOK nor CUSTOMER shall
against failure from fault.? design for a period not to exceed one (1) year from prolit from errors in nor omissions from these documents resulting in interpre-
datr of first use in operation, rvhen such equipment is erected and usnl in the tations <lifferent from the basic intent.
service for which it was designed and intended mechanically or proccss-rr-i:e. In
the event equipment is not put into operation the CONTRACTOR'S time goar- 8rticIe 92. General C7~derstanding
antee is limited to eighteen (18) months from date of completion of work or C04TRACTOR
- ~- ~~ - - and CTTSTOPVIER.
~ - , bv
. execution of these documrnts,. reure-
.
from receipt of equipment a t point of erection, n-hichever may first, occur. a r n t , ~ n c hthat thry h:~w rxamined tlie contents iir detail and undrrstnnil f111ly
b. The CONTRACTOR'S guarantee is limited to equipment designed by him- the seopc of tlie obhg:itionr hcrrin and are in eoml~lctcagreement vith ;(I1 the
self. Equipment designed or manufactured by others is limited by the gnarantee ternis nnd r:onditions.
of the designer and/or manufacturer, except that the CONTR.4CTOR will pre-
pure specifications for such equipment to obtain the best possible guarantee in Exhibits
every respect for the CUSTOMER'S best interest. Refermcc \\.as made in the contract t o several exhibits. T h e follo~ring
c. The COSTRBCTOR'S liability in the event of mechanical failure of equip- rill serve t o illustrate o r outline t h e more important requireulcnts.
ment designed by himself shall be limited to replacement or repair of any such
equipment vithout cost to CUSTOMER.
d. The COXTRACTOR'S liability as to process production shall be limited to Exhibil i-Proposal
A proposal for a n engineering contract such a s this is usually divided
into t ~ r uparts consisting o l (0)Process and ( h ) .\lccl~anicalq ~ r r i f i c a t i m i .
proposal attachcd hereto as Exhibit I. k'rocers sperifications ~lescribe t h e pruccss in detail including r:t~v
e. The CONTRACTOR d l not he held liable for CUSTOMER'S loss-of-profit
or for cost of raw material, operating labor, and other production costs in thr material and finished product specifications, lieat a n d rl~aterialbalances,
event of process failure. and necessary flow diugmms t o describe the prucess graplrically. If parts
i. The maximum liability with respect to costs absorbed by CONTRACTOR tlit: prucers nrc dcsigned b y others, t h e proposal should clearly s t a t c
under the above paragraph d of this Brticle 19 shall not exceed fift>- (50) per the responsibilities.
eelit of the total of sums paid the CONTRACTOR as fees and/or profit o w r
T h e ~neclianicalsperifications list and describe all equipment b y means
2nd above direct costs according to the schedules of costs under Exhibits I1
i l f rkctclics ; ~ n d1vrittt.11 deacri~~tions.General specifications for purely
and 111.
170 Project Engineering of Process Plants Contracts and Contractors 171
n~crli;mical q u i p m c n t , such a s pumps or compressors, a r c inrluded in
sufficient detail Lo enable nlanufacturers to estimate prices. If possihlc
n~anufncturcr'snamcs and catalog numllers a r e included so t h a t identifi-
cation is fised altliougll the specificiations m a y not he coniplete in all
I t a i l Prclinlinary plot plans showing the scope o i r o r k , skctchcs of
pressure vrsseli., and specification sheets for heat-exchange equip~ncnt,
a s ~vellas specifications for various parts of the work such a s t h e struc-
tural, piping, electrical, and instrumentation phases a r e included.
1Io.st of tlie specifications included in a proposal are not complete
since n considcrable part of cnginecring which mill follow upon signing Overtime Payments
of the contract cimsists of t h e development of specifications. It is n o t Salaried employes, or employees not paid on an hourly hasis may reciive
uncommon f o r a C U S T O M E R t o prepare complete detailed specifications overtime payment for hours w-arkcd up to a m:~simr~m of 30% of normal
or 1l:rvc tliem prrparrd h y a11 engineering firm for tlic CUSTOAIER'S use monthly sular?-. Such owrtinlc is ralc~ilntnl on the ixlsis of Irours o w r 8 per
in obtaining bids from other firms. day or 40 per veek. The rate per hour for monthly salaried persnnncl is e m -
T h c degree of completeness uf specifications usually depends upon the puted by multiplying the fixed monthly salary by a fi~ctor,0.006. This is
e;;;rnti:illy equal to the nominnl hm1r1~-rata the COSTRACTOII shidl br rrinl-
trrlns of thp contract or types of bids or propos:ils t o be obtained. F o r burard for such overtime pay on the. basis of rat1.5 noted ;iborr n-ith r c p w t to
l ~ c t - p l u smntracts, such a s thc one described above, mecllanical i;pecifica- the culnilation of plus percentages. Hourly ratrd, nrrkly paid rmplo~-~,cs are
tioris niay be brief ~vliile fixed-price contracts ~ e q u i r edetailed speci- paid for :dl honrs worked over X per day or 40 prr ~ w e k :it
, :i r:rtr rrf 1% times
fications. If coiupletc specifications are supplicd b y the custonicr, the their fixed hourly rate. COSTRACTOR shall be rrinrburml for :ill premium
plrrascology in the bcginning o i the contract is somewhat different. I n t h e wages paid snrh miployees; hin~wrcr,the ;ihorr plus percentages qh;~l!he applied
a l ~ o v econtract, for instance, Article 1 of P a r t I would he changed, where only to hours worked at the fired homly r n t w As an illustr:~tion,niwme a per-
son in category 8 earning $2.50/hour \\-urkrd 44 hours. COKTR.\CTOR'S
t h e wordu "CONTRACTOR'S proposal" appear, to read "Specifications." billing to CUSTOMER would bc 46 x 2.50 or 66115.00 plus (44 x 2.50 X 1.10)
or 8236.00.
Exhibit 11-Schedule of Costs, Labor
Prrsomnel Sal:ir!- or \Tage Range Exhibit Ill-Schedule of Costs Material o r Services
Billed Plus Percentage
1. Project mun;lgcr 600-700/month Paid wages plus 150% 1. Comrnu,cications. c t u a l costs of telegrams, eablrs, teletype, local (n.here
2 . l'ruject e11ginet.r 50&600/1nonth Paid vages plus 150% chargeable) and longdistnnce telephone calls, plus 10%. Equipment 11-1. or
3. Spci:ilt?- engiurer 5W00/month Paid wages plus 150% rental rosts shall not be included in costs tn CIJSTOILIER. COSTKACTOR
4. lIe?ign engiucer 50&600/'month Paid rr-ages plus 125% shdl maintain accuratc records of 311 such costs in acconhnce 11-ith CfiS-
5. %tion iradrr 3.l.'+3.45/11our Pnid wagrs plus 12576 TOlfER'S requirements
6. T)c.;ignrr & l n y u t 3.0&:1.?5/hrn1r Paid r\-ages plus 1257& " , Parcel Post. Air Alazl. Alr Pared Post. Actual costs of all uleh
2 Puataoe.
7. Srnior draftimm 2.85-3.1.i/honr Paid wages plus 110% charges plus 10%. Records shall bc kept as above for 1.
8. I)r:~ftsmnn 2.50-2.85/hour Paid wages plus 110% 3. Telephone SFIU~CP. Where CUSTOMER requests telephone 5rrrice or instal-
9. Tracer, B. P.rnachine lation of tclrphones or other communication cquipment, COSTHXCTOR shall
opemior 1.50-175/hour Paid wages plus 50% be reimburird for all such costs plus 10%.
10. Sperifieation writers 2.8Kll5/11our P a ~ dwages plus 110% 4. Ofice Space and Equipment. COXTRBCTOR agrees to furnish ofice space
11. llntcrial lister 2.6%!2.85/hour Paid mges plw 100% together ~vithall necessary office furniture rrithout churge, for t ~ 12) o of the
12. Variable-typewriter CUSTOMER'S engineers. Secretarial or strnographic assistance labor shall be
operator 1.25-1.50/hour Paid wages plus 100% reimb~~rsablc in accordance xith item 14 in Exhibit 11. Snch perionm'l assigned
13. Ty~,iit-s~~et.ificatio~~s to CUSTOMER shall be understood to be in thr employ of the CONTRACTOR
r ~ hills
r of material 1.15-1 .?5/hour Paid wages plus 50% and shall observe all common rules and practices as required by COXTR-ACTOR.
14. Strnogmphic-clerical 1.1&1..50/ha11r Pnid wges phis 50% 5. Siqplies. 411 necessary supplies, except as included belo\\- under A, rr.ilriireil
15. I'rocnrcll~wt personnel, Paid wage. plus 50% for the work shall be furnish~dbv the CONTRACTOR and no costs for such
buyers, clerical 1.3&1.05/hour shall be billed to the CUSTOMER.
16. Isboratory technicians 2.85-3.15/hour Paid wages plus 125% .
6. R~oroduction Services. CONTRACTOR shall be reimbursed for :dl eoits
incurred in preparing or printing, blueprints, blur-line prints, photocopir, ditto.
For all orlm prrsrn~nelin ellginerring rntegories rewiving monthly salarim mimrograph, either vhen performed by himself or by an outside firm for CTS-
reimbursement sl~allnut be lras than paid salary plus 110%. For all other per- TOMER'S requirements. Such costs shall be in accordance ~vithstan~lanlloc:rl
172 Project Engineering of Process Plants Contracts ond Contractors
com~nerclalpractice- ~ ~ 556. l u Labor cubts for blueprint or other ~n;iehinrnper- IXDEX
stors shall hc reimbursed in accordance \\-ith item 9 of Exhibit 11, whm snch
Genrral .4crecment.
prnonnel are workrd overtime a t CUSTOMER'.i: reqneit. When CUSTOMER Ilefinitions.
e l r ~ t ihr
, mny nrrrjit charges for all matpriali u.wl in rrprodiirtion and reimhi~ri-r
COSTlt.\CTOR for lnhor w n l in t h e operarioni nc notrd ahorc in item 9 of r t I. Scope of Work.
Exhihit TI. COSTK.ACTOR shall br rrimhur?cd for costs of all mntrrinls wril Srtirlc IT. Contractor's Costs and Terms of 1'a)ment.
,,I,,* Artielr, 111. Dirrct Costs.
?..-.~ - ,,,. Articlc IY. Cons,~ni:~ble Cunstruction Supplies, Fidd Pureh:~-in:.
7. Cu~rsultationService. COSTR.iCTOR rhdl be reimbursed for an>-srrvices
Article V. Construction hhterials and Tool:, Field Purchasing.
rtquirrd of ontsidc firms as 3:rred upon with CTSTOMER. Si~cbro51s sh:111
I,,. Idlnl to Cl-STOMER liluq 5%. Article VI. Construction Labor.
Article VII. Transportation.
S . Lnborntory S w z ' i c p . Kherc COXTRACTOR provi<les inbor.rtmy servicr..,
Article VIII. Completion of Work.
w i t s for such s~rvicei~ h n l lbr agrerrl upon prior to start of work. Such cost. Article IX. C:~nccllationof Contract.
,sIr:ill include all charprs and no plus percentnpes d l be added to the agreal X . P r o t r h o n of Xetcrials and l'roperty.
Article
lipon cost. Kherr CCSSOMER requests special lnbor:~tory s r r ~ i e r hilled , r:~t~-.
lor personnel shnll hr computcd according to item 1G of Exhihit IT. .\rtirlr XI. Insurance.
!). T r a w l ('osts. CUSTOhlER n.ill reimburse CO?;TR.\CTOR for out-of- . \ r t i h X I . Guar:~otccs.
Srticlr XTII. .iisiqnmrnt of Contmct.
pocket t r : ! d costs of COXTRACTOR'S prrsonnel tmrcllin: a t Cl~STOXIER'S
Article XIT'. Siirplns h-laterials.
rrquest np to a n~aximumof 512.00 per day for employees who rcrnoin iu o -in:lc~
location for 30 dnl-a or morc contin,mn4y. For personnel mnking oi-r,rnidit or .
short trips the rates shill1 br rrnsonably greater; hoiwrer, in no ewe ~h:111li\-inq Exhibit 11. E-timite.
r q e n i c s billed to CUSTOMER exccd 815.00 prr day.
Exhibit 111. Enginrering and Other Labor.
.illovcd rxpenx items sh:rll inclod<-paymmts for first c l : railroad
~ farrz plrrz
Exhibit IV. Cmztruction 2lateri11l and Labor.
~~ullrr~;rn, nir travel, bus, or taxi or any public carrirr fares, laundr>-, and other
nurm:!l living expenses. Receipts for cxpenFe items, hotel bills, tickr,t stubs, nnil GESERAI, AGREEMEST
any other subetmtiation of pnyment shall he obtained as far as powible and held
on filr by COSTRACTOR for CIJSTOMER'S inspection mhm req~icstnl. Fisrd This Agreement m;dc and entered into tlrL-ila>~ of
rate? .specified above shall apply to t r w e l within the continrntal lilnits of tht. by and betweerr ARC Chen~iealCo., (arldrrss), hereinafter referred to ns ARC
U. 9. For foreign tmvel per diem rates shall be adjustrd to m w t local ronditiims. and XYZ Encinccring and Construction Co., (:~ildresi),brrrinnfter rcfrrred to
Telephone or other communication costs shall be r~~imhursnblr; h o w n r thr as COXTRACTOR, &tnecseth that:
ernployre shnll use collect calls if possible so that records m:~? be kept of thrse Whereas ABC desires CONTRACTOR to i,rrform rrrt:iin servicci; more coi11-
costs. pletcly described in the hercto attxhctl, listed, or referrnrwl ilrnn-irxc :iml sprci-
.Automobilr tmvel costs hen insurance requirements are met shall hr reim- fications undrr the Scopr of Work Article 1 ;
hursable a t 80.10 per mile. 411 costs incurred by CONTRACTOR for travelling Now therefore, for and in consideratiml of the paymcnt,s 11rwin;lftc.rrjwified
expense shall be reirnbursnble according to the above plus 5%. to be made to thc COXTRACTOR by ABC, :inJ in consideration of tlie terms
lierei~li~icludedthe parties hereto do agree as follui~s:
Typical Engineering a n d Construction Contract DEFIKITIONS
T h e complete engineering a n d construction contract is usually similar 1. Contract Documents. 811 papcrs, dmwings, documenk altncllrrl hereto
t o t h e form of contract for engineering serviccs exccpt t h a t it includes or includcd here\\-it11 by rrfrrenee constitute the contract documents an(\, if ;irp:i-
additional clauses undcr P a r t 11. rate liereto, arc to be con-iclrred :IS part or 1l:irtj of tbis ugrrnuent th? -:1111l, :I-
if ntt:~checl h r x t o
T h e following contract is similar t o those prepared for cost-plus with 2. Contjactor. P:irly to :~gr,:rn~ctir, XTZ Engiurrring Coml~:tny,its eseou-
fixed-fee contracts. T h e first page of t h e documcnt consists of a title: i tive ofiicers, enginrrr, constn~ctioniupcrintendnit.
3. ABC. P ; ~ r t yto agreeniant, S13C Chemicnl Co., its executivr officers,
Agreemont between project engineer, inspectors, field cowtruction enginerrs.
ABC Chemical Company and XYZ Engineering Company 4. Place of Worlc, Construction. The expressions "jobsite," or "field" are
Including Engineering, Procurement, and nnderstood to mean the placc of crretim of incilitiea. Albrrt County, Statr of
Const,ruction Services Colorado, .4BC Chcmicnl Co., Colorado Pl;mt. (\I:d :iddress .shuulrl be included.)
At The Colorado Plant 5 . Place of Work, Engineerirly. Coatrxtor's lmne or hraneh ofierr. (%hi1
addres or addresses should be included.)
T h e second page, or pages, consists of a n index similar t o illat Eollo~ving. 6. Wori:. The tern) work shall hr underitowl to incln<le labor or mntcri:il
Inrlcxes a r e most belpful for t h e longer contracts. or both.
174 Project Engineering of Process Plants Contracts and Controcfors 175
7. L o r d Laws. Tllr I;in-- of thr place or building shall gorem. ings, sprcifirations, labor, material?, and r.rjliipment as arc rrrluired to prucurr,
8. Jobsite. The trrm juhsite slinll be undcr~toodto mean place of erection fahriwtr, w e t , inml in>tidl, ready for 11-e or oprmtion, :(I1 etjuipmrwt to l>ro\.iilp
or con.wuction as desienatrd ahore in 4. the facilities awl prrirrses herein dwrrilx4 in :~rcor~lance rr-it11 C:OSTR.\i:TOR'S
9. Drawings. Dr:iir-in:; iir 11rinti ihall be undrrstood to mean reproductions proposal :itinched licrrto :ri Exhihit I .
from drni1-ing. prrp:irnl hy eirlier party but identified by written matter as a
part of the w ~ r k( v r G a h o w l . Tracingi shall br, nndcrstood to mean original Article I I . COh1TI1.Af'TOR'S ( ' o s t s mid T m m s of Pn!ilizmt
drawings from ivliich reprod~~ced cupivs or prints hare bcrn obtained. Dram-ings 1. ARC shall rrirnburse COSTKA('TOR for nll rmsts indicatrd :IF direct rosts
may be wid to he identifid ir-lien their idrntifying numbers are included in the as described hrlox ,-dus tlie prrcvntagr; indimted fur the 7-ariiriir 1r.irt; of the
contract ilonnnmts or :idilt,niia thereto. work.
10. Supplies; ('omti.iicti(~~i ifoti'i~iols.a d .llnteriuls. (a) Supplies are under- 2 . CONTRACTOR'S fee dinll hc cmnputed n- n summntion of thr plns per-
stood to mean those m:itrr~:il. of a eo~l.~u~~:ible nature exclusive of tools, such rentages :~dderl to COSTRSCTOK'S direct ro+ and d ~ n l lnot crrrnl right
ns m e r y cloth, ~:indpaper,drinking cups, i.lcric;rl supplies, fuel?, lubricants, and hundred, and fift.y thorlsand dollars 1S830,000.001, exet'pt as notcil brlmr.
any other such i t ~ n lvhieh
l :ire nrcrssary for construction but do not necesiarily 3. Estimated Selling Price: the COSTR.iCTOR eitimatcs the cmts rlf labor
enter into the ~~rmrmnent plant or remain as :I part of the plant after construc- and material and rynilxnrnt to complr.tp the faditie; derrribrd in Eshihit I,
tion is complete: ( b ) conrtnxtion materials :Irr: the h ~ a v i e rmatwi:~lswed in plus the above fre to br nrit more than t.i?lit niillion, six h~udrcil:mil tiventy-
conct.rnr:tion sucli :is scafioliiing, form lun~her,f o m ~tics (but not reinforcing five t11ou;;ind dollar. lSS,R.25,(H)O.UO)in ;icer,r,lmw nith the detailed e-timate
rod) : constrwtion buildingi togcthrr with all thrir parts including electrical included herein an Exhihit (1. ('OVTRAC'TOK dues not en:mntee ertimntr hilt
lighting, plumbing, lmting or ventkiting rquipmmt ; trmporary electrical service agrtw that the fee in itrm 2 abovi. ~Ii:dlbe n niauim~imvhen the estim:~triltotal
connections for electricaily driven ron.~tri~ction eqnipn~cnt.mircellaneous piping, cost is equal to or ruweds t h :nnount
~ :~hol-e.
and miscrll:~neous bnlk material; i ~ fall kinili used for constn~ctionbut removed 4. Fee Increasc rlr Cliangr,. The C'OSTl(ACTC)R'S fee in itcm 2 iibii~eshall
after crrnrtruction i; complrted; (c) uintrri;~liare generally ~lnilrrstoodto mean br increased or changed only. ( o ) TThm :,nil if thr :~huvrestim:~tml total selling
permnnrnt materials -ilrli ai the eiilnl~oliiwt of concrete, or stone, sand, and prim: exceeds thp actual coits of the ~ o r k the , C0STR.iCTOK'S fee >hall b r
cement; brick, mortar, niiscrllancous fill m;itcrials, n-elding rod, rivets, miscel- increa.ed by an :nnonnt q u n l to t w n t ? per cent (XI':) of tlie differrmrr between
laneous bolts. CONTR.iCTOR'S cstinl:lte and a r t i d total mst. This increase shall he nnder-
11. Co~zstmctio~i Tools. (o) Smnll tools, ronsumable: icren-drivers, pliers, pipe stood to be a bonus p:iynient; ( b ) d ~ e andn if the scope of xork hcrein shall bc
and other wencher less than cighteen in. (18") in length hack r a m , hack saw increased by ARC by additions or c h a n q s increasing COSTRACTOR'S vork or
blades, chisels, h a ~ n n ~ r r welding
r, sots, ~vrlding (oxyncet>-lune) hoses, etc.; ( b ) equipment or materiulr in mutonlly :tpreerl upon c11:1nges,the CONTR-iCTOR'S
hand tools: hand took are gmrmlly unrlcrstood to nleari the larger tools such fee shall he increased by an a~nounteqnal to ten prr rent of thc artnal costs of
as axes, shorcls, s p n i l y wheel l>:irroi~-s, rnnent buggies, dollies, sledge hammers, such increases or chnnges. .ill such extrxs shdl he kept separate from total
etc.; ( c ) driven tmls: electric or pneiinx~ti~:, drills, grinders, hammers, rivet- costa of original estimate and shall not affect the honr~spaymrnt above in sec-
puns, r:inlking tools, inip:ict 77-rrnches, e t c : Id) m:rhinr tonlr, smill: portable tion a ; (c) when and if the scopi, of ivork herein shall be r r h : e d hy .4BC as
electric or pneun~ntir:1i11i-t~, pipe and conduit bmiing and thre:~iIing machines, changrs or modific:itions, the actn:il cost rduction sh:ill be conlputed as a per-
portablr air compresmrs, ~wlilingmachines, etc.; i e ) ronstrnrtion tools, large: centage of the above e.timntrd belling price item 3 and COSTRACTOR'S
steam or electric drivm hoisting mginer, guy, :ind other typesof ilr:rricks, inelnd- fee ilia11 he red~wcdhy a likr l~erccntage. Thr n~arimrtmred~~ctinn in COX-
ing cuhlrs, sheavci, Iirioks, slings, sidfdrir~ncmnee, grading machines, tractors, 'TR.4CTOR'S fee d m to reilnrtirm in -rope uf w ~ r kshall not eucrrd one hunilrtvl
trucks inchding a11 their :1lil,urtrn:mrw IIeavy rn:~chinetools installed (fixed mil eight~yfivethowaml dollars (SlS3,000.00), t w e p t in the e w n t of cnncelia-
base) for use during conotruction inrh ;IS 1;1thw,drill 13WSWS, metal P:I\VS,etc.
12. Security. The word recurity sh:ill be lirnd~mtourl to mean ARC'S plant,
security or protectiun organization, or the organization prtwided by CONTKAC-
i tion under Article IX.
5. Accounting :ind Billing l'roceilure.
TOR to police the riin.<tmction areas. ( N o t e : See Articles 5 a n d 6 of t h e Exnniplc Engineering Services Only
13. Premises. Prrmises shall be understood to Incan :illC's property either Contract. T h e hilling pri~eedure f o r a n y contract \vli~,reo ~ v n c r p a y s
the immediate constmction area or :idj:icent, or other ;arcns owned by .4BC or direct costs plus n percentngrx consists in prescntntion of t h e contmctor's
usrd by ABC. invoice plus substantiating dnte in llie form of attached papcrs or refcr-
14. Trade Names, Terminology. W r r e tr:~denanies are used in descriptions cnce t o t h e contractor's rccoriiu. Generally for labor charges copies of
or specifications, t h ~ yshall be as tipplic;~bleas form:~lrlrseriptions. I t is nnder-
stood that the contractor is ~xpcrirmrtdin tlie type of w r k to be performed and I
actual payrolls lilust he included. V s ~ i n l l y papcrs such as vendors'
expressions connnon ti, thc tmde sh:111 :~gpl?- and be nccepiable. invoices a r e held b y contractor since obtaining sufficient copies for o x n e r
15. 8quip,ntwt. TYliere tlie wurd equipnirnt is included herein it is under-
stood to mrnu proecs.* or pcrm:~nenLplant equilmrnt s s installed or erected or
purchased f i r ubc of ATiC
Article I. S r o p e of 1l.ork
j a s ~ v c l as
l contractor is w ~ n e t i m e sdifficult. I n order t o prove a n expendi-
ture f o r equipment t h e contrartor ordinarily h a s three instruments:
11) contractor's purcliast. order, 12) a ficld irceiving report, a n d ( 3 ) a
ropy of t h e vendor's invoirr. Thcse a r e sufficient in most cases since if
The CONTRACTOR s h d furmsli d l nccrrsarj- denlgns, instructions, dram- t h e contractor ackno~vledgcst h a t h e h a s t h e vendor's invoice he is com-
178 Project Engineering of Process Plants Contracts and Contractors 179
regulation?, orders, dirrctirrs, or statutes npplic:~hIc to wage and emp1o)-ment 2. Unlcre prevented by r;i~i;cs he>-onrl his control COVTR.\CTOR proposes
practices, and to act in accord311(~1'vith the poliric>sof ABC on matters which to romplrtr all the fncilitie,+hwcin inclnrlcd not more t l ~ mc~izhteet~ n m n t h ~aftm
affect area practir.c? and n-llirh nlizht tend to set prrwdent.. Constructi~nlahor rzerwtion rlf thi* n~rrc~ment
wage rates in Exliib~t ST- form the hasis for COSTR.iCTOR'S estimate in 3. CONTR.iCTOR agrees to schrdnli hi? rr-ork for cnrnpletion in arcortlnnrr
Exhibit IS. The COKTR.\CTOR will nut enter into agreements with various ~vithtlir prere<lrnw : ~ g r e dupon with :\li(' nml ilr~scri1)mlin Eslnbit I .
lahor organizations nnplo:-ril in tlip ir-ark iihicli tmd t o increase such rates 4. TVlicnrvcr any l n r t of the n-01.6 .s11~11l x complctml :and r c d y for uperation
withont previous notificntion to A13C. ARC may tzkr over thnt fartlity : ~ n dopernte it: horr.rrr, thr takino over or
2. The COXTRACTOR r i l l n1nint:iin si~it;~hle temporary sanitan- and shelter operation of ;in>- part of thr completr,il n-rrrk rhall not necrs;arily constitute
facilities for use of its rrnploy,e;. C0STRACIY)It'S empl~yecssha.11 not trespass acceptance on thr part ~f SHC, ;1n0 COSTR.iCTOR shall lir obligated to
on nor usr sanitary or other of .iBC's plant facilitiiw. complete any unfinirhcd parts of the f:~cilit~- and s11;ill he rrslmn.~il)lefor error?
3. The COXTR-iCTOK rrill employ n c o m p e t ~ ~ ~t
registered nurse and provide nr omissions discovered aftcr onerntion bv ABC the samr a . if the facility had
suitnhle cxamin:ition and first-aid facilitiw contiimo~ldy at the jobuitc during not brrn put into opei-a t'Ion.
constrnction. Pro\-isions d l alio be m:ide for prompt mrdic:rl aid and hospitaliza- 5. When all "arts of the ~ o r :irek comulrtnl to the sati~S;rctionof ARC, then
tion in the nrarest facility for snrh servicri. BBC shall proLvide COSTR.4CTOR \rich an :i~~thorizedaccept:lncr at rrhirh
4. COSTR-iCTOR'S rrnpli)y~csirhrn on A1IC's plrmises shall rumply with time 1111 frinils or paymenti due :ind/or ~ ~ i t l ~ lsliull
~ d i lbe due and piy:~hIc to
,211 general rules and regnlatii,ns :is reqnired b\- ABC. COXTRACTOR'S em- COXTRACTOR.
p1uyee;i shall not 1m1-c COSTI{.\CTOI1'S n-<irk :Irw slor risit r~thcrparts of
Ant's premises n-ithollt prrmission, in nrmrssar>- ~lltholity,unless in the line A r t d e I X . Ca~icellationof Contract
of duty and/or n-hcn :~ccrirnpmiedby an mmplriyr of .iIX 1. This agreement m l y hr, rxncellcd by .\nC nt nny timr npon giving COX-
5 . Disrrgar~lfor rides mi practicw ns rcqriired b:- ABC by an employee of tho TRACTOR written notice ten (10) < l a y in nilranci of s w h actiun. The
COXTRACTOR ?11:111he sufficient jnstifiriitii,n for disn~i,-sal. COXTR.iCTOR shiill h ~ nllo~~-ed
: n re:~soll:~ble timr: firr transfer of all parts of
6. Employers ilid~iirpc~d for r:nl.e hy COSTK.iC:TOH or by ABC's rrquest the m r k in his posse-+ion to .iBC:. The pei.io<l of tnne nlloived niter noticr
shall not br: re-empla?-t,il 111-COiiTR.iCTOR for work nndrr this agreement. of eancelintion shall h,k n o i r ~as~ i l ~ C
r S C E I . I , . \ T I O I period. In no r:isc shnll
7. COXTR.\CTOR'S ~ ~ m p l o y cs11:ills he prorcssed for idrntification and he tho CAXCELLATIOV period excerd thirty (30) days from date of rcccipt of
provided xith identifiration b:idgcs nrcrptable to ABC. The processing of notice of cilncellation.
COSTRACTOR'S prrsonnrl to meet smurity regnlatims shall be carried out 2. If cancellation is rffectcd after CONTRACTOR has made commitments
in st,rict acrordanrc with instn~etions from .\BC. The COSTRBCTOR will for morc than fifty per cent (30%) of the eitini;ited value of m;itr,rials :~ccording
maintain a t the johsite a srpnratr file on vnch employee regukirly employed in to CO?JTR.\CTOK'S e h n n t e as s11o~l-nin Exhibit 11, thru COXTRACTOR'S
COSTRACTOR'S r o r k or intermittently visiting thc jobsite. All employees fee, eight hnndred and fifty thousand ilull:rrs (S8.50,000.00) shall be due and
visiting the jobsiti: s11:ill fiillon. initmetions with reg:iril to secnrit,y and ident.i- payable within thirty (30) days after noticr: of cancellation is rwrived
ficntion tha same as i f reg~dnrlyenililr~y~d at the jobqite. .Any of ABC's security 3. If cancellation iz rff<.ctcdbefore C0XTR:iCTOR hns in:~derommitlnents 11p
officers m:by at any lime requcst pmprr identifiration a l ~ d i o rthe employme& to fifty per cent 0 of the eitim:~trdm l r ~ e of m:rtrri;di nccorrllng to
history oi any per,xmnel. COXTRACTOR'S estimate as shown in Exhibit 11, then C:OXl'R:\CTOIt'S fee,
8. Certain of COXTRACTOH'S personnel may be prmnitted to bring personal eight hundred and Eft\- thollsnnd rlollnrs i~S.i0,000.00) shall hi. rri111rwl to the
nutornobiles within ARC'S pl:~ntprtwi>cs. Infractims of rules or rceulations nrtud plus percentn~eon I:ihor nnd rnnterinl enrnrd ,111 ti, the time of c:~nrdl:itinn.
with regard to us? of anti~molilesd l automnt,icnlly rerokc any such pcrmit. 4. COXTRACTOR shall continllr to fnrnish all nci.csi:lry per3onncl and m:rke
In gcnrml all construction per,mmnel sh;~lluse thc ABC plant gate desigmted even. effort to expediently transfer dnt;i and other for~uq,drnxinps, opecificntion?,
for COKTRACTOR'S entranci:. T h r n other entrances are used COXTRAC- ordrrs as prepared Ear :xnd used in the work to .\ti(:. COSTR.iCTOR
TOR'S personnel nmrt obtain a special pass from wcurity. shall be rrimbursrd for a11 such costs in aiirmlnnce vith thc srheilr~lesof costs
9. Tendor's reprtwntntivcs or other pr7sons visiting COXTR-ACTOR'S officrs and plus-pcrrcntages :~pplic:ihle tlicrrto ,113 to timr of nutire by .\KC to
for business purposes shall romply ~vithAAC's plant regulatiol~swith regard to CONTR.4CTOR of completiou of eancelintion and tr;insfrr of dntn :~ndmnteri:~ls
visitor3 and m s t bc identified by delegated COKTRACTOR'S personnel. The to ARC.
COXTRACTOR shall be responsible to ABC for such persons. Unlcss special 5. I n the event of cancellation AllC shall h r c the right to imme<liatrly enter
permission is obtained such persons are not to be allowed access to any part of npon the premises a t any timc aftcr noticr of r,:incellntion and t:ikc over a11y
the work except COXTRACTOR'S ollices. part or parts of the ~vork it so chooses. togetllcr with all m:~terinls, tools
ARTICLE VII. Trarrsportation either on-ned by itself or by COSTRAWOR, anil con~plete the ~vork. The
CONTRACTOR shall route all rn:~t~,rials over carriers designilted by AUC by COKTRSCTOR shall be paid rt,;~wnnblermtnls as agreed upon 1~1thABC for
means of traffic maps 11rovidcd for the COXTRACTOR. use of his tools or if he so rlccts lie may n w o r e such tools from ABC's
provided (a) the remov:d of such tools d l not affect conlplction of
Article VIII. Completiu~rof Work work; (b) such removnl is :~greenhleto AUC: (ci rnrh rtmornl is charge11 to
1. CONTRACTOR agrees to diligently prucecd ~ r i t hall parts of the work for the CONTRBCTOR'S crict. COSTR.\CTOR'S tools wed by B C for conl-
ABC's best interest. plrtion of the work mill be disn~nntlerl,loaded and/or o t h e r ~ ~ i sprepared e for
182 Project Engineering of Process Plants Contracts and Contractors 183
VESSEL FABRICATION
The Shell
Pressure vessels and tanks for process plants are usually of cylindrical
shape. Bending rolls are used to form the cylinder.
'The codes referred to in this section, unless otherwise stated, are the API-ASME
and the ASME codes for "Unfired Pressure V e ~ s e l s . ' ' ~ . ~
I87
188 Project Engineering of Process Plants Vessels 189
A bending roll is shown in Fig. 12-1. The top roll imposes the bcnding i~rcl-entoxidation. Arc nelding can be ~rlanualor automatic. For large
forces on the plate and the distanec b e t w e n the top and bottom rolls longitudinal and circumferential seams automatic welding mael~ines
controls the diameter of the cylinder. The rolling may be done cold on p r o w particularly advantageous. For circumferential seams the cylinder
thin plates of smaller size. Prior t o rolling, the ends of the plates are is mowd :ind t l ~ ctorch remains stationary. The opposite procedure is
shaped t o the desired radius in a press using a radius-forming die. B y fnllo~veilfor longitndinal seams.
this procedure, perfectly round vessels can be made. After rolling, h c e t y l ~ n egai ~veldingis common, especially for welding thin plates
the edges of the plates are planed t o prepare them for welding. and small attachments. I n addition, acctylenc welding is a necessity in
:my vessel fuhri~xtions11op fur n l m y utility purposes. A few of it.
uses are: f1:nne haril~ming of small 11art5, cutting, and tack-~vcl~ling
.ccti,in~ l~riorto antonlatic arc ~vcliling. Gns \velding is alsu used ill
brazing n.hic11 is the joining of metals with a nonferrous filler without
~nelting the base metal. Other welding procedures such as atomic-
I~yilropcu, flaA resistance: thcrmit, and submerged-melt xvelding are
use11 for sl~crialtypes of work. For a detailed discussion of welding
t c c l ~ n i q u ~tbc
~ s , rwdcr is refcrred to standard n-urks on t b r subject.
TT-clrling of vessel -rams generally requires the application of ~ c v c m l
luyers of ~vcldmaterial. It is necessary that great care be exercised in
making surh "multipass" ~vclrls. The surface of each weld pass must hc
tl~orouglilyclcanr~land cxainined hefore proceeding r i t h the next pass t o
insure good penetration nnd freedom from cracks, slag inclusion, and
other n-cakcning dcfccts. A faulty weld can be disguised by a satisfactory
final meld pass.
The wider's torch has also l ~ c c o ~ na en invaluable tool for cutting metal
to any desired shape. 3lechanically guided cutting torches are used cx-
tcnaivcly and job.: that xvonld bc tedious when handled by ordinary
mecl~aniralmethods can be done a i t h case when a cutting torch is used.
Fig. 12-1. Bending 1.011s:241 inehcs long, 96ineh OD shcll being rolled from %-inch Shell Plates
plate. (Courtesy uf Lulicns Stccl Company.) Plates for the fabrication of vessels are usually ordered by thickness.
Plates made by a sliearcd-plate nlill are preferred because they are of
Welding I ~ r t t e rquality and are available in a greater number of sizes. They can
Welding bas bccome the most common means of joining metals. Burst- I I obtainul
~ in n rvidc varicty of thirknrsses, the most comiuon being
ing tests invariably prove the weld t o bc stronger tlian tllc shcll itself. f r ~ m in. to 1 in. in increments of in., 1 in. to 1y2in. in increments
Such welds, however, must be made by compctcnt welders. Elaborate i ~ %
f in., an11 1y2 in. to 4 in. in increments of % in. Lengths up t o 800 in.
tests t o qualify welders arc given in the various vessel codes.l.2 are produced in the thinner plates. The maximum width obtainable is
A number of very excellent weldinc- nrocesses are in use. Shielded arc around 195 in.. although widths over 100 in. carry a n extra width charge.
. If both the circumference and length of a shcll are greater than 195 in.,
welding is perhaps the most common method used in vessel fabrication.
An arc is produced between a metal electrode and the base metal. The it b c c ~ ~ m cnecessary
s t o employ two or more plates to fabricate the vessel
heat created causes melting of the electrode and portions of the base (Fig. 12-2). Since extra charges on w i d t l ~start a t 100 in., it may prove
metal near the arc. Tlie weld is formed by the fusion of the metal from economical t o use more than one plate in certain instances for sizes re-
the electrode and the base metal. The welding rods (electrodes) are quiring plates ovcr 100 in. wide. A comparison b e t ~ w e nplate width
coated with a flux which, when heated, produces an inert gas blanket extras and tlle additional costs of fabrication with ~nultiplcplarea iunst
around the arc and deposits a protective coating of slag ovcr the weld to be made.'"
190 Project Engineering of Process Plants Vessels
Vessel Heads
1de:illy. a splirriral-shnprd prrssurr w s w l is the niost desirable sinre
it withstands higher l~ressuresfor a given nietal thickness. Spherica!
vessels are used in the dorage of volatile liquids and gases, but they are
not suitable for the construction of tlie usual process vessels. The cylin-
drical-rliaped vessel is the next best design and is u w l most extmzively.
The heads for sucli vessels ilia? be flat, cllips~~idal(elliptical dished),
dished, hemispherical, or conical. Examples of such designs arc given
Nozzles
All process vessels require nuzzles for the fluids t o enter and leave the
vcasel. for drains, l~andhi~les,and uinnholcs. Tlicrc, nozzles may be fabri-
catcd of pipe, pipc couplings, forged steel nozzles, cast steel fabricated
plate, or other suitable material in accordance xith tlic code requircn~ent.
.UthougI~ thc codes'.? permit the usc of both fusirm rveldcd or threaded
attacliments, the usc of tlrrcaded attachnicnts is gencrdly avoided.
Cutting of holes into tlie chell of tlic vessel for the installation of
uozzles !wakens tlic vessel; and, thcrcforc, reinforcement around tlic
nozzlc is required. Detailed rules for such rcinforce~ncntare given in the
codes.',"orged strcl v.elding necks of lengths sufficient t o protrude
hcyond vcsscl insulation are mars-pruduccd by scvcrnl manufacturers.
The lengths uf such nozzles have been standardized, and it is customary
in designing vcssels to adhere to standard lengtl~s,whethcr tile nozzle he
purcllased ur fabricated from pipe. So-callcd melding-type nozzles arc
also available. These arc made x~it11integral reinforcing necks and do
not require tlic additional reinforcement necessary for wclding neck
nozzles.
Connections for srnall drains and vcnts one inch and under are usually
made x i t h pipe couplings. A hole s~nallcrthan the inside dianlcter of
tlic pipe coupling is drilled or cut into thc vessel and the coupling is
w l d e d to the surface of the vcssel unly. The urc of nipplea instead of
couplings is ronaidercd poor practice, since tlie tlircads are constantly
exposed during installation and can easily be daniagcd.
Vessel lnternals
A large percentage of process vcssels requires certain internal elcments Fig. 12-4. Bubble t r y . (Courtesy of Frite \V. Gliisch & Sons, Ine.)
to eflcet the changes in the materials passing through thc vcssel. T h ~ s e Key:
include bubble trays, packing, and packing supports for distillation 1..idjoetablc ~ e i seal
r plate. i 6 7.4. Periphanl tray rlnmp8.
to\\-en, lirating bundles, baffles, agitators, and othcr simililr ilrviccr. 2. Trapezoidal minor blvsa. 8. Removable cap and riser :~ssrmhly.
I'sually, the vesrcl intcrnals are not manufactured by thc vrrsrl f;lhri- 3. Channel-shaped minor truss. 9 6 S.i..Hold-down meclhniw ior
cator, since nlost such items are of special design t ~ n drcquire a tcchnicnl 4 9r 4.4. Top-type tl.usr liangm.s. internal tray mnnlr.:tya.
5. Thermal expansion joint hrlwrm 10 6 10.4. Downromer clamping hst.s.
know-how peculiar to a particular organization. Bubble trays and calls tray floors nnd supporting ~I.II.SCS. 11. Adjustuble ~reirs.
represent a typical example of vessel intcrnals wllich arc purchaseit fro111 6. Intepml minor support in truss. 12. Fabricated stlvctuml majot. l m ~ m .
n ~r~anufacturer specialiaing in tlicse items. T h e vessel fabrieatur, lio~v-
ever, provides the tray supports. I t is dcsirahle for all vessel internals to be designed so that they may
Lightweight alloy steel plates and bubble caps are in extensive use a t bc removcd from tlie nlan\\.wys in the vessel. Large pieces of equipment
this time, and the support problem is 1nuc11 less t h n in the day uf the must be arranged so that they may be taken apart and removed in
heavy rvmt iron tray. A typical modern-type bubble tray arrangeuieiit sections.
Project Engineering of Process Plonts Vessels 195
194
ciency. I t is particularly advisable to radiograph the Iargc longitudinal
External Appurtenances and circumferential aeams of all important vcssels.
I n a&lition to the nozt,ler, inanholes, and liandholes that m u d he con. Shop and Field Fabrication
nected to the average process vessel, certain other exterior atta(.li~l~ent?
are usually rcquired. These includc angles for the support of insulatim. Because of the superior equipment and working conditions in a fahrica-
lugs and various brackets for the support of platforms and ladders which tor's shop, field fabrication should he kept to a minimum. Large dia~neter
are to be ~ t t a e h c dtu the vessel, and skirts for tlie support of the tower vessels (20 t o 30 f t ) , however, must be field fabricated. Rolled sections
a t the required elevation. Thcse items are supplied by the vcssel fabrica- (arcs) of the shcll 7 to 8 f t wide are shipped t o the jobsite. V h e n plan-
tor and ~velriedto the vessel prior to shipment. Structural grade steel ning any vessel over 10 ft diameter by 35 f t long, railroad agents should
is normally employed. be consulted. Sizcs above this d i i c h can be shipped depend largely on tlie
railroad facilities scrving the area. Lengths up to 60 to 80 it have been
handled using special cars, but such shipments must be carefully planned
Stress Relieving
early in the job.
Residual stresses are produced around the wclded seanis of vessels.
Such strcsscs weaken the vessel a t these points, particularly in thicker Vessel Inspection
ressels (above 1% in. tliicki. I n these instances and in all c a m where The vesrcl codes require inspection by somc puhlic inspertnr, such as
liiaxiniuro safety is rcquired, the wssel 1s stress-rclieved t o eliniinate state, municipal, or insurance company inspccturs. before the vr.sscl can
surh residual stresses. Tlie codes',2 permit a higher joint efficiency if he certified as romplying nil11 llw mdcs. Prior to this inspection, the
stress relieving is used.* purchaser should havc inspected the vcsrcl during all phnses oi its
Strcss relieving is an annealing or heat treating process which relieves fabrication. This includcs inspection of the plates and heads as they
residual stresses. The operation varies, depending on the material of arrive a t tlic fabricator's shop, study of mill test reports,' and thc
construction. For instance, carbon steels are heated t o approximately follo~vingof all operations including the final hydrostatic test of the com-
llOOF and then cooled slowly. Most austenitic stainless steels are pletcd vessel.?
heabed to around 2000" F and then cooled rapidly in order t o prevent
carbide precipitation characteristic of these metals in the range of 800 t o THEORY OF PRESSURE VESSEL DESIGN
1600" F. Precipitation of the rarbides in stainless steel destroys the Rules for the design and fabrication of rmfired pressure ressels h a r e
currosioo resistance. been carefully outlined by two major codcs whir21 arc used by tlie proccss
A mell-equipped vessel fatxication shop has large electrically heated industries. These are the ASME and the API-ASXIE codes for unfired
furnaces capahle of receiving almost any size vessel that can be shipped pressure vessels.l,2 They are based on the judgment of experts. A11
in one piece. 1,arge vessels that must be welded in tlie field can be stress- process vessels should be constructed in accordance with tlic rules of onc
relieved around tlic rvclds using gas fired portable furnaces. Several low of there codes.
temperature strcss-relieving processes are also used. These employ Before proceeding with a discussion of design equations a hricf
special oxyacetylcnc torches which apply heat to the area a t the welds, theoretical background is desirable. The formulas given in the codes
followcd by n water spray. for determining the minimum shcll and ticad thicknesses are very simple
Because of the widc differences in physical properties of metals, it is and easy to use. Many occasional users, therefore, forget the limitation
imperative that the propcr stress-relieving procedure be outlined by a and the basis of these equations. Such indiscriminate usc, which has
compctent metallurgist. been encouraged by the large numbers of so-called rapid vessel design
calculation charts, lead t o poor design.
Radiographing
* M i l l test reports give the physiral and e h e m i ~ a lproperties oi the piirticul;lr stpel
When the greatest confidence in the soundness of a construction of a that was used b y t h e steel mill in ~rrnnufaeturingthe platcs being used f u r the vessel.
vessel is desired, radiographing (X-raying) of all welds is done in urder t o i Vesscl~are hydrostatiealiy tcsted t o on?-and-a-half timcs the maximum working
prewurc. A t this test pressu1.c all neklrd joinis are subjertcd t o impact by hammer.
detect defects. Hecnuse of the greater kno\vlcdgc oi weld quality, the
the weight of whirh is equal :ipp~.uximatel>-t o thc t h i c k n w ui the shell in trnths of
codesl.2 permit a lower safety iactor in the form of a higher joint effi- a n inrh. A numhrr oi variations of t h r e t w t s nre possihle depending o n the vcssel
size, thickncm, material, and athcr siruilar iiicturs.
* S e e Table 12-1.
196 Project Engineering of Process Plants Vessels 197
. and K ,arc equal 111K thc r:dius of thc spht:n,.
I n the r.ast3 of :I s p h ~ r eR,,,
Thin-walled Vessels
and hecause of this symmetry 110th S, and St arc the same.
Thin-TT-alledvessels as defined by the ASJIE Code have thicknesses
less than one-half of the inside radius.' Such vessels constitute the Ilence,
niajority of tliose encountered in process plants although high prebsure
operation, such as tliat necessary for ammonia synthesis reactors (10,000
to 12,000 psi!, rcquirc thicker walls and the usual analysis for thin ~ ~ a l l s
is not applicable. For thin-mlled vesscls equal stresses along the entire
For a cylinder I?,,, is infinite and R Lis equi~l10 lhe ritdiuh of 111~1ryli~rdcr.
Hence
S-,
= +St I'
=
S , = -I'R
=f - I'D,"
2t
thickness of the \\.all enn be assumed. The 1,ressurc a~,tiiignitliin snch a
cylindrical vessel produccs longitudinal and circuinferential or tangential
The ni~ridionalstress, 1vhi1.h in the case of a rylindcr is caller1 the lougi-
dresses as shown in Fig. 12-5. These stresses can be ealculatcd by
t ~ d i n : ~strrss
l (S,,),is ohtained 11y considering the shell in the ~lirertionof
nsi.uming rquilihriun~between tllc opposing forces. The derivation for
th~~ t m t r line.
r From Fig. 12-5 it is seen that the t,otal stress :it the en11
thc riiiil~leryiiniler is familiar t o inany and is givcn in :my standard work
of t h cylinder
~ is aD,,,lS,. Opposing this is the pressure acting in the
on strength of niatcrials. I k n Hartogs has presented a iiiost cnliglitcn-
lorigitudinal direction, 1'aUm2/'4.
ing gcner;tlizcd derivation frolu which equations for any slrcll produced
by rerolntion of a n clement can readily he deduced. His gencml cyuation
is 3s follo~rs:
-S +
, -= S, P
R, R, t
n-here S, = meridional stress, the stress in a plane v i t h the center line of 'l'l~us t l ~ ct;~ngcntinlstrrss is the, larger ;1ni1 nwil 1 1 the
~ only on,. [.on-
rohtion for the membrane and acting perpendicular t o t'lic -i~lerctl in calculating the wall tl~ickncs,*rcquircd fur ;I tllin-w~tllcd
ccntcr line rylinder to \vithrtnnd a givcn internal Ilresture. TIE tangential stress
St = tangcntial stress, acts in a tangcnt t o the circular cross section in a cylinder is often referred to a s the hoop stress.
perpendicular t o the center line
I f 1 = uormal distance between the center line and a point on the Codes
shell (for a cylinder, the radius) Some very excellent rules and regulations governing the design and
X,,= ladius of curvature in meridional plane, infinity for a cylinder fabrication of pre.ssure vesfiels and tanks liavr l w n pulilisl~ctlin the for111
P = internal pressure, psig of codes. The folio!\-ing is a rcpresentativc, hut not romplctc, list of rob
t = thickness of shell wl1i1.11I I Z ~ C i:orui11l:11(~~I
: I I I I ~ i~r~gaiii~:itionr 1111c.sfor ves~1.1:mI t:mk 1~111-
' Thc Al'I-ASME Code specifies one-tenth of iuaide dimnrter. stl'ucti(1n.
Vessels 1W
198 Project Engineering of Process Plants
ence t o the ASXIE code and thus avoids repetition of these regulations,
\PI-.iSME Code; Unfired Pressure Ywseis for Petroleum Liquids and Gases. I t is not surprising that certain differences have developed between the
S M E Roiier Code Section VIII; Rules for Constmrtion of Unfired Preszure two codes. many of which are minor and result froln differences in wording
l~esiels.
American Petroleum Institute; Specifications for Oil Storage Tanks, Section that h a w produced variations in interpretation. Perhaps the m0i.t im-
xo. 12-C. portant variation is the definition of qualified inspectors; the ASME.: mrle
Underwriters Laboratories, Inc. seems to have improved the system of inspection.
Kntional Board of Fire Underwriters. The ASME code now contains a more complete list of permissible
.\nrerican Factory Mutual Fire Inzurance Companies. materials and a more recent method for calculating thickness of vessels
.\rnericnn Bureau of Shipping Rdps for Clafsificntion and Construction of
Sterl leiiels. subject t o external pressure. These differences are due t o variations in
philosophy that occurred between the groups responsible for formulating
Of thc above named organizations and codes, the code published by the t,he rules.
American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) and that published Situations continually arise in the design and fabrication of pressure
jointly by the ASME and The American Petroleum Institute (API)" are vessels which make int,erpretation of the code difficult. The Boiler Code
the n u ~ s videly
t used rules for vessel design and construction. Knowledge Committee, therefore, accepts inquiries about code interpretation and
of thc historirnl bnrkground of t h e e codes is of valuc in their interpreta- mccts monthly for discussion. Decisions made in these meetings are sent
tion. Samansl' has compared the recent editions of the two codes most
cffectirciy using nn historical approach.
I to the inquirer as well as pnhli.hed s ~ ~ h s e q u e ~in~ tJfechnnicnl
lg
ing, the official publicat,ion of the ASME. In like manner, questions can
Engineel.-
Hence t = PD1
2SE - P
+C (2)
T h e A P I L i S J I E code lists cq. 2 and a similar one hased on t,he o ~ ~ t s i r l c
diameter. The .iSJIE approaches the prol~lem of ohtaining n mnrc
accurate mpan stress value by adding 0.ti of the thickncss to t,he radius
glrmg the equation,
I'R
t = (3)
SE - 0.W
where R = insidc radius in in.
C:oniliarisun wit11 equation 2 will indicate only a slight difference if
R is cl~angedt o 1 1 , by multiplying nulucrator and dnlrminator by 2.
Similar comparisons between the basic theoretical equations and the
i\-orking quntiuna presented II? the codes can be given for c:lr.l~ of t l ~ c
v e ~ s e lshapes. It is helpful for the project engineer to bccome fn~riiliar
v i t h the barkground rlf each frequently used formula as given by the
codes so that the limitations may be clearly understoo(1.
I n p a r t i d a s it should he rccognizcd that sllell t11ickncs.s formulas girt!
I~ared on the thickness required for the stresses created by internal
e c . I.(~arlingssuch a3 de:d loads (due to w i g h t of vessel anti
~ , o n t t v t ~n-iml
i . ]<lads,tcmperaturc stresses, and otller lo:& I\-hirh 111:iy
owur l ~ i u s he t considered separntely. Often the ~ v i n dload on n high towcr
\\.ill govvln the thickness of the lower courses of the t m e r .
Frequently w e d vrssel design equations are sr~minarizedfor ronvcniencc
in T:111lc 12-2. Users of this t a l h arc ci~utioned against hlinrl usr of
~ I I I I : I ~TTntil . tlw hmis and limitation of tlicw equations 11ccol11(,
familiar t o the user, reference to the original source shnuld Ilc I U : ~ V .
'The fornlulas for thin-n.allcd vrsscls w r e tiased rln the assan~ption
t l ~ the
t ~~ivcumfercnti:d stress is unifunnly d i d r i l ~ u t c ~across
l the ~v:.xll.
Tlii. ~ ~ r w n l ~ ti ih onotr ~ true, for thick-n.allc~ivessels. 1-arious e q u a t i < l ~ ~ s
:Ire uacd for de-igning such thick vessels. Perry'" gives a good rerimv
of some of these. Accurate calculation is still not l~nssit~le, howcver. 5in1.c
:dl the fo~111u1:1s ~lcvclope(ltlius f a r are 11:w~lon SOIIIV ervonwua U S N I I I I ~ .
tiun. l ~ ~ x ~ ~ c r i .stu~lich
u ~ e ~ ~UIIi ~thick
d c r s 11eing c o ~ ~ d w tI,? d
c y l i ~ ~ ~ l IW
sevmrl Iwgr cllen~icalcun~panicaengaged in high pressure olieratiuns.
Yerifivation of cnlrulatiun pmcedurcs or derelopl~lentof n e x equatiuns
should rtisult from tllis work. A t present it is necessary t o use existillg
data :m1 c ~ ~ l l ~sizable
l u y safety iacturs tu a l l u ~for the 1i111itedknuwicdge
uf tljick-xxll vessel ,lesigti.
202 Project Engineering of Process Plants Vessels 203
I = moment of inertia, (in.I4 SB = allowable stress for buckling,
TABLE 12-2. Summary of Formulas for Design of Thin-Walled
M = bending moment due to xvind, 2 X 1 0 6 ( t / D ) psi
,
Pressure Vessels (Internal Pressure) lb-ft S o = stress due to dead weight, psi
Purpose ASRlE API-.1SRIE P = working pressure. psig S , = longitudinal stress, psi
P. = wind pressure. p f S,,, = stress due to wind, psi
1. Tliirkness of shells R = inside rndius of shell, in. 1 = thickness of shell or head, in.
(Internal pressure) R, = radius to which the head is 11' = weight of vessel. Ih
( a ) Cxlindrical 1 = PR
SE - 0.6P
+C t = PD1
2SE - P
+C dished measured to centerline a t
thickness of crown plate, in.
a = one-half of the included angle of
a cone a t the centerline of the
S = alloanble working stress (see conical head
(b) Spherical 1= PR
2SE - 0.2P
+C t = p,D1
4Sh - P
+c tables in code), psi
21',h2 If7 - -
I'D,
Leeward allowdjlc stress = S = -- +
T I ) ' ~ nL),,i 41
whew l sh~,lli hirkncss
=
I< sll~!llr:~(lius
=
I:' = m~ululusof ~,lasticiLy
S, = yield point,
.Jnrgmsen7 has simplified this formnls for the usu:~l carhon steel shcll to
S H = 2 X 106(i I>) ~r-hichW:IS d ~ r i v e using
~ l a factor of si~fctyof 4 on this
stress ralrul:itnd from 1)onnell's formula.
r .
1 he :~llm\-ahlcstress formulas can he further cxpanrletl as folio\\-s:
.111)'12 (Imsed on the \veil-kn~nvn hcnding stress The above three formulas and that for the. rircumfcrential stress sl~onlrl
\\'ind lo;~d= S,, = -
formnla, l~cn~ling
momentsection modulus I
21 he used to determine the controlling thickness. Since the operating weight,
of a vessel depends on the thickness finally chosen, the m i g h t must first
where '11 = Ijcnding moment be assumed. Several short cuts t o this estimate have been suggested.
P,,
=
=
( 1 , 2 ) P , X (D'j12)h2lb of force-ft
unit wind pressure, * psf
+
.Jorgensen7 has developed a formula: TI' = 1.5.lillht 0.1G3h112 for in-
sulat,ed towers having cast iron trays. Nelson%uggests calculating the
D' = outside diameter of slicll in in. Inrlu~lesinsulation and 'or w i g h t based on the thickness t and height h, using a metal density of
other projections 0.283 lh!cu in., and then increasing this value by 18 per cent. Lo allox for
h = distanre from top of vessel to point, lwing considered, f t liquid, insnlation, trays, etc. Employing this procedure eq. 8 for the
I = moment of inertia xindward side becomes
= approximately a ( D ' ) W 8 , (in.)'
1 =
2P,,.h2
-
TI)'
- - +
PI),, '4
1 = thi~,laessof shell in i n S +
411 (11)
where TV = weight of vessel plus i n t e n d s and liquid Eq. 11 through 13 provide a method for estimating thickness for
I), = mean diameter of shell in in. typical to~vers. Eq. 8 t l i r ~ ~ u g10,
l ~ howrwr, should he u s d whcn nrorc
*The unit wind pressure is related t o thp wind velocity by an empirical formula accurate information is reqnirrrl and the thickness ran t h ~ nhe rletm-
dercloprd hy tlic TJS. Weatlier Bureau. 100 mph wind is agpl.oximately e q u i d e n t n ~ i n d11y succwsivc al)prmiiootiu:~of t l ~ rweigl~t.
to 30 psi; a 125 mph \I-ind, to 40 psf. In c x t r ~ ~ n c tall I ) I I P C ~ 011 the internid p r e ~ u r e
l y t o w w the thick~~rils
i
206 Project Engineering of Process Plants Vessels 207
alone is often not adequate to x i t h s t a n d the combined stresses produced others several thicknesses m a y be indicated. Each case must be con-
by wind and u-eight. Sincc there stresses increase from top to t h e bottom sidered separately. Generalizations are to he aroided.
of the tou-er, i t is usually economical to increase t h e thickness of the lower T h e a b o r e principles and c q u a t i m s arc briefly illustrated in the fol-
~~-
NOZZLES
-
No. Size IInches1 -
Service Nearest Practical Thickness = in.
/ /6 Overhead Vopor
COK~IDERING STRESSESAT BOTTOM TANGENTLINE
2 3 Ref/un
3 /'? F e e d /n/et* Estimated operating weight (not including skirt), Dm = 7.05 ft
4 16 Reboiler Pounds
(Make Tongenfio/) Cylinder: (1/12) (5/8) (a) (7.05) (53) (489) = 30,000
5 8 Bottoms
Heads (two a t 1622) = 3.244
-2---
section of the tower. Fabrication procedures and plate costs must be THICKNESSBASEDON WINDWARD STRESSES AT BOTTOY TANGENT
considered in selecting the thicknesses. Theoretically, t h e thickness of W PD
a tall shell should increase steadily from t o p to bottom. Such a design
S = (13,750)(0.8) = 11,000 =
2 P ha - -
aD't aDt 41
+-
is, of course, impractical. I n some rases a single-:hell thickness equal t o *Volume of 7-0"ID 2 : 1 elliptical head.
the maximum required a t the bottom m a y prove the most economical. I n +
t 85,494 - 9,MH) - 19,650 1 3 3 , m = 189,844.
208 Project Engineering of Process Plants Vessels 209
I '
SECT. B-@
REV8 3-21.55
-
ADJUSTABLE WEIR TO
WWNCOMER
REDUCED SKIRT HEIGHT
FROM 10LO' TO 5'0:
-
REVC 328.55
-
ADDED NOTES A & 6
REDUCE0 CONN. 2 TO 4'
PLUG GROOVE
BEAD FILLET OR
SLOT SQUARE V BEVEL U J
I
F ~ n i s hsymbol Groove angle, n c l u d e d
angle of countersnk for
Contour symbol plug welds
F ~ e l dweld
S p e c f c a t l o n process
symbol
T O (may beomitted
when reference I S not u s e o )
Arrow connecting
201ic weld symbol reierence l n e to
REFERENCES
1 . APl-AS.\IE Code f o r Unfiied Pirsraii. l'esnels, 8111. Soc, hlech. Engrs.. Smv
York (1951).
XCU. l w k
2. ASJIE Code (01. Cvfii-ed Pressure I~rawla,Am. Soe, h l ~ c l l Engl.~..
.
(1052) and (1956).
Heot Exchangers 215
Double-Pipe Heat Exchanger
As tlie n a n ~ eimplies, the double-pipe heat
exchanger consists of t ~ v oconcentric pipes.
One fluid flo~vsin the internal pipe and the
other in the annulus hetwccn thc inside and
outside pipes. Such exchangers are m o d con-
veniently arranged in the form of hairpins,
similar to the extended surface exchanger of
Fig. 13-1. Thc usual practical length of these
hairpins is twenty it,. Such exchangers are
very easily made in practically any shop and
rontinue t o prove useful where very small
Arrongernent of four parallel bonks supplied for the tube inlet and out-
of three sections connected in series. let <onnections. Inlet and outlet
Tube rennertorr are used to connect shell manifolds <onnett tho four
the elements of each bonk in series, bonks in poraliel.
with 90" threaded adaptors being
Vapor out
t
Fig. 13-5. One-two exihnngcr: single-pnsi: shcll, two- pa^ tubes, removable tuhe
bundle. (Courtesy oi Enginecra and Fabrientors, Inc.)
methods for supplying heat to the bottom of the distillation colurnn was
t o insert an exchangcr hundle in the t~ottomof the tower. Thiv is still
done in somc cases hut is not very popular because maintenance is more
of a p r o l l e n ~ . Largc bundles in to~versare difficult to design and cumber-
some t o service.
Kettle-type rehoilcrs (Fig. 13-7) are ronstructed similar t o small
evaporators. A uwir is loc~tctia t the cnd of thc bundle so that the liquid
completely covers it. -4 large vapor space is provided. All the heat
furnished by the kettle-rcbuiler is returned to the tower hy the overhead
Fig. 13-6. TKO-four exchanger: two-pass shell, four-pas tubes. rcmovnble tihr vapom from the reboilcr. Tlic kettle-reboilcr, therefore, acts as a srpara-
bundle, cross baffles arrmged for side-to-side flow. (Coul.tesy uf Engincrls and tion stage similar to a tl~eorcticalplate.
Fahl.icntors, Inc.) Thermo-syphon rehoilers, as illustrated in Fig. 13-8, are the most com-
monly used in the process indnstry. The thermo-syphon design is sirnilar
Shells with more than two shell passes are impractical but the advan- to a standard shell-and-tube heat exchanger except that t,he inlet and
tages of additional shell passes can be obtaincd by connecting exchangers outlets are usually located in the middle of the shcll so t h a t flow can be
in series. I n this manner two 1-2 exct~angeraconnected in series would be divided equally between the two halves of the exchanger. This divided
equivalent to une 2-4 exchanger. The two-shell pass exchanger is more flow arrangement insures low pressure drops on the shell side.
220 Project Engineering of Process Plants Heot Exchangers 221
The liquid from tlrc 11ottmr of the distillatim ton-cr passes to the postioual to the height r ~ liquid.
f 1l:rny ol~r.mti~r.: hrlierr that iulmwlini:
tlrerni~~-s>-pI~onrrhoilrr nnid is partially vaporized. This less dcnsc in' vc~rticalrontlenscrs is better controlled than in the liurizontal con-
liquid-1-allor ~iristurethen p:i-xs h c k to tlir ton-cr. Thc ~ x t eof cir- ~lenscrs. T h e vertical unit, however, is more difficult to rervire and
cul:ition is gox-erue<lI I the
~ l~rcs.!ure i1riq1 tlrro~~gli
tlic .rstem :rnd tlrc require-. a clear space aborc it equal t o its lengtlr so t h ~ the
t tuhe hr~nrllr
driving force produced 11y the diffwcnce in liquid den-ity on one side and can he removed.
Horizontal rehoilprs arc t h ~most T\-idcly I I P P ~ .hut v ~ s t i r a lwhoilrr-
Vapor plus are prcf~rrccifor ccrtail~in?tall:rtions. 1 1 1 v,,rtic:rl sd1111I(,sst11r 1 1 r o ~ +
lhquld out
-trc:un is usually passed inside the tuhc. This is an advantage for
t ioi~lingfluids since tlii,? are more econonrically Irandled inside tlrc tul~r-.
I Pipe Coils
One of the easiest, although not always the most efficient, means of
supplying heat to or removing heat from a tank or a piece of pilot plant,
erluipmcnt is ~ ~ i at hlielical pipe coil. Such coils are easily fabricated,
and can be placed in a small tank made from large diameter pipc and
used as a sample cooler or as a pilot plant cooler. Pipe coils are also
used for heating contents of tanks and reactors.
I
Trombone or Trickle Coolers
The cooling of extrenicly corrosive matcrials is often a difficult and
expensive job. The trombone, or trickle, cooler has heen used rritli
marked success. I t consists of straight lengths of pipe connected in series
by return trends. TTatcr is allowed to trickle over the pipes and is col-
lected in a trough beneath tlie unit. Some of the water e v a p ~ ~ m t eass it
mores down thc pipes. The pipes can bc fal~ricatedof prartirnlly any
material that will ~ ~ i t h s t a nthe
d fluid flowing insidc. Ceramic tubes have
been particularly popular for corrosive rnatcrials such as wet HCI.
j
I Air-Cooled Exchangers
Many portions of tlie world suffer from serious water shortages. The
development of the air-cooled exchanger has permitted pmcri.: plant
construction even in areas d i e r e water scarcity is a definite psol~leu~.
These units usually consist of a largc number of tubes ~vithtrnnsvcrse
fins. Tlie fluid to be cooled passes t,hrough the tubes and air is forced
past the tubes by either an induced or forced draft fan. Beranse of the
high resistance of gas filrus these air coolcrs require largc surface areas,
1
and therefore a large space, per Btu of heat transferred.
\ FABRICATION OF SHELL-AND-TUBE HEAT EXCHANGERS
Standards
The Tubulal. Xxcl~angerl\lanufacturers' Association has puhlisl~eilrie-
tailcd standards for tlic design and construction of shell-ancl-tube heat
exohangers.*3 The mechanical standards have been divided into thrre
parts representing three different classes of heat exchangers, Classes R:
C, and A. Class R is designed to meet the requirements of petroleum
I
224 Project Engineering of Process Plants I Heat Exchangers 225
refinery and high pressure petrochemical operations. Class C is designed operation. They are w t in a preliminary fashion by f o r c i n ~a plug
to uiret general process conditions involving mode~;rte pressures and ngainst tlie tubes. Thc plug prevents the tube from turning when the
tcinpcrature.. and relatively noncorrosive! fluids. Clnsc ; I i- r1r.ienc.d roller expander is inserted.
for the use of alloy materials of construction for handling particularly -4 cross-section of an cxpanding operation is illustrated in Fig. 13-10.
corrosive or liigli temperature fluids. Class R spccifies Iargcr corrosion The tubes are expanded into grooves in order t o produce a stronger joint.
alloxmres than Class C : and in general, has more rigid constructim Expanding of tnhrs rcquircs experienced operators, rincr overexpansion
requirements. I dl unnecessarily thin thc metal and produce rapid tube failure.
Overall tube lengths are spccificd by these stanrlards as eight, tn-clve.
or sixteen feet. Tlirec-quarter and onc-inch dianictcr tuhrs arc tile nmst
common, although the use of one and-a-quarter and onc and-:%-lialf.ns
!vcll as smallrr sizes is permitted r h c r c special conditions varrant.
Shell sizes have also been standardizcd Sizes up ~ I tn.mty-three
J inch.
inride noniinnl diameter. are made of pille. .4horc txcnty-three inch.
they arc fabricated from rolled plate.
The minimum pitcli of tubes is set a t onc and-a-quartcr timrs tlie
outside diameter of the tube. Minimum baffle spacing is one-fifth of the
shell inside-dian~ctcr,or t v o inrlrcs, n.liiclic~cris greater. 1-erit and drain
conncrtions are three-quarter inrli. Tiirse t~ndmany otlicr st:indx~.di.
including dimensional tolernncrr, are ~,art,fnli>- s~~ccificdby the E s c l i i ~ n ~ c r
Xanufacturcrs' Association. One of the greatcst benefits of such stand- of rollers-no
where h,, is the fin-side coefficient based on the inside tube surface area. based on the inside area as does hi. IIence t'he factor must be added to
h,, is related tu the average outside coefficient for both fin and bare surface. l / h , and the resulting design h , used to determine a design h,, from
hi, by the expression Eq. 9. Then
q = hI,Ai AT = h,(A,, + A o ) AT
Shell a n d Tube Exchangers Outside Coefficients
\\-here Ale an effect,ive fin area equivalent to the total fin area illmuki-
=
plied by the fin efficiency R The outside or shell side coefficient of a shcll and tube heat exchanger
A . = outside tube surface area exclusive of area beneath the fins has proved the most difficult coefficient t o correlate. It was early agreed
q = heat transferred that for forced convection outside of tubes an equation of the same form
The tin area is not as effective as the outside tube surface and the fin as that used for flow inside the tubes would apply.
efficiency serves to correct this area to an equivalent amount of outside
surface. Rlurry'j and Gardnerg have derived an expression for the fin
efficiency
tan h mh where Do = outside diameter of the tube, f t
n=
mb But because of the variations in baffle and tulle arrangement it has been
a real problcm to eorrelatc data for all shell and tube exrhnngcrs wit11
one equation. Colburnz proposed the equation
k = conductivity of fins and tube, Btu/(hr)(' F) (sq ft/ft)
P = perimeter of fins, ft
a, = cross sectional area of fins, sq f t
where a = 0.33 for staggered tube arrangement and 0.26 for in-line tube
h = height of fin, ft
arrangement
The fin efficiency, thereforc, provides a means of accounting for the
Essentially these same data are presented in the Standards of the
\-ariation of material of construction, slze, and arrangement of fins.
Tubular Exchange Manufacturers A s s o c i a t i ~ n . ~ JG,,, is there callcd
De1,ormzo and Anderson4 correlated data for a number of extended sur-
Geir (effective mass velocity) which is defined as the pounds per hour
face arrangements using the Sieder-Tate form of the equation plotting:
flowing divided by an effective cross flow area. This effective cross flow
area represents the factor most difficult to define and no attempt is a r t w
ally made to do so in the Standards. It must someliow take into accuunt
design clearances, baffle spacing, leakages, and by-passing. Such factors
De is the equivalent diameter defined as vary with the manufacturer. I n our present state of knowledge each
total \vetted perimeter of fin side 1 performance. Curiously enough it has not been until recently that a
systematized approach to the problem of shell side coefficients for com-
ahere Ill = outside diameter of inside tube mercial exchangers* has been made. A research program at, the Cniver-
Dz = inside diameter of outside tube sity of Delaware under the joint sponsorship of the ASRIE, API, TIC>IA,
This correlation enables cak:ulation of h , which can be converted t o hi, and many exchanger manufacturers and operating companies is in prog-
using Eq. 9. Knowing h , , the inside film eoeffirient, the clean inside ress. I t involves the study of idealized models in order to isolate the
coefficient 1,ri can hc mliwlat,ed. The design value of T i i must be deter- variables, and will be follomd by a study of full-scale con~mercial
mined by adding thc nppropriatc scalc or fouling factors. The fouling * Short20 has made a study on a lnhoratory exchanger which has heen u i great aid
factor on the fin side has the same complex relationship to the resistance to exchanger designers.
232 Project Engineering of Process Plants Heat Exchangers 233
exchangers. It is l~opedthat u>efuI ancl IIICIW wliaI>lt~mrrelations \\-ill
be produced from this n-urk. For thr reailrr 77-lio does not have access
to the various confidential conlpany chart? or procedures for empirically
estimating the outside coefficient, the equation presented by Donoliue7 c here h latent heat. of condensation, Btu/lb
=
is suggested as the most reliable. nonohue proposed the equation: Q. 32.17
=
hDo
- = 0.22 DG, ( ) '6 (T)
C,p 0 33 (f)O1'
at = temperature difference between saturated vapor and condensing
surface, F
1;
Do = OD of tube, f t
where G, is defined as W S , and If' = 1h;hr of fluid flo~ring I, = tube length, f t
18 = lh hr
s*= d(crossflo\v a r m ) (hafflehole area) = v SnS, i-
G' = Xass ratc of condensate, (lb/hr) (sq ft)
The crossflow area S,is arbitrarily based on the inside diameter of the shell. IV
Vertical tnhe: G' = -
S,' = [ ( I D ) - ( D o )( N ) ] [ B ] (14) 7TDo
where B = baffle spacing, ft W
N number of tubes at or near inside diameter Horizontal t,ube: G' = -
= L
IIj = inside diam of shell, f t
p = deusity of condensate, lh,'cu ft
The haffle hole area is:
Subscript f refers to properties at the film temperature.
Su = Area of segment - area occupied by tubes Because of the similarity of eq. 17 and 18 they are often written as
Donohue's correlations based on this effective area exhibit reasonable one equation using an averagc constant 1.50 and an appropriate value
accurary when applied to wmmercial cxchangcrs. There are many of G'. Horizontal tubes in vcrtical r o m present an additional problem
other correlations for arriving at an effective arca involving much more since splashing increases turbulence. In addition thicker films rle~relop
tedious calculations. The order of accuracy oi such correlations, h ~ n - on each successive tube which inakes the lower tubes lees effective. If the
ever, does not appear to justify thc additional effort required. tubes are staggered, results nould be expeetcd to differ from that obtained
fur the in-line arrangement.
condensing Coefficients LIclldan1s,'3 Donohue,G Kcm,I2 and others liavc proposed ~uctlio~ls
The cr~ndensationof vapors on the shell side of horizontal exchangers is for calculating thc G' for banks of tubes to be used in the Nusselt eyua-
an important operation. Unfortunately the tlicory, altl~ouglirolmi~inous, tion. Kern suggests the follo~ving:
is very inadequate. I t can be said with impunity that thc dcsigu of a
process condenser, particularly one inrolx-ing mixtures of vapors is an
art. The novice can best use typical ovcrall caefficicnts and avoid a large
amount of calculations, the interpretation of which is difficult and W
Horizontal tubes: G' = --
qucstionablc. Using a highly idealized mechanirm Nusselt,l7 considered Nti3L
the condensation of pure vapors on both horizontal and vertical surfaces. IT here .VL = total number of tuhes
The follo~vingcxprcssions were derived based on viscous flow. IT7 = total cundenaitte flow rate, lb/hr
Horizontal tubes For siiiqile rapors approximate condensation coefficients for the out-
h = 0.725(kl3Xp;'g/Dopj ride of i~orizoutaltubes and for the inside nud outside of vcrtical tube?'
can be predicted fnlm the equations of Nusselt. For turbulent flow of
the condensate and high vapor veloeit,ies there result larger coefficients
than predicted from the Kusselt equation. AIrthods for calculating
Vertical tubes coefficients urrder these conditions have been ,ii*cussctl.':J
h = 0.913 (I;f3Xp,2g,/pjL at)' Often vsl~urseuter a cundenser superheated. Part of i.lle condenser
234 Heat Exchangers 235
Project Engineering of Process Plants
acts as a gaa cooler and that portion in gas cooling service operates with condense first nt the l~igllcrteu~pernturesand arc aui~cooledns tbey pro-
a much loum transfer coeficient. Such situations are hest handled by gress tm\-ard the end of the rxcl~nnger. Tlic cxclinngcr designcr sl~uuld
cnlrulating mrli section wpiratrly. A weighted overall transfer coeffi- he s~qipliedwith x condensation curye for use in designing such excliangers
cient and a weighted i t are reported. (Fig. 13-111. The temperature oi the condmeing mixture ia plotted versus
thc heat rcmovcd from tbe mixture and is ohtained from flash m p o r
Atwt = 9
-+-
9%
At, 4to
Po
The cr~ncleuwtiou[if a single vapor in the presencc of noncondensablcs Fig. 13-11. Condensnbion curve
or the condensation of mixed vapors is a difficult proccss to analyze. I n
each case Trapor must diffuse through a gaseous film before reaching the equilibrium calculations. This curve is a great aid in designing a con-
condcnsing surfacc and the phenomenon is one oi heat transfer combined denser, since it indicates thc desuperlieating and suhcooling regions and
n-it11 mass transfer. Rigorous methods for considering both diffusion also is uscd in obtaining a wcigl~tcdtcmperaturc difference, as described
and heat transfer in the determination of a condensation coefficient have below.
been d c s c r i h e d . V h e s e metllods are admittedly tedious and involve
Boiling Coefficients
trial-and-error solutions. Many "short-cut" methods have been proposed,
thcreforc, involviug certain simplifying assumptions which were known The calculation of boiling coefficicnts in the design of rehoilers and
to be incorrect. similar equipment is, at this atagc of dcvclopnicnt, practically impost.ible.
The methods in current use can be divided into t v o classes. One con- Most designs are based or. some allou-able h a t flux (q/A in Btu/(hr)
sidcrs heat trnnsier alone, assuming that tlie lieat flows through a series (sq f t ) , since q/A = C A t , Zi can he determined from the a l l o ~ a h l eheat
of resistances, including a vapor film, a condensate film, tube wall, dirt, flux and a n acceptable value o i At \vliicIi is based on practice. For
film, and a co(rling liquid film T h e other, the more rigorous, considers organic liquids in forced circulation Kern" suggests a maximum of
both heat and mass transfer. It is neitlier possible nor worthwlrile to 20,000 Btu/(hr) (sq i t ) and 12,000 for natural circulation. As in cou-
reviciv the various methods which have been proposed. Curiously densers, often a portion oi the reboiler is used in tbc t r m s f e r of sensilile
cnough, the accuracy of any of the available methods is poor. The best, heat, and in these cases the scnsible heat rrgion and the boiling region are
proccdure is to adlrpt the method m ~ l s tconvenicnt for one's o x n use and considered separately.
employ it continuously. Calculations hxscd on this method should bc Pipe WaM Resistance
compared a t every opliortunity with operating data so that tllc designer
The pipe v a l l resistance given in eq. 2 is rcadily calculated, since the
can develop a sense for the relationship h e t u w n the actual coefficient
conductivities of most metals used in heat excbangers are d l known.
and a calculated cocfficicnt. The members of the Tubular Exchanger
It is most often vcry small in comparison t o the other resistances and
Alanufaeturers' Association are well aware that existing condenser calvu-
latiuns arc inadequate and attempts are being made to remedy the car1 be neglected.*
rituatiou. * Kot true for liquid m r t d lieat trnnsfrr whwe pipe wnll resistance may be
111 the cundenaation of multiconiponent nlixturcs tlie licavy matt&~la
controlling.
238 Project Engineering of Process Plants Heot Exchangers 239
the generalized chart f i r liydrocarl~onsin TEXlh.23 For nonviscous t o the loss of one velocity head and that the channel and floating head
liquids (brlon. one i,entipoi:r I at ml~derateterripcrature ranges, the value losses bc assumed to be equal to four velocity 11cads per pass.
of F, is 0.5, and tlic caloric temperature then is simply the arcragc of An accurate shell-side pressure drop is just as difficult to ealeulnte as
the inlet and outlct teniperatures. Such is the case for most inorganic an accurate shell-side coefficient. A number of equations have been
solutions. proposed. The equation presented by Chilton and Genercnuxl is perhaps
Sieder21 has suggested the following rules: (1) For water-cooled units. the most familiar.
use an F, of 0.3 for the shell side hot fluid; (2) for steam-heated units,
use F, = 0.,55 for tlic shell side fluid being heated; (3) for oil-to-oil ex-
cliange~susc 0.45 for botl~hot and cold fluids. The average temperatures
thus calculated are used to evaluate the properties appearing in the heat where AP = pressure drop, psi per pass
transfer film coefficient equation. urn, = velocity based on flow through space betveen tubes
p = fluid density
Pipe W a l l Temperature g, = 32.17
In the Sicder-Tate equations it will be noted that a value of the pipe N = number of horizontal rows
wall temperature is required in order to evaluate b. SiederZl points f = friction factor
out that this can frequently be assumed t o bc equal to tlie outlet vater This equation gives the pressure drop across the tube bundle. Values
temperature in oil-~5-atercoolers. I t may also bc estimated by simple of the friction factor were determined by Grin~ison'o and these data as
calculation based on fi1111 c~efficients~vhichwere calculated assuming later analyzed by Colhurn are presented in TEhIh Standards23 corre-
r/p," = 1.0. The following equations are used: lated with tlie Reynolds numher. Just as for flow inside the tubes. tlic
Cold fluid in tubes: t, = t + R(T - t ) friction factor obtained from the chart is divided by the correction
( e / h ) '.I4.
Hot fluid in tubes: t,=T-R(T-t) In addition to the cross flow pressure drop a pressurc drop also occurs
where t, = pipe mall temperature as the fluid passes through the baffle opening. Tbis opening can he con-
t = average cold fluid temperature sidcrcd as an orifice with a discharge coefficient of 0.7, as shown by
T = average hot fluid temperature Donohue.7 Pressure drop througli tlie baffle opening then becomes:
ho
R =
hi(4ilAo) + ho for standard tubes
h,hi,di where u = velocity through baffle opening, ftlsec
R for h n e d tubes
=
h,(Ai +&)(hi + hi,) p = density, lb/cu ft
g, = 32.17
Pressure Drop A P = pressure drop, psi per baffle opening
The problem of dcterrnining the pressure drop in a shell-and-tube heat The total shell-side pressure drop ia the sum of pressure drops of
cxchanger is conil11ic:it~riby the progressi~echange in temperature of cross-flow, baffle opening, and tlie entrance and exit. Research scientists
t,he fluids. Sieder and Tate,2? hoxever, discovered that for flow inside a t the University of Delaware are studying and correlating she!l-side
tubes the usual isothermal friction factor rould be used, if it is divided pressure drop data. These data should prove valuable, since the accuracy
by a correction, + = ( l l / l r , , ) " . ' 4 for Rcyncdds' numbers above 2100, m d of existing methods is quest,ionable.
(p/I*w)O.", for Reynolds' numbcrs belov 2100. I n addition to the
actual friction loss in the tabcs, therc arc loares in the channel and DESIGN PROCEDURE
floating heads due to abrupt changes in direction, and losses at the Designers of heat exchangers must be given certain information hefore
entrance an(l exit. they can begin the design. In order to prevent delay, the projrct engineer
Kern12 suggests that the entrance and exit losses be estimated equal should see that each manufacturer who is Lidding on an excliangcr is
Project Engineering of Process Plants
Heat Exchangers 241
Exchanger Specification Sheet
~-
provided with all the necessary infurlnation t o complete a satisfactory
luh no. design. The Tubular Exchanger AIanufactnrers' Azsoeiation has pre-
Cllrtourrr
--- Referenre no.
-~ pared a Standard Exchanger Specification Sheet23 which serves a s a
~~
lddr?"r
- -- 1n'iuiry no. handy reminder of the information required. \lost exchanger n ~ a n u f a r -
I'h."t locatlo" Date
turers use this form t o transmit information on the heat exchanger they
srmice 01 ,,nit Item no.
are proposing. The same sheet is also valuable as an inquiry form
sire
- ~- Type Connerfcd in
(Fig. 13-12) since the upper portion of the sheet describes the perform-
Sllrinco per unit Shrllr pcr unit Surface p ~ ahell
r
ance of the unit and has space for information that mnst bc supplied by
Performance of one vnlt the ultimate u m . The following essential data* are required.
Fluid Circulating. Common materials such as water need only be
identificd h p name. Complete descriptions of less conunon materials
are necessaryl however. If thc fluid is a complex misture, its c,on~por;ition
should he given and if it is compo.;ed of several phases (rapor and liquid),
these should be defined and the amount of each estahlirhed, including the
amount of ~ a p o r i z a t i o nor condensation expected in the cnoling or hrat-
ing process. Generalized correlations are available for cstirnating ]nost
physical propertics of hydroearhons when the specific gravity anrl boiling
point are known. It is prcferahle, howerer, to pro\-id? tlrc designer ~ ~ - i t h
ai. nluch physical and chcmical data as is possible.
Specific Gravity or Density Jol. Liquids. This inforlnation is required
for the calculation of mass flowing and the estimatiun of other properties
from generalized charts.
Molecular Weight. AIolecular xeight is important in defining the
I
-. rxohanged-Bta,hr
Heat -
Tranafer mto-rrvier
I
Clesn
construction
I
X1.T.D. (Corrected!
I
I
properties of a gas.
T'i~cosity. As scen in the discussion on tlworetical aspcrts of hrnt
transfer, viscosity data arc perhaps the most importnnt 11hysical data
required. Viscosity is significant in both hcat t r a n d e r and Ixessure
drop equations. B t least t ~ v ovalucs of viscosity a t differrmt tcuq~eraturcs
within the operating range should be given. Additiond v d w s can nor-
mally he obtained by interpolating on a logarithmic plot of tenlperaturc
versus viscosity, assuming a $traight-line relationsl~ipwith trmprrature.
For hydnxarbons morc accurate estimation is possible using .-\ST11
kinematic viscor;it,y-trinperi~tt~re graph paper (Chart 11. .&ST11 D-341 1
1.atent Heats and Sperific H ~ a t s . Altl~ouglrthe (Iuty ~f the r x ~ l ~ i u ~ g e r
theat exchanged in Rtus per hour) is included ill tlw tabulation. latent
heats and specific heats should also bc given. Thc man~~factnrers' dcsigner
can then check the duty calculations. Specific beats are alsu used in t h
calculation of transfer coefficients. Whcre pussible, several ~ a l u e sa t
tenlperaturcs in the operating range should be given.
Covosion. The designer should be given any information on the cor-
rosive characteristics of the fluid and any unique hazards asrc~ciatedn-it11
the transporting of the fluid.
Fig. 13-12. Excbaneer specificstion sheet. [Reprinted by prlmissian. Stundards oj
the Tubular &rehangcr M a n u f o c t u r ~ r s.4ssocinlion, 3rd Ed. (1952) I . * A m w e lletnilcd discussion a i this prohlcm has been given l,y Oti.,r.'" Sanre oi
his *wewtiuns hnvo I w n inwr~ml;ttr,rlin tlic ;hove diseusrion.
240
242 Project Engineering of Process Plants Heat Exchangers 243
The procedure for the design of a heat exrhanger has been outlined in passes depends on the alloivablc prrssurc r l n ~ pand cost of ronstruction.
several bonks on heat exchange. K e r n ' V n particular, has given some A reduction in the nuuiher uf tulle passes helow the nlininlrnri will result
excellent illustrative prohlrms xhich show the pl~ilusophyand factors in a lower transfer rate and tlius highrr surface areas. At this point a
involved. check of the tube side pressure drop shonld \IP made t o be certain that
Since tlie calculation of film coefficients depends upon the type and the nnrnhcr of tube passes chosm is satisf:irtory.
design of exchanger, it is necessary t o assume an exchanger type and size 6. Select the numher of hell passes which xi11 give a correction factor
in order to determine the overall coefficient by calculation. The general ( F T ) for the log-mean temperatwe diffcrmre of 0.75 to 0.8 or greater.
procedure is as follows: Below these values of F, the curves for Hie corrrctiun factor k~ccome
quite steep and a small change in ten~peratnreconditions cansci a large
1. Specify process conditions. I n addition to the quantities flowing, change in correction factor and consequently the ultimate mean tenipera-
this includes specifying the inlet and outlet telnperatures of all streams. ture difference. I n this regiun, therefore, it is reasoned that inherent
Charts for the deterniination of optimum cooling ~vateroutlet tempera- errors in the assun~ptionsmade in the derivation of tlie correction factor
ture have been prepared. I n general. hoverer, thc ecuno~nicfactors are become significant and thus the rrgion below 0.75 to 0.8 should he a v ~ ~ i d e d .
not well defined, and use of such charts is questionable. Certain condi- If the FT correction is too low for a me-shell pass, often a tvo-sl~ellpass
tions, however, make the selection of the outlet water temperature simple. arrangement mill provide a larger F , wl~ieh ill be accept,zble. I t is t o
For many waters it is necessary t o keep t21e flon. rate above four ft per he remembered that twu one-shell pass exchnngcrs connected in series
second to prevent the growth of algae and it is further necessary, a s are equivalent t o a two-shell pas? exchanger.
suggested by Iiern, tu avi~iilheating the water t o temperatures much 7. Selcct a ~tsn(1nrdexclimger to rnrrt as closely as possible the
higher than 120" in order t o prevent excessive corrosion. T h e r e cooling requirements of items 3, 4, 5 , and 6. Determine the tube side transfer
tower water is elnployed the operation of the cooling to~vershould be coefficient.
eonsidered in conjunction ~vitlithe selection of the outlet water tempera- 8. Proceed t o the shell side and assume a trial baffle spacing using a
t,urc. When heat is being exchanged bct~veentwo process streams, the sniall spacing for a small amount of fluid and a large spacing for a large
optimum temperatures must be determined by an economic study, bal- amount. Thesc spacings according to TEhI.4 may he varied from one-
ancing exchangcr eirsts and utility costs. This study must include the fifth the shell diameter to one shell diameter in order t o meet the heat
other exchangers, coolers, and heaters required for the two streams being transfer and pressure drop requirements on the shell side.
considered, since alteration in tlie outlet and inlet tenlperatures of the 9. Determine the shell side coefficient.
heat exchanger will affect the size of the other units. 10. Calculate the overall clcan coefficient and then a design coefficient
2. Route the fluids. Certain general rules for the routing of fluids based on proper fouling factors.
have been developed through the years. High pressure fluids and cor- 11. Determine required arca. Compare this to the surface area of the
rosive fluids should be routed through the tubes, since it is cheaper t o unit selected. The ideal chilice is of course the minimum arca that will
design a tube for high pressure than an entire sliell and only the tube need produce the required heat transfer. If the exchanger selected docs not
bc resistant t o corrosion. Higll-fouling fluids, including water, should be meet the requirements, it is necessary to assume a liiglier snrfacc area
routed tln-ough the tubes. Because of the flexibility possible in baffle unit and repeat the procedure.
arrangements, extremely large volumes of fluids and very small volumes
of fluids, as v.ell as viscous fluids, are best passed through the shell. These steps require t,rial and error in many portions of the calculation.
When lox+-pressure drops are required the shell side should be used. For tlie novice or one who rates exchangers only occasionally. tlie joh
3. Assume a design overall coefficient and calculate a trial area. proves tedious. Frequent calculation of exchangers, and particularly
4. Select the length, arrangement, pitch, and size of tubcs. Standard- calculation of exchangers in similar serrices, enables an engineer to
ization nhere possible is desirable. This permits ease of maintenance, develop know-how or perhaps a e,lairvoyanre ~ l i i c heliminates to a large
requires tlie stocking of feurcr parts, and makes for more attractive plant degree the laborious trial-and-error procedure.
appearance. It should be re~nembercdthat short tubcs are much more
Short-Cut Methods of Heat Exchanger Design
expensive per square f t than longer tubes (twclrc or sixteen i t ) .
5 . Detcnnine the niinimum numlwr of tube passes I~asedon the total Many so-called short-cut methods for the design of lietit exchangers
number of tubes corresponding to the trial area. The number of tube have appeared from time to time in the literature. A number of such
244 Project Engineering of Process Plants Heat Exchangers 245
articlrs privent r u r w c or nomogr)i~~lis for drtti~~niiniiigfilm rocffit,ienfr.
TABLE 13- 1 (Continued)
Hntcliinson" has compiled charts in graphical form for the determination
of film coefficients for a 51-ide assortment of ron~pounds. I n addition. Liquid Boiling Cnndenshg
Fluid ( S o phase change) liquid vapor
many article* have presented a series of charts rlesigned to reduce the
Amine solut~ons
labor in heat excliang~rralculations. Unfortunately, ho~vcvcr,the occa- Saturated diethanolamine
sional user of such charts finds i t just a s difficult and time-consuming and monoeth:inolamine
to design a n exrliangcr using these charts a s to follon- t h e method previ- (CO? arid H7S)- ,
o u l y outlinnl. Lean allline sohltions
Sieder?' l ~ psr c . ~ t ~ n t r:Id number of l m t transfer ta1)Ie~:in hooklet Oils
C~.udeoil
f m n v11ir:li ennlile rapid estiu~atioilof film corfficicnts. T h e d a t a are T1ie.d oil
presented in tabular form in order to climinnte mistnkes t h a t arc so often Fuel oil (hunker C )
made when using graphs or noniogmplis. T h e sources of all d a t a are Gas oil
pliiinly given so t h a t one m a y evaluate the information intelligently. Light
These tahles are particularly recommended for engineers who only Heavy (tyl~icalof cat.
cracker feed)
occasionnlly need to clierk heat exchanger ratings, such a s t h e project Gasolinc (400' ZP)
engineer. Heating oil(domrstic 30' ;\PI)
T h e only truly slinrt-cut nietliod of lieat exchanger dcsign is t h e one Hydroformate
in n.liich the overall coefficient is a s s u m ~ dlinwil on previous experience Kerosine
Lube oil stock
and from n.hicli a n a r r a is citlrulatetl. Such a nirtliod i . valid for rapirl Xaphthas
estimation and comparison of heat exchanger quotations. Ahso~.ption
T h e selection of a n orerall coefficicnt can often be made with a fair Light virgin
degree of accuracy, particularly when good opcmting information is -
I h h t cntalvtic
Heavy
available on exchangers in similar services. I t \v~iuldhehoove the project
Polymer (Cars)
enginecr to keep a record of typical o ~ ~ c r ntransfer
ll coefficient,^ for various Reduced crude
exehangcr 3erviccs. Slurry oil (fluid cat. crarker)
Fair and Rases have prerenterl ii tahle of typical resistances for a Stenm
represcntatix-e number of fluids. Tltese r a h e s givcn in Table 13-1 are V.ater
Boiler water
Cooling tower (untreated)
TABLE 13-1. Design Resistances for Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchangers* Condensate (flashed)
Rivcr and well
Roiling Condensing Sea wuter (clean and below
. . liquid vapor 125'F.)
Aroni:~ticliquids * Reprinted by permission. Petroiezim Refiner, 93, KO. 7, 121 (1954).
Benzene, tolwne. ethyl- iCondensing rrsistanres for ;tram mag. be m u d l higher wlwn noncondmriblps are
hennene, st,y~.cllc 0.007 present as is often t h e ease with low pressure cxl~nustste;~m.
Dowtherni 0.007 P A r;ihe uf O.OOi is suggested ahen doubt as t a the quality 01 m t e r mists.
Inorganic solutions
CaC12 Brine (25'h) 0.001 Gases in turbulent flow Resistance
Heavy acids 0.01:3 Air, CO, CO?, and N2 0.045
KaCI Brine (20 9;) 0.0035 Hydrocarbons (light through naphthas) 0.035
Misc. dilute solutions 0.003 based on operating d a t a and current design practice. T o obtain a n
Light hvdrocarhon liouids
3 , C;, G 0.001 estimated overall design coefficient for a shell and tube exchanger, proceed
Chlorinated liydn,c;i~~h,,ns 0.004 a s fr~llolvs:
~ I i x ~ l l i l n e o uorgnrrir
s liquids
.Iretone 0.007 .... . .. . 1. Read values of resistances for the two fluids. Note t h a t no dis-
t i n c t i m is made b e t w e n shell and tube sides.
246 Project Engineering of Process Plants 1 Heat Exchangers 247
2. Calcul;~tethc rlvcrall design coefficiciit hy taking the reciprocal of 20. Short, B. E., 1Jnircrsity of Texas Puhlication Xo. 4324. 1-55 (1943).
the sum uf these t x o resistances. 21. Sieder, E. Y.,Heat Transfer Z'obles, American Locomotive Co., xea y u r k ,
1952,
Other exrhnnger t,ypes are estimated by nlultiplying the overall design 22. Sieder, E. P;..and G . E. Tatc, Ind. Eng. Chem., 98, 1420 (1036).
coefficient for shell and tube exchangcr by 0.25 for extended surface ex- 23. Slandnids o/ l'ubrtlar Ezchanger Xio,~u!nctimis Association, 3rd Ed., Tubular
Exchsngcr Manufacturers Association, Inc., S e w I'ork, 1952.
rliangers and 0.30 for coil-in-box exchangers. The method is recom-
mended for most stanclnrd exchangers, rnusual designs, very large or
very small rscliangers, and partial condensers cannot be estimated by
this method.
REFERENCES
1. Chdton, T. H., and R. P. Gcnereaux, Trans. Am. Inst. Chem. Engrs., Z8, 161
(1933).
2 . Collhrn, A. P., T m n s Am. Inst. Chem. Engn., 29, 174 (1933).
3. Culbum. A . P., and T. P. Drcw, Trans. A m I m l . Chcm. Engrs., 33, 197 (1937).
4. D c L o r ~ n z a ,B., and E. D. Anderson, h-ans. A m SOC. Merh. Engrs., 6'7, 697
(1946).
5. Dittus, F. IT., and L. M. K. Boelter, Univ. of Calif. Pub. in Eng., 2, 443 (1930).
6 . Donuhue, D. A , ind. Eng. Chem., % , 6 2 (1947).
7 . Donohue. D . .A,. Ind. Eag. Chem., 41,62 (1949).
8. Fair, J. R., and Howard F. Rase, Petroleum Refiner, 33, KO.7 , 121 (1954).
Y. Gardner, K. A,. Trans. Am. Soc. Mech. Engrs., 6'7,621 (1945).
10. Grimison, E. D., Trans. Am. Soe. Mech. Engrs., 59, 583 (1937).
11. Hutrhinson, F. W.,induslriol Heat Transfer, T h e Industrid Press, X e w Y o ~ k ,
1952.
12. Kern, D. Q.,Process Heat Transjer, McGraw-Hill Book Co., K e w York, 1950.
13. Mebdsrns, W. H., Heat Trommission, 3rd Ed., McGraw-Hill Book Co., New
Yolk. 1954.
14. Morris, F . H., and W. G. Whitman, Ind. Eng. Chem., 90, 234 (1926).
15. Mnrmyl W. M., J . Appl. Mechunics, 5, A78 (1938).
16. Tuuselt, IT., Mitt. Forseh. Arb. Ing., 89, 1 (1910).
17. Korselt, W., Z . V e r . deul. Ing., GU, 541, 569 (1916).
18. Otcn, P. S.. Chem. Eng. Prugr., 41, 411 (1948).
19. Sakiadis, B. C., and J. Coates, Louisiana State University Eng. Exp. Station
Bulletin No. 34. Baton Kouge, La., 1952.
Process Pumps 249
RECIPROCATING PUMPS
Although the usc of a reciprocating action to produce pumping had
it,s origin some 2000 years agol it \!-as not until 1840 that Henry R.
Worthington invented the direct-acting, reciprocating. steam-driven pump.
These steam-driven pumps hecame extren~elypopular and in the years
to come motor-driven unit's also came into use.
Application
In the early t w n t i r t h centnry. the rmtrifugal pump began to encroncll
npon thc field of the reciprocating pnmp. The uniform discharge of thr
centrifugal pump gave it a distinct
nilvantage. e q ~ w i a l l yin the proc-
ess industries d m e steady flow 6000
L-IW
Fig. 14-3. Portion of end-packed plunger. pump
PISTON RODS
Rods are u-ually alloy steel of high tensile strength and hardness, and Ball valve. Spherical valve oi rubber or metal.
are preferably made in two parts t o insure ease of dismantling.
Fig. 14-5. Rccipmcntmg pump, valve types. (R~printedfl.om Standards oj t h e
Hydi-nulir I n s t i t , d ~ , rupyright 1'355 117 Hydraulic In*itutc, 122 E. 421x1 St., Xeru
PACKING York 17. X. B.)
Proper choice and installation of packing is a must for satisfactory
pump operation. The h a m pistons are usually sealed with hammered- Leakage along the piston rod is prevented by the st,uffingbox packing
iron snap rings. The liquid pistons are provided with bakelite rings for which is r~suallygrapliitc impregnated ael~ertoson thc steam end. On
temperatures below about 250 t o 350" F. and hammered-iron rings for the liquid end the stuffing box packing varies wit11 the typc of flnid
higher temperatures. and pumping conditions. hsbcatou, rubber, semi-nletallic, and lnetallic
I
256 Project Engineering of Process Plants Process Pumps
I 257
packingi are ur;ed. For severe conditions such as tho-c cncountercd in Tllc rnrrcctirm Z <lcpcn~l.i on tlic drsign of tile ~ I I I ~ ) I Tn
. most raws the
the pumping of hot oils metallic packing is indicated. , n cstcn<l+through the inboard end of the pump and is attached
~ ~ i s t ,rod
Stuffing box- on pumps operating a t high temperatures (ahore 400' F.) to one end of the piston. For this design:
should be weter cooled. Pump8 operating under a liigli vacuum on the
mction side or thwe pumping volatile liquids should bc fitted with a
lant.ern ling in the stuffing box for the introduction of sealing liquid. I Double-actlng pumps
% = 0 0204d,2PC
Actual Capacity
The theoretical capacity is never met in practice because of leakage
t,hrough piston packing, stuffing hoses, or valves. The amount of air or
othrr gas carried into the pump also reduces the theoretical flax rate. Bs
Flanges on pump cylinders are cast as an intcgral part of the cylinder is so often the case in engineering, the relation between the actual and
and may he faccd as raised or flat-faced flanges. Care must he exercised throretiral rapacity is expressed as an efficiency called the volumetric
in specifying the proper companion flange to the pumll flangc. If tlie cificiency ( E , ) :
pump flange is flat faced, the companion flange iiiust he spccified as flat
faced. The strain produced in tightening a raised facc against a flat-faced
flange on the pump may crack the casing. The Hydraulic Institute
recommends the specification of tongue and groow typc joints when 1 where G, = act,ual capacit,y
temperature and pressure conditions require greater gasket pressures I G = theoret,ical capacity
than those obtainable with flat-faced flanges.
I slip
Viscosity or Trmperature Correction The friction effects caused by entrance and exit losses and losses within
the pump are all included in the evaluation of the mechanical efficiency.
Viscosity, or Tcmperutnre, Multiply
SSU "F basic speed by
M e c h a n i c a l Etiiciency
250 70 1.00
1000 83 0.89 The term mechanical efficiency E m is defined as the ratio of work done
2000 105 0.80 in the liquid end t o that done by the driving end of reciprocating pumps
and generally represents the overall efficiency including the hydraulic
5000 210 0.65
losses and mechanical losses. The volumetric losses arc evaluated in the
6000 260 0.62 calculation of G,.
7000 330 0.58 Steam driven pumps
8000 41.5 0.55
0000 5'20 0.52 WHP
10,000 650 0.50
E m = --
IHP
Note: Base col.rrrtion on tempel.ature or visrasit,y, d l i c l r r r e r is controlling. For Power driven pumps
intermdate values, interpolate linearly.
WHP
*Adapted hy permission oi thp Stnndnrris of the llydroalic Inslittile, Copyright Em = --
1955 hy tlic Hydraulic Institute, 122 East 42nd Stwet, New Pork 17, K. Y.
BHP
where W H P = water h p
v i t h a short stroke can make more revolutions per minute, one with a I H P = indmator h p
long stroke ean run a t a higher piston speed. The values given are aver- B H P = hrake h p
nge values bared 11n a widr variety of pu111l)s and conditions. Individual Typical valurs of inerl~aniralcfficienries E,,, for reciprocating pumps
~n:~nufacturers'recommendations should be used when obtainable. For as reported by J a c k s h r c given in Tahle 14-2.
260 Project Engineering of Process Plants Process Pumps
.
Relation Between Pressure in Steam Cylinder a n d W a f e r Cylinder
\\-here PD = discharge pressure, psia
T l ~ cf o ~ c cexerted by t l ~ ch a m cylmdcr 1s
P , = swtion pressure, psis
CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS
The development of the centrifugal pump has been phenomenal. and it
is now used for almost eTrery type of service. Indeed, m o d nlanuf'ic t urers
produce centrifugal pumps ranging from capacitica of 5 gpul and 2 to 5
psi differentiala t o large multistage pumps capal~leof 11umping 2800 to
3000 gprn a t 3000 p i g discharge prcssurcs. Many designs arc h i l t for
successfully handling fluids up t o 850F: highly viilatile Ruiils, :mil
slurries.
Special pumps have been designed for evcn morr: in~prcssivcoperating
couditions. Punlps a t tllc Col~madoRiver nque'luct can l~unlp90.000
gpm a t 444 ft of head and those a t tlie Grand C o d e Irrigiition Project,
607,000 gpm a t 310 ft of head. Special installations of ccutrifugal pumps
in series have heen designed for pressures above 5000 psi.
PLAN
Open Semi-open Closed
Fig. 14-8. Itnpeller types. (The three impellers in the top row are mdisl.)
\~~ERTICU.I,T OR HORIZOSTALLY
$?LIT
Pulnp rasings are either wrtically (Fig. 14-9) or l~orizontallysplit
r Fig. 14-11 I . H o t oil puiuy-. are nsually c~mstrurteclx i t h vcrti~,;rlly.plit
<:lsing~. rIllis
.
permits the sopport of tilt! 111111111at the sllaft rcntrrline :I>
that it can expanrl or contract \ v i t l ~ , ~ udangert of niiaalign~ncnt.
Ca-ings vplit on the Iiorizontal centrrline are most r o ~ i i ~ i ~illo 1iunil1.~
~i
iluving iiqiellcrs niolmte~il i r t v e c i ~the l~carings (douhlc-suclion rir. lo\\-
I"."IUT ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ l t i s t aTghce- upper
). 11a11 is then rmiovable for. rcaily :iccc.-
ill r,;~scof repairs n.itl~outdi-turl~ingtlit' 11i11ingsince the suctioil and
1. discharge nozzles are lucntcd in tlic Lottom purtion.
ri ~ ~ - ~ - p
p-~p - ~ ~- ~ - ~p
~
Stuffing Box
Fie. 14-13. Diffuser-typu nltiltislagr rrntriiog:il p u r r q , . f C u u ~ t r s yof k ? r d ~ . Pump As can be seen in Fig. 14-9 tlie shaft of a pump passes through n stuff-
Conrluiny.) ing box a s it cnters the casing. The proper design of this stuffing box is
:In important factor in tlic successful operation of n 1nnnp, sinre it
The prohlcni of I~alancingaxial tl~rnstis in1port;rnt in nlultistagc pumps. prwents leakage both in and out i ~ fthc p u n i p
T'olutc type designs h n w an allvantage lweanlc 1iydr:rnlir b:ilancc can h i The stuffing box can either be packed at: slro~vn in Fig. 14-9 or
ap])r~xiniated11y arriu~ging11art of tlic inlp~llerrfacing in one dircction equipped with a ~nerlianical seal (Fig. 1 4 - 1 4 1 Packed boxes m:~y 11c
nnrl part in the other (Fig. 14-12). Diffuser-type punips cannot he $0 packed solid or provided with a s c d cagc or lnntrrn ring locnted in the
nrrangcd becallse of the nm~lianicnlproblems. The stagcs in tlic diffuser middle of the course of parking (Fig. 14-9)
design must, thcreforc, he arranged all in the same direction and axial When a punip is operating a t 1mv snctirm preswres air leakage into tilt-
Lhr~istovercome by means of a lly(lraulio balancing dcvirc employing n pump through tlie stuffing box is prcrented by using a lantern ring-seal
balancing rharnl~erwl~ichis connectd to the suction line (Fig. 14-13), cage-(Fig. 14-9). Scaling liqnid is injected into the lantern ring and is
The area oi tlic balancing disks is such that the hydmnlic axial thrust of distribut,ed tlirougllout the packing producing a cooling and lubricati~ig
the pump is balanced by the pressure diffcrmtid ijetivccn tlie back f a r e action. A small portion of the liqnid leaks to thc outside through t h ~
of the 1:1rt stage irnprllcr and the lj:ilani,ing cl~:i~nl,rr. stuffing box gland.
The liquid being pumped ran he used as a sealing liqnid by piping dis-
Bearings charge liquid t o tlie lantern ring. If the liquid being pumped, hoiwver, is
Ail pumps, whether e(pipped with hydraulic balancing derices or not, corrosive or erosive anothcr sealing liquid must be used. I n petroleum
l r :I thrnst bearing and n railin1 Iwaring Thc
arc ronstmcted ~ ~ i t hot11 retineries, f ~instance.
r a special sraling oil is used.
thrust hcarinp is lockrd ~ d i i l vtile r;dial hearing is iree tu inn\-e axially For high teniperatnre operations a circnlating-type stuffing box c5n
276 Project Engineering of Process Plants Process Pumps 277
I N rnqrliqwl so tli~ttt l ~ ccxtvrn:~l si.;iling fiui,l ~ ; U I I N 1,1ro1?11 mid rerir- sures. It is, tl~crcforc,l~:~rlicula~.ly
inrlic:~lcd fur usc in serriccs wtlcrr
culated. The circulnting-type stuffing box is designc~lso that cool sealing leakage cannot be tolcratrcl such :IS the puniping of light hydrocarbons
liquid enters one side of the stuffing box, circulates tl~roughit, and t,lien which are near the boiling points o r the pumping of corrosive and toxic
passes to a cooler from \vliich it is recirculated. materials.
Sealing liquid (seal oil) systems are often installed in plants having
large numbers of pumps that require sealing fluid. The oil can he piped
to tlre pumps i n n cornmon header and returned t o n cooler tlrrougb a n o t l m
header. The f l o of ~ scaling oil into the pump is controlled by a presiurc
regulator ~ \ - l ~ i maintains
cl~ 3 constant iliffcrential trrtwccn the suction
and seal cage pressure. I n addition to the ~ e a l i n goil, hot oil pumps are / r Corbon Gond
often equipped v i t h a !~-aterjacket arounrl the stuffing box.
Khenevcr the Lubricating liquid leaking tlirougli a stuffing 110s is a t a
high enough tc~~~pcr:tturv to cnwc flasl~ingof flannnnl~lr,noxious. or dia-
agrecnblr v:~l~nrs, a smothering gland may 11e used instmd of the usual
pacliiug gland T l ~ csmotl~eringgland is arrangcrl so that colrl ~ v a t c r
i,ntcrs a t the point wlicre scaling liquid touelics tlie gland. T l ~ ex i t e r
corrls t l ~ esraliny liquid thereby preventing vnporizati<rn.
. \ I o ~ tgeneral service ancl rhcmical punl11~arc il~,.igncd tci rercirr four
or five rings of conventional packing; hot oil pumps receive from s e w n Cooling O u t l e t
to ten. Proper packing is a necessity. If the shaft cannot bc tnrned l ~ y (Rototesl
hand: t l ~ cstoffing hox has b c m inq>ropcrl?- packeil. Fig. 14-14. Merhnnicnl rrnl (Cmrtcw oi Dumrnctnllir Corporntion.)
(kneral service pumps are usually parked wit11 asbestos-inil~regnaterl
g ~ i p h i t e . Packing frrr chcmical pumps must he selected for the specific For higl~lycorrosive or high temperature liquid:: a d ~ ~ u b mechanical
lc
liiluid to bc hanclleil. I n Irigl~tc~nperuturcservicc snrh as that encoun- seal is employed. It is designed so that a cool lubricating liquid can be
tered wit11 hot oil pumps nietallic packing is u;cd. lletallic 1)acking is injected across tlie seal faces preventing contact by the pumped liquid.
inteuded for use with h a r d e n d rtcel shaft *lee\-es. Only a soft grade (if
packing should be used with sl~nftswlricli h a r e bronze rlervcs. Couplings
Packing problems have hecome increasingly <lificnlt as the pmcess in- Flexible couplings (Fig. 14-91 of the steel-spring-grid, gear, spacer, and
dustries resort to lliglrer tempe~.aturesand pressures and to the ~ ~ i u u p i n g ~ r i nand rubber bushing type arc used. Thcsc couplings can coml~cnsatc
of volatile materials. .4 nurnticr (if mcrlianicxl seals I ~ a wIree11 r l ~ v l q r e d ior slight misalignments but arc not intended a s universal joint?, and
by various manufacturcr~for these sevrre servirr:; (Fig. 1.1-141. Tlrcsc g c a t care in alignment r ~ fthe shafts is necessary. Thc flexible coupling
arc used in lieu of p:tckcrl stuffing hoses and most of thr hot oil and is usu:~llyfurnislrc~llry the pump manufacturcr, Irut he n n ~ Ire t told tlrc
rlwniirnl p u ~ n p ~ rlcsigned
~rc to rec~,i\-eeitlir~.11:1ckingor the 111ccl1a11icsl dimensions of driver shaft so the coupling can be properly liorcd.
seal. Tlrc meel~aniexls r d is mow rxl~r.nsire,11utoften s e r ~ i c trr,n(litions
,
\vurrant its use. Base Phtes (Bed Plates)
.\Ierhanical seals consist of t w ~ rhighly polished surfaces in eliding Pump manufacturers usually supply a base platc on xhich thc pump is
contact. The contact is luaintained try springs \\-l~ichare : ~ l / n s t c ~t ol mounted and which is drilled t o rcceivc the motor or turbine specified for
exert a force sufficient to prevent lrakagc of the fluid being pumped. The the service. The purchnwr inus1 supply the pump manufacturer with
surfaces are of dissimilar materials. One snrfacc is stationary anrl is certified dimensional drawings furnished by thc driver manufacturer (for
connected t o the frlmie while tlre other rotates and is fastened to the shaft. economic reasons it is usual practice to purchase pumps and drivers sepa-
The surfaces are lubricated by the fluid bcing pun~petlrrr by :m auxiliary rately). The equipment is shippcd separatcly, for mounting in the field.
fluid if that being pumped is nonlubrirating. The mcrlranical seal effcc- T h e base plates for small lnunps are usu:~llybuilt of steel channel. Base
tively stops all stuffing box leakage even undcr high stuffing box pres- plates for largcr pumps arc east iron and havc a rimmed trough sloping
278 Project Engineering of Process Plants Process Pumps 279
toward one enrl for draining Ieakagc tu waste. Grout holes arc a h pro- The curves are usually based on the pumping of clear, cool water. The
vided. On extrcnwly large installation^ i t niay be marc eronunlicnl to characteristics for pumping other liquids are not necessarily the same
inount the pu111l1and driver on sf!pmtc stwl 11alls or sol? plnrri nn t l ~ r as for water.
integral foundation, rather than provide a common tlase plate. The characteristic curve is not to he confused with the so-called test
curve. Test curves are obtained f11m1an actual test of a particular pump
Drivers
Centrifugal pumps are driven by direct-ronnectcd nn~torsor turhines.
\Vlien two pumps arc installed with one to serve as il sparc, a motor is
often used for onc and a turbine for the other thus supplying the niaxiinum
flexibility.
Materials of Construcfion
A distinct advantage of the centrifugal pump is the vide variety of
~naterialsfrom n.hich its various parts can be cmst~wctctl. Casings car1
he rnadr of niatcrials ranging from glass and atonc~vnreto tlie toughest
alloy ;.trel.;. Gelieral statcnicnts, thcrcforc, are of little vuluc. It might
he said that in 11roccss plants bronze parts arc avoi(1ed in serviccs opemt-
ing nhovc 250" F. and cast iron ia not uscd a h w 350 to 400'F. AIl~lys
such as 11-13% chrome steels are frequently used for operating tern-
pcratures abovc 400" F.
U. S . Gallanr per Minute
Centrifugal Pump Calculations
Fig. 14-15. Pcr.fol-minrc ruri-r for ;i eent,rifugal pump (Adapted fmm .Illis Chnl-
Horsepower a n d Efficiency Inera Company datsi, hy permmsior~.)
The water horsepower is defined and calculated for centrifugal and
reciprocating pumps in like iixumer. Thc llrake li,mcl~on.er.definul a,< and may bc purchased with t h a t pump for an adrlitional charge. Char-
the energy input to thc punip shaft, is rclatcd t o the watcr horsepo~vcr aot,eristie curves represent the average performance of tlic type pump
hy an efficiency. This efficiency for centrifugal punips is an uvrrall purchased and small variations i-wtn-ccn indiridnal pnmps product4 on
value and includes mechanical, hydraulic, and volumetric efficiencies. the same pattern are possible. It is grnerally not necessary or econon~i-
cally rou~rdto rrquebt tcst curves except for large expmsive pumps in
~vliiclicase tlic tcst cost will be only a snlall fraction of the total cost.
The niark
Performance Curves I
T h e graph in Fig. 14-15 illustrates a typical head-caparity or perform-
which appears on cliar:irtcrist~ccurves designates tlic head and capacity
ance curve for a centrifugal pump a t a constant specd and is rallcd a
fur rvliich tlic p u n q ~was snld. The illark
characteristic curve. The corresponding cfficiencics, brake horscpomrrs,
and the minimum values of net positive suction head rcquired a t cach
flow rate are also given. Tbese curvcs arc furnished by the pump sup-
plier for each size and type of pump that he manufacturers. The head- indicates the gu:lrantced efficiency. In general pumps are selected so
capacity curve represents the work per unit mass of fluid pumpcd called that the operating point correspunds t o or i3 rlwc t o the best efficiency
head (ft-lb of force/lb of mass) a t each possible flow rate. The head, point (the maximum efficiency obtainahle. usually designated as BEP)
which is often callcd feet of head, can be converted to the differential As the caparity of n rrntriiugal pntnp is inrreascd, a p i n t is reached
pressure under which the pump operates by multiplying by the density. at wl~iclifluid velocity in the caring is st] great that local pressures in the
280 Project Engineering of Process Plants Process Pumps 281
casing decline to thc rapor pressure or helon-. This point is called the
cut-point or hreak-point hccauw vapor bnbbles are icrrn~cdand a rapid
decline in head, efficiency. and c:ipncity result?. Fur t l k reason perform- The following conclusions can n o x be made.
ance curves should never be extl~:ipolated. For the same pumps or geonletrically similar pumps Q/(g,H)'*D2.
nW(y,H)", and nQ",/(g,H)"' hare unique ralaes rorresponding to each
Affinity Laws cfficiencg and these values rcmain ronstaut rrgardlcss of tthe imlxller
diameter or pump speed.
Through the application of the principles of dimensional anwlysis (111 The constancy of t,he various dimensionlcsa g o u p s expressed above is
the physical jlropertics affecting pulnl> operation the folloa-ing re1:rtion- an ideal case and not completel? true. I t is, hmvc\-er. a useful approxima-
ship is obtained.*
t of considerable value
tion and several relationships can be derived t h t ~ are
to the chemical engineer in determining operational characteristics of a
pump vhen the pump diameter or speed is ~ h t n g e d .
For the Same P i m p Opcraliny at Dijjerent Spertls:
where Q = capacity, IYI ft w ~ i tima t D = constant
II = pump hcad, St-# '111
II = speed. r r r o l u t ~ i o n ~ u ntime
it Hence at an? givrn cfficiency:
D = impeller diam, length Capacity
g, = Ih-ft '(time)2;+. 32.17 if t,ime unit,s are seconds Q nD
p = density, mass.'oubic length
and ---- are constant
(g,~)h~~' (y,~)'~
F = viscosit,y, absolute
# = pound of force
Ih = pound of mass
Call the dimensionless expressions a,, aa, and r, in the order in which Hence
they appear. For true dynamic similarity, 8 1 , s 2 , and a3, must be con-
stant for similar pumps or for t.he same pump at different speeds. sd,
15-hich vill he recognized as a Reynolds' number since Q'W is proportional
to the wlocity, cannot he maintained constant with changes in pump
speed or size if the same liquid is pumpcd. I t has hcen shown, ho\'ever, :. (2 = K'n where Zi' and 1< :irr c ~ ~ n . ; t ~ m t s
that for practical applications the Ileynol~is'nomhcr can be neglected in
considering the conditions for dynamic similarity.
Thus the conditions for dynamic similarity are constant values of a1
and m.. The form of e q 1 can hc altered I I :~ppropriate
~ mathematical
operation to give the follo~\-ing:
nl)
= constanl = J
(!7,HJ
or
Calling n D / ( y , H ) % = a', it ran t ~ cst,strcl that for conditions of simi- 11'D2
Inrity of Row a,,a2. a110 a ' p ;ire cor1sla111.
- - .J' vhcre .l and J ' are constants (1)
H
It has been s l ~ o \ v nthat
~ ~ for similar pumps or for thc salue pump a t
different speeds the velocity diagrams a t the impeller are geometrically Hence a t constant diameter
similar when thc pumps are operating a t the scum effiricncy.
282 Proiect Engineering of Process Plants Process Pumps 283
BHP For geon!etrirnll!/ ,sinzilur p i ~ ~ n pwith
s different impeller dianlerers but
same speeds:"
1WP a ()H rr n3 a t constant I ) .\t Hie siuiie eficicncy puints:
Capaczly
From 13q. 2 ahove,
T h e application of these I a v s is best illustrated by t h e following exam- Q = Iin113
I . Remember t h a t these laws apply only for efficiencies of the same At constant t p c d
value. Q = li"L)\n.hcre K a n d li" a r e constants
or
Head
At constant spccd from c q 4 al1o1r
HIiP
I n like manner
Gallons pet M8nute Application: A series of curves can be prepared for different diamctcrs
when one curve is k n o v n in a nianner similar t o t h a t described allove.
Fig, 14-16. Estirnat,ion of p e r i o r m a n w curve f o r new conditions.
CHASCIYO IYPELLKE L)IAMETERS IN THE S.AJIECISISG. Even more
import:mt to tlic chemical engineer than the variation of head and
EXAMPLE: Given the performance curve a t 3500 rpm illustrated in Fig. 14-16. capacity in a series of geometrically similar pumps a r c the changes pro-
I t is desired to calculate a new performance curve a t 1750 rpm.
duced by reducing t h e impeller dinmcter of a given pump. A smaller
SOLUTION: impeller m a y he installed or t h e existing impeller turned-down on a lathe.
1. Select any efficiency and read off corresponding values of Q and H. T h e new ilnpellcr aud casing con~i)inationis no longer g~om&caIly
2. Solve for H 2 and Q r
3ilnilar to the original arrangenient, but the rffect of the diameter change
r a n he approximated ~vlienit is assu!ned t h a t the reduction in diameter
reduces the discharge peripheral velocity without affecting the efficiency.
T h e pcriphernl velocity is dircetly proportional t c ~thc imj~elleriliani&r
and hence Q a u a D . Head is proportional to u'/2g, (udlere u is periph-
cral velocity).
3. Plot these as one point on the Head capacity curve.
4. Plot the value of the selected efficiency opposite h)? as a point on the effi- These approximations yield t h e following relation. whicli apply a t
ciency curve for 1750 rpm. equal cficienries just a s the previous equations hased un the affinity Ian-s.
5. Enough additional points are selected to enable sketching in thc desired
curve.
0. BHP curve is calculated in a similar manner.
A whole series of curves can thus be calculated for various speeds. The line
d B in Fig. 14-16 indicates a line of constant efficiency (50':;). There are nunler-
ous such lines corresponding to each yalue of efficiency. I t is only on these
lines that the affinity laws may be applied.
286 Project Engineering of Process Plants Process Pumps 287
for water a t the BEP t o obtain values for the viscous liquid. These
factors are correlated v i t h the Reynold~'number and are given in the
Standards of t h r Hyclraulic Institute!! or in Centrifugal and Axial Flow
,' P ~ r m p s ,by Stepanoff1O
The fdlon-ing relations apply:
where H , and H , = head for water and the viscous liquid, respectively
E, and E, = ~fficiencg for lvatcr and the viscous liquid, respectively
Ca and CI: = corrections for the head and efficiency
Since the specilic speed is constant a t the best efficiency point:
.
0.8 X Q.. m i l 1.2 X Q.,. Head thc wrluea of Cr (rfficiency rot.rcction), P a (enptw
~ t cw~.pction).
y and C n ihcnd r.orrwtion) f w all font. capacities hy entering t h e d ~ r t
Capacity in 100 gallons Per minute ;,I t h r m t c r mpacity and miding up\r.ard t o thc corresponding head If", ~ l i r nhmi-
zont;illy (either left or right) to the i l r s i r d viscosity i:twr-es u i t h r liqtlid in qrwst~on,
Fig. 14-17. Viscosity correction curves for centrifugal pump performance. (Re- and t h m p r ~ c p e i l i ~ l n ~ i i itdo the i.iit.ious c o n w t i m ~ t ~ n eM-lilltil,ly
~ . P;LCII R P : I ~ .
printed from Stundurds of fIyriiaulie I n s t i t u t e , copyright 1056. Hydrnulir Institute, iap:trity. m i pfficiency for n n t m by the curr~sponding c~,s~wr.tion ti, ohtain tlir
122 E. 42nrl St., S c w I-orh 17, X. Y.) ~ : w r w I e dr;rlucs.
I I I I I i n i s t i t . 1)1tin.
USE OF F I G . 14-17:
s t r I I i t . T h e h a d a t sllu-ofi can 1,- t ; h n a s ;il>pi,xi-
Given the i:ompirte prrformanre rhararteristirs of a pump v h e n handling rmter.
mately riir i : m c as that i u r wnlc~..
Inrate t h e water enparity at maxin~omefficienr.? (1.0 X Q.*). C:tIrul:tte 0.8 X &,
288 Project Engineering of Process Plants Process Pumps
expressed in foot-pounds of force per pound of mas? (usually rcfcrrcd the dwsity.
to as S P S H in feet of liquid punipe~lI .
KPSH = h, - h,,
psi = (A)
(y)(2) cn ft,
xhere h. = total suction head in ft-#;lb absolute (includes atmospheric For any given piping n r r a n g r n ~ o ~a t bystcm hrad c n l ~ erim 111' S U ~ P T -
I iu~posedoil the head-c;~l~:icitycurve for tlie l~ump. The system head
pressure) , ' I ,-
p
h., = absolute vapor pressure in ft-P ;Ib rurve is composcd of the pu-
h', and h',, = ditto except gage pressures in ft-#;lh tmtial (static) lica11, lm.ssure
lie;ld, and friction lrcarl. Only
Vapor pressure is m ~ s generally
t reported as an ahsolutc pressure. so- the latter varies with flow.
called Reid vapor pressurcs are gage value.?. Such a plot is shown in Fig.
S P S H is important in the selection an11 installation of punrps x l ~ i r h 14-18. The point at wlricli the :
handle fluids near or a t the boiling point. If pufficicnt head ahore t11c t v o curves cross (Point A ) is
I
vapor pressure is not provided, operation of the pump d l he in~possil~lc tcrmed the operating point for
or unsatisfactory. As the pressure a t the suction of the pnmp ncar- t l ~ c the system. This is the only
vapor pressure of the liquid, vapor bubbles form in the punlp casing anrl tlor rate 17-hirh the puml> will
arc subsequently collapsed a t the discharge portion of the casing. This delirer unless the characteris-
action. called cavitation,* can cause severe pitting oi the imp'llcr ; ~ m l tics of thc system are changed.
casing. In addition as vaporization increases pumping ceases or hecoioes The usual way to aceou~plish IJ,,n,p,Fig. 14-18. Opwnting point of a centrifugnl
erratic. -4centrifugal pump can only produce the head in ft-#/lb indi- this rhnnge is by throttling
cated hy the performance curve. This curresponds to a very lo^ prrsr;ut~ the discharge valve. Throttling adds an addkional quantity of head
for low density material such as vapors and thus the pump caunclt pso~luc~, on the system and moves the curvc to thc left thus reiluring the
the discharge prcsmre required by the system. capacity of the pump to some point R which depends on thc amount
The NPSII most suitable for 8uccesaful operati1111as repostcd IJ? tllp of throttling.
Hydraulic Institute9 is correlated with sperific speed for hot vatel. anrl
correction factors are givcn for liydrocarbona. Xmufncturers reco~nni~~nrl Series a n d Parallel Pump Arrangements
tlie NPSH required for their pumps. Thcae values usually apprar on the IVhen it is impossible to mect the head requirements with a single
performance curve furnished with the pump. (See Fig. 14-15.) Imnp two or more pumps in series may he used. Thc flov rate througl~
tach pump is the same a t any given t,ime for pumps conncctcd in series.
Specific Gravity a n d H e a d
The so-called head of a centrifugal pun111 is actl~allya unit of n.11rli 1: The heads of the head-capacity curves for the t x o pumps arc adriitivc.
Tire clelivery for a given system can he dekrmined by the intersection
heing correctly cxpressed as ft-lb of force per lh of mass (it-#/lbJ. 31- I! i ~ the
f y s t r ~ ncurve with the nelv combined performance curve.
though it is usually just referred to as f t of 11e:td. If this fact is c1e:wly 'To incrcese capacity beyond that available with single pumps, parallel
understood, the effect of specific gravity or density of the pumped fluid :~rrangcmmt.can be used. I n parallel arrangement the pumps llrodncr
on pump operation is easily followed. The actual ralucs of head on the equal hearls, and the new head-capacity curve is determined by adding
periorrnance curve are not aflected by density 'since head is expreawl
ILS t11e xurk per unit 111:1ssof fluid that tile ~ I I I I I I ) )d l : ~ r ~ w u ~ p lfor
give11 volume flow. To calculate the wol.k dune per unit Litr~e,l i o u - ~ , v ( , ~ ~
i s l ~:L I
I
the caparities. Parallel arrangement is often used in pumping statir~ns
rvhere demand varies widely. All but one of the punips can then be
cut out at low demand periods. The satisfactory operation of pumps in
the vuluiue of flow nrust be converted to uiass by inultiplying by thc I parallel requires that tlie pumps have stable cliaractcristic curves so
density. In addition, the differential pressure in psi also depends on that TI-ideswings or surges in pumping rates can he avoided. A stable
*When cavitation occurs in a pump, noisy opemtion ami undue vibration of thr curve is one having n head which constantly increascs toward zero
l n ~ ~ t t j > im
n gi t n1.e ubsewed.
I capacity.
290 Proiect Engineering of Process Plants Process Pumps 291
I
ROTARY PUMPS Each b.a.: sperial advantages
for particular a l q ~ l i c a t i o ~ Bc-
~s.
Rotary 1111nil1.: a r r p~~aitivc-
~ l i q ~ l a c c u i c npumps
t whirh, through rotat-
rausc of tlic clwc cle:irance.~
ing action. t r a p liqniii I I nirchanical
~ uienns a t the suction sirlc, :ind rrl<yisc
r i r c for certain rotary
it a t tlie d i s r l m r g ~side.~ hniong the numerous types of rotary ~ 1 1 n n j ~ jnr~nps. allra.:ive fl~iid. cannot
l gcar, scre~v,lohe, ran<,,and rani l,u~~il)s.. typiral gear
~ n a n n i a c t u r e ~are
be s u c c r s i u l l y lianclled. This
11ntup is slrown in Fig. 14-19a. T h e unnir.~llingof the gears llroduces doca not apply. lio1verer. t o all
a vacuum n.Ilic11 d r a w the liquid into the spacer i)etn.een t h e teetll.
r7 rotary p u ~ n p ~Certain . special
l l l c liquid is conductetl to the other sidr of th15 I ~ U I I ~liere I re tlw nierhing ~lcsigns of lielical pumps can
of tlic gear.: forces the liquid into tlie discharge l i n e P1111ips such a? han~lli. s o l u t i ~ ~ n scontaining
tliese p r ~ d u c epressures up to 1000 psi and flow rates tu 300 gpm.
Iwgc solid particles.
Rotary pumllx arc most often
:iilr;u~t:~grorlsly applied in proc-
IYS plants for pun~llingviscous
liqnid n-hicli T T - I I U ~h~r difficult
for ccntrifog:ll punips to li;inrlle.
T k n z i t i e s a s high as 400,000
wnti-tokes rxn riisily he
pnmpccl. Rutary pulnlk are Fig 14-20. Pelighrr;tl pomp itnprller ilimv-
niannfactured ~%-l~icli are cilp;t- ing r,a,trl.n,
hle of discllargc pressures u p
~ ~
Theoretically most rotary pumps should deliver t h e same volume 11rorcss information (Fig. 14-21). Recansc t l ~ csprcification skiccts are
,regardless o i discliarge pressure. A certain amount nf running clearancc. written in :rl~hreviated form, however, engineers arc pronc ti1 provide
however, is necessary in all designs and this causes a small arnount of sketrhy or iriailequ:~t~~ information. Full details of the pumlling prohlrni
leakage (slil~!. Tlic slip is inversely prupr~rt,ionalt o t h e pressure differ- nlnit IIB given.
ential of t h e pump and is also afiected b y the r i s c ~ ~ s i of
t y tlic liquid being ln cmpl,lyiny s;~fi.tyiar.ti~rson tlie required capacity iuid I I C : I ~ . ii is
candled. Usually, however, the capacity varies only a small amount I m ~ l e r ; ~ lti) ~ : hoth tlic 11l1eratinga n d the celcnlatcd design valurs. It
~ lgivc
wit11 discharge pressure. oit1.n lin]~lwnsthat tlle arhitmry safety fnctur I I S C V ~11roduces :I design
Numerous rotary pumps other than t h e gear type are manufactured. value n-llicll nccessitntcs the selection u f a mure exllt,nrivc ]lulng. In
Project Engineering of Process Plants Process Pumps 293
,\ncli cases a reductiun of the arbitrary safety factor mill yield lower
PROCESS SPECIFICATION (Ie-ign cunditions for n-lii(,l~ a leas expensive puulp can be selt.ctc(1. H ; ~ v i n g
FOR PUMPING EOUIPMENT
I~lltlldcrigtr :lmd operating ralues, the pump cnginccr cnn spot snrh >ltll:l-..
PROCESS DESIGN PIC PLANT CPLA-2 t i i n s anrl inform the project engineer a t once.
CHECKED B Y RLJ SPEC. NO BR-DO0
DATE 3,20,5Z ITEM NO P-105
E s t r u ronsidcr;~tion must be given to selecting a pump rr-hie11 i? to
GENERAL I scrrc as a spare for two pum1,s ol~cratingin diifcrent servicrr." Tllc
SERVICE 1 Furnace Feed ~ x r 11cr k unit mass (heacl) required for cneh scrricr :I. ! d l a s the llifter-
NO OF PUMPS I N REGULAR USE I 1 cuti;rl prc.surc :ind capacity nus st he cmnpnred. This i; 11artiri1l:trly
REOUIRLD AS SPARES ncwzsnry fur centrifugal 11uuil1ssince the liead ~lcreloperl\I? a riritrifngal
ln111111 reniainr the ei~rncior a given capacity rcg:~rdleas of the s p w i f i ~ :
-
FLUlL ,,n,.uLru I VAL
gral-it?. Tlic spare ruuat of course 11c rliosc~tfor the ~ n : ~ x i u ~ n~m
,o~iditim.
CORROSIVE OR NON-CORROSIVE
CORROSIVE COMPOUNDS
SOLIDS ! IF A N Y I
I Sllghrly Corroslve
I ~..lr,._ I INFORMATION TO BE SUPPLIED BY MANUFACTURER
" ,,rlll:lIlee cllr\-c..>
'The uinnuiacturcr sliould 11e rtqncatcd t o sup11ly 11cli
Q U A N T I T Y H A N D L E D G / H AT 60F A N D 761 .''.
SPECIFIC GRAVITY AT 60F A N D 760 M M 1 U.~UL installation and opcrnting inrtru~,tiulis,and wrtificd ~litncnaionvrlh a w -
PUMPING T E M P E R A T U R E
VISCOSITY-CENTIPOISES AT PUMP'*" T ' L . D
1'F
10
150
1 I ings for all pmnps purcllnscd so t h a t accurate piping layout untl fuunda-
tiou iiraxvings can 11c ni;rdc.
PUMP INSTALLATIONS
PRESSURE
Location
P u m p s s l i r ~ u l dbe located a s close a s possihle t o the source of fluid to
rcduce the l e n R t l ~m i l cowplrsity of the suctiol! linr. Frcc s11acc fur
OISCHARGE CONDITIONSI(AT PUMP) srrricing both around thc pump and above the put1111 e h ~ ~ u be l d provided
-PRESSURE P S I i ABS OR GA I ZZO paig
I n the case of rcciproc;~tingpump. this space should be ~ d c q u a t etu per-
-5P G R AT PUMP TEMP A N D SUCTION PRESS 0 810
-LAPACITYAT OlSCH COND GPM 294 init the ~61110v:11of p i ~ t ~ l and l s rods. I n ndriitiorl t h e area :iroullil the
pumps sliould he free o i undue safety Iiazanls.
If t h e pumps a r c in u pump liuuse, ;rdeqn;rte air clinngcs shordd he
~ x o v i d e d . Special cxl~aust,ducts a r e necessary a t the stuffing bow^ IIE
pumps handling rolatilc ur poisonous tnaterials. \Vhcrc possil~lc,tliertl-
Sore, pump houses sliould he avoidcd. I n general they create addit,iomal
expense and liazards and have little real adwmtage.
\Then practirnl, process putiil~sd ~ o u l ~hel instullctl in a line o p l ~ ~ ~ ~ i t r
-REMARKS
--i SPECIAL R E Q U I R E M E N T S OF Ilazardous procc.?s units. ;\ roadwly or frcc area can then be Iol.:lkll
-PUMPSO R ORIVERS.ETC,I betn-ccn the unit and the p u m l ~ s.;o t h a t they can be serviced \\-itl~out
TYPE O F P U M P RECOMMENDED Ccntrlfugal
-TYPE OF DRIVER R E C O M M E N D E D
undue interference in pl:rnt operation.
This in-linc arrauge~nent makes elertrical c,~ncluit instdlatiun :mi
- REGULAR M O ~ O F
- SPARE Turbine steam piping inuclr s i ~ u l ~ l e:iltl~ougl~
r the 11roceas 1)il~ingti1 mid from t i i t ,
~ ~ u m pcan s t,ectnue c m ~ p l i c a t d . It the pro~,csspiping WOLIIII Ix too
-- complex for n certain p u u r l ~it , ilia)- be pwiernblr to plncr that one ~ I U ~ I J I
-- - - ~ ~~ ~~
Auxiliary Piping
Auxiliary piping (cooling m-ater and gIand oil piping) particularly t o
centrifugal pumps i~ a small hut extremely important item. Manufac-
turers' sugge.stims on this phase of the piping s l i o ~ l dbe heeded. -411
ralrc. s l i o ~ ~IFl ~ :lcccsiihle
l and thc nrrangtmient, o i tlic piping should ho
such that ~crricitigand inspection of tlic pump will not be impaired.
Priirision for piping o i stuffing box leakage and otlicr drainage away
intm the O I I I U ~u i w t )N' ~ m t . i O e j . Sucii I ~ n l i a g eis often collected in :I
colirmon siimll for all 1,ulnps from \\-liicl~it is then pumped to n-aste hy
:m auto~naticallycontrolled sump pump. COMPRESSORS
REFERENCES
RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS
Briefly, as defined by tlw Compressed Air and Gas Iiistitutr:' a reci1~-
rocating compressor is one in which the compressing clrrnrnt is n piston
follon-iug a rcciprocntillg ~iiutiunill :I ~ylildclr. B~V:LII-I, 1 1 1 the 111ar1y
Direct-Connected Steam-Driven
T h e majority of early conipressor installations mere steam-driven units.
Use of tl~eseunits is noiv largely confined to small (10-300 111)) I m - Second
pressure installations, single stage or txvo-stage tandcrn units n h i c h pro- stoqe
duce maxiniuni pressures of about 150 psi and 5CiJ psi, respectively.
These compressors operate a t 250 to 500 rpm a n d are most popular a s Fig. 15-1. Plan and pictorial view of t~o-stag?,stpun~ilriren~.cciprorntingr o ~ u -
air conlpressurs. T h e steam end is similar to t h a t on st,carn-driven - pwnsor. (Photograph hy eourtcsy of Ingnrsoll-Rand Com~inn~.Pirtorinl ndapted
recij~rocalingpumps. by permission.)
Larger 1200 to 1.500 hpi stcan-drix-cn compressors arc generally of t h e Motor-Driven
horizontal, duplex type in single-stagc or two-stage designs (Fig. 15-1). There is a wide variety of motor-driven rcciprornting rolnpressor
T h r w cxn hc built for high-prcs*urc operation u p t o 50W psi. Choicc designs ranging from small single cylinder niodi\ls (,5 to 150 h p ~to large
of such :i unit will depend largely on the steam balancc in a n existing or opposed multicylinder compressors (150 to 4500 h p i . T h e smaller units
* Rrprintcd hy pmmimion Cimprrasud Air H n ~ i d b o o k ,2nd Ed., Cumpressed hr a r e arranged for flat belt or V-belt drive whilc the larger unit;; a r e de-
and Gna Instilutc, I\lcC;~.an-HillBook Co., A-.Y. (1954). signed f o r dircrt-connected synchrmons nmtor; ( F i p . 15-2 and 15-3).
Project Engineering of Process Plants Compressors and Vacuum Pumps 30 1
Units such a s t h a t illustrated in Fig. 15-3. composcd of four to six eom-
Intercooler pressor cylinders rcquire the uiost careful dezign. Inertia forccs can he
zrc:it in sucli installations, arid tliesc must be carefully halancrd in t h r
ilesign. T h c opposed arrangement of cylinders in Fig, 15-3 mininlizrs
these forcer. Complete balance, lion-ever, is never achieved and due con-
:ideration of the magnitude of unbalance must be given in the design of
coinpres~orfoundations.
Syncl~ronousmotors can bc conreniently designed to operatc a t the h v
speeds required for reciprocating machines. If a .;yncl~rononsm o t o ~ .i-
to be eniployed in a hazardous atmosphere, horvever, it is ncecssary t o
srparatc the motor from t h e conlpressor b y enclosing the motor in a brick
r'r coi11,retr room. A motor shaft cxtension rvhich is supported 11y ;in
outl~oarilh a r i n g is uicd. T h e r o o n ~is rentilated so that tile p r c s s u ~
i n d e is higlicr than in t h r ronljireswr rooill, iinrl a n y air an11 gas le:~k:rgo
will go ~ ~ instrad
u t I,! into the iiiotor room. I n many haznrdous :III~III.>-
phcrc?. l ~ o ~ v e ~it -11:~s
~ r . I)wn found satisfactory t o rnrase the niotor col-
~ ~ in a s l m t inctnl housing and iunirrtain :I liii-itire llrrszurc in
l e c t ~ring
this bowing using an inert gas such a iiitr~~gcti.S i r h :in a r r a u g c ~ i ~ ~ ~ n t
is i t 1 r t i c i 1 1 1 r l cunrenient and for lurrcr bol.se11uner inrt;ill;itiotr~
11jclo~v450 lipl it is porsihlc to employ induction inotors crr1noniical1~-
which r a n be made explosion-l)ruoi. Induction 111ot111.s, I t o ~ ~ - e r erc- r.
illlire re~luctiongears b e c a ~ ~ sofe their higher speeds (compressor inax-
n i is generally around 5 0 0 ) .
i ~ ~ i u rpnl
Turbine-Driven
Steani turbines instcad of clc,rtric tnotors ?:in ilr used to ilrir-c the I Y I I I I -
~ ~ r c s o dcscribcd
rs al)ovc. Stcan1 turbines ;irv used en p u w r c a t s art,
high :mil rtcani costs are 111n.
Engine-Driven
Large coniprersors designed for motor d r i r e can also be driven h p diesel.
gas-diesel,* or gas cngincs. T l ~ c s ccngincs arc connected through a fly-
n-heel t o the rom]~reszorw i t . I t is desiralils, liorvwer, t o cmi~loytlir
compact "nnglc-type" coniprt:ssors ~lescribed helon. ~x-llcndiesel or gas
fuel is inrlirated. For rcwtaiii !~igli-presswe,high-rqxirity i ~ p p l i c a t i o n ~
beyond t l ~ srangc of t h e "anglc-type" i a b o w 2500 h p ) i t is nrccssary
to use the engine d r i r e connerted to a "ntotor-driven" type unit.
Angle-Type
An anglc-type compressor has liurizontnlly mounted cornprrssur cylin-
Knockout ~ i s c h a r a e Svnchrbnous iubricatina Suction
Drum Header Motor Oil Pump Heoder ders d i i c h are driven b y power cylinders n ~ o u n t e da t an augle of approxi-
n ~ a t c l y90' to the horizontal.
*TIN,z n ~ - d i e s ~mI x i m c : m 0 1 > , ~ 1 1 on
< ~ villws gas o v <liwel fuc~l and is i m l i c ~ ~ l d
;an i n t ~ m ~ p t : d ~mucw
~ l x w lv d g:t- SIII>,>I? vxi<ts.
302 Project Engineering of Process Plants Compressors and Vacuum Pumps 303
T h e early gas engines were siniply modified steam engine compressors.
.~
I h e y n-cre improred during the 1920's and many large installations of
horizontal. 4-cycle gac enginc-driven. dnuhle-acting compressors were
installed ezperially for gas transmission senice. These units are still
produced hy some nianufacturcrs: but have dcclined in popularity because
of the advent of angle-type compressors.
Perhaps lone of tlic most q w t ; r c u l a r clerclolm~entsin compressor design
took place in the late 1930's and early 1940's x h e n the 2-cycle gas-driven,
angle-type roniprcssor was introduced. It had three i~nnicdiatelyappar-
ent advantages o\-cr its lower speed horizontal predecessors; namely,
higher tlicrnial efficiency. lower (apprr~ximatelyone-half) space require-
ment. and Irnver COP^ per horsepo~verinstalled
Tlierc are tn.o designs of angle-tyle compressors. On? is the so-called
"right angle" (Fig. 15-41 with the power rylinders arranged side by side;
it lias tile advantage 01' easy accessibility to all power cylinders from one
platforni. A w r m d t y l i ~ ,t h r 1--angle ~ i t ht l ~ r1mvcr cylinders in a
V-arrangement (Fig. 15.5) has tlie a d ~ m t a g eof more cylinders per unit
length of engine. Rotli 1 : ~ ~give s excellent service and have proved very
popular. The "ripllt-:~nglc" t > y c has 5 , 6. 8 or 10 p o m r rylindcrs and
tlie "V-angle" type has 6 , 8 , or 10 rylinders. Botli deliver from 250-300 hp
per cylinder. Tlic opcrating spec11 ranges around 300 rpm and as many as
six t o seven stages of coiiil~ressi,nncan bc inrorporated nn one compressor.
Botli two- and four-cycle engines arc manufactured. Four-cycle
engines opcrate extreniely xell a t nick variations in load below the rated
capacity. T~vo-cyclemachines operate satisfactorily high above rated
capacity. I n two-cycle operatinn 811-called scavenging air is pre-com-
pressed in an auxiliary scavenging air compressor which is connected t o
the crankshaft. This air enters tllc cylinder toward the end of the expan-
sion stroke and aids in expelling or "scavenging" the remaining gases.
T h e four-cycle cnginr arcomplislics the intake and compression of air
in each cylinder and thus requires no scavenging air compressor.
T l i c ~ eare certain inherent ndvantagcs t o each type ~vhichare discussed
fully in lncclinnical engineering literature. The two-cycle engine became
popular since it required smaller spacc and lcss weight per horsepower
and operated w r y economicnlly a t the low speeds required for recipro-
cating machines. The four-cycle engine requires no scavenging air
compressor arid recent designs aff(~rrlsavings in space. T h e four-cycle
operation inlirrently lias high rffirirncy, and tlie two-cycle has more
uniforri~crank action since every down stroke is it power stroke. T h e
f m ~ r - r y r l ccan he runtrollcd from 100% t o 50% of operating speed n l ~ i l c
t111:rnngc for a t\vo-ryvl~:is 100% to 60:;. I n t h r final analysis instdlcd
cust c~~uip:lriions :%longnit11 cunrp:irison of engineering features will dic-
t:tte tlic cl~oiccof any style unit.
304 Project Engineering of Process Plants Compressors and Vacuum Pumps
1)icseI-(driven. angle-type conipressorF are used xhere gas is unavailable.
Gas-diesel units are employed if the gas supply may be interruptable (sea-
sonal availahilityi. Tlir gas-driven and certain gas-diesel models are
-~mt.kignited ~vitlllow voltage ignitors. In hazardous areas a low fire
hazard ignition system should be sp?cified.
Ttre p o w r cylindrrs of anglc-type comprersnrs are r a t e r cooled. Lubri-
<,ationis force fed t o the power end by a gear pump directly connected
to the cri~nkslrait.
,.
wit11 steel fingers I'nrtcncrl to the pneumatically o p r a t e d unloader piston*.
I his nctim 11rcvmtrthtx piston from compressing gas during tlic partirular
s t r ~ ~ kine ~vl~iclithe unloaiiing i~ccurrcil. Compressor capacity is therehy 0% Capacity
rcduccd. (Suction Valves Held O p e n
Step-Control. So-called firc-step or. for small compressors, three-step Both Ends )
rapacity control is employed on constant rpccd nmtor-driven compressors. fig. 15-7. Fire-step elenr:incc conti.01. (Conrt~syof Wo~.thingtonCorporation.)
T l ~ ccapacity is controlled in fire (100, 75, 50, 2,5, 0 % ) steps or tlircc
(100, 50, O%,) as the case niiglit be, through tlic usc of clrarancc pockets,
suction valve unloaders or ;L comhin:ition of hoth. Fig. 15-7 illustrates motur drive should Ire used. Compressors of all sizes r a n be obtained for
a typical five-step control employing t w unlonilcrs and one clearance motor drire m i l the advantage of l o ~ vl,o~~-er
c o d slii~uldnot 11e overlunkc~i
pocket on a double-acting cylimlt~r. -4 g o ~ w n o ris ;~ctaatedby the com- just because a number of other plants constructed in different parts of tlie
Ireasor discliargc pressure cont~.,~llcr.Tlic gorrrnor selt,rtively energizes country h a r e used otlicr types of drives.
or dc-energizes one or morc of tlir solenoiiis v l i i c l ~control air t o tlrc Gas-drivcn compressors 11ave become p:~rticul:lrly advantageous for
unloaders ( K O .2 and Nn. 31 or rlcarancr purkvt valves ( K ~ I1. I . C o n - rcfincrics m i l pctro-cllcmical plants since sup]~licsof gas arc p r ~ l u c c d
plete unloading is necessary for starting synclmmons motor-driven units as "nxste" after the heavier portions are rcmoverl for ~ ~ ins the e process.
under load. Chcmical plants operating in arcas l ~ a v i n glarge uniuterruptnhle gas sup-
plies also find the gns-engine drire advantageous. In arcns ~~-11ere gas
S e l e c t i o n of R e c i p r o c a t i n g C o m p r e s s o r D r i v e is sold a t a low price only during the Tvnrm n ~ o n t l ~the
s gas-rliencl engine
T h e selection of the t y y 3 reriprucating compressor for a given plant drive rliould be cmsidercd.
is primarily dependent on the type of drive most suitable for the plant IYhen low cost stealn" is available or ~vlleulow pressure prowss steam
fuel and po\ver conditions. Fuel, steam, and electrical costs in the area must be obtained from high pressure steam, turbine-driven coinprcssors
or plant iuust he evaluated hcfore a n intelligent derision ran be made. *Unfol.tunntely plant stcam costs are oftcn unrealistic hook mlucs and do not
Ench situation is unique in itself. If porvcr costs are extremely low: the actual conditions.
rcflect
310 Project Engineering of Process Plants Compressors and Vacuum Pumps
are s o ~ n e t i ~ n einrlic:~tcd
s T h e c w t of rr,Iuction gears and steam piping,
IIOII-cvcr,n ~ u a tnot be overlooked in such a (leeision. On m a l l and
niedium-sized cr~nlprcsaorinstallations ~lirect steam-drive often proves
advantngeons. I t is important t o rnnke a tliorougl~cconomic study c o n -
binerl ~7-itI1a n engineering eraluation of tllc easc of operation a n d suit-
ability of the various types of drivers for the particular plant situation.
Classification a n d Terminology
T h e C o n ~ p r c ~ s eAir
d and G a s Institute13 has for convenience classified
centrifugal and axial machines as follons:
1. Blowers (turbo-blo~ers).Discharge pressure not exceeding 40 paig (based
on air).
2. Compi.c,ssors (tirrbo-comprrssors). nisc,h:~rgi:pressure exceeding -10 psi:.
3. Fans. Chnrchz has defined these low spccd centrifugal machines as operat-
ing in the w r y lolr pressurc mnge belo~v1 psig and with large volumcs.
hluch of the terminology of the centrifugal machines is similar t o t h a t
steel
Shaft
1 Diffuser LCasmg Drain
alrcady presented I centrifugal p u n ~ p s , and, therefore, only brief
comment nred be nrade concerning most of t h e terms listcd below:
1. Single-Stqe. One impeller or one row of vanes
2. Jldtistage. TKOor more impellers or rovs of vanes 7. Characteristic Curves. Plots of the discharge pressure versus the inlet
3. Centrifugal. Have radial inrpellers and the flov through the machine is in capacity.
a radial direction. These impellers may be open, semi-elosed, and closed. They 8. Performance Curves. Show the shaft horsepowr versus the inlet capacity.
may have straight or back~vardcuwed blades. I n multistage units diffusers are
located between stages for efficient conversion of velocity head to pressure head - 9. Equiz,alent Air Presswe. A term ~vhieh has been l i d in cornparing
centrifugal or axial conillrcssors and unfortnnately :ilq~earsrrell entrenchcd. It
(Fig. 15-8). is the pre~erlrcin p i g that a compressor will drvdop operating a t the r;itcd
4. Axial. Flow of gas is in an axial direction. This motion is created by vanrr
attached to a rotating drum (Fig. 15-9). St:itionary vanes separate each row capacity when handling air a t 14.4 psi absolute and 60" F.
-
of rotating r a m s and serve in the same manner as diffusers on centrifugul
machines.
.I
As with centrifugal punlps, centrifugal a n d axial compressors or blouvers
5. Stane Groiin. Defined bv the -4ir and Gas Institute as any group of
individual impellers and diffusers oper;~tingas a unit on a single shaft, in a
II aceomplisl~the pumping or compressing action h y the rotation of wries
I i i n ~ l l ~ r sT. l ~ rrrlocity imparted t o t h e :;IS Ily (11,. i m j d l c r is con-
-.i
single casing and n-ithout cooling betrr-een individual impellers. vertcd to p r e s s ~ ~ inr e a volute or a difl'uscr. At first gI:mce a m ~ ~ l t i s t a g e
6. Multistage Croup. Two or more stage groups driven by a single driver '
with intercoolers bet,ween groups. centrilugsl conlpwsror (Fig. 15-8) ~ n i g l ~1)ct mistaken for a i i l ~ ~ l t i i l a g c
312 Project Engineering of Process Plants Compressors and Vacuum Pumps 313
wntrifugnl pump. The iml)ellers of the rompreszor, Iio~vever,generally these may provc helpful. . i s wit11 oentriiugd pu11qx the ranc shapc of
decrease in ~virithfrum the 1011- lo high prcs.sure side because of thc de- the impeller influences the head capacity characteri-.tics. Many shapes
crease in fluid ro111iiie:I? t h ga- I ~ r u n i c scoln1)rrsscd. and types :ire built. The three important centrifugal iliipeller types are
Some experts hcliere that the centrifugal compressor is beginning a s h o r n in Fig. 15-10: ( a ) Forward curved; ( b ) backward curved; (c)
pcriod of popularity similar to that of centrifugal pumps in the part radial.'
7Stator blades
Copaciiy
I
trol capacity on constant speed unitsl the discharge is by-passed to thc
designs of these positive displacement machines. The sliding-vane type suction or the gas is rented.
*One imge installation employs 10 gas-lwhinr driven e ~ n t r i f u g d sfor reinjaztion .4 thin1 popular type of rotary positire displacement compressor is the
of natural gas into gas field at 1935 palg A series-parallel arrangement of com- I ~ . o t a r y - l i r ~ ~ ~ i d - ptypc
i s t ~ ~asn shown in Fig. 15-13. The ~~iultiblade
rotor
PIPSSOIS is used. of this machine revolves in an ellil~ticalcase, partially filled 75-itl1 water
t
320 Project Engineering of Process Plants Compressors and Vacuum Pumps 321
or otl~erliquid. The rotor revolves a t sufficient r11ccd t o thron. the liquili
against the caring valls. The elli~~tical shape of t l ~ ccasing forces the
liquid to fill the l~uckctc;of thc rotor on tl~c,~iilesand wccrlt. IIII tll? top
and hottoni. This motion dra~vsin gas at the inlet ports, and eonipresses
- Rotation
VACUUM PUMPS
Most of thc equipment described thus f a r can he built for use as vacuum
pumps. T h e principles of operatim are tllc same cxcept t h a t the inlrt
pressure is h e l , : ~atmospheric
~ pressure which necessitates ccrtain design
changes. Volumes a r e largc a t these low pressures and compressor
0 I S C " I I I C C TO
POI1I)" PYYP t
cylinders, for instance, must be correspondingly increased in size. Steam
jet ejectors with dircct contact condensers and in conjunction n i t h
barometric condensers are extensively employed for production of vacuum
especially for m c u u m distillation units. Applications of various types of
vacuum-producing equipment are illustrated in Fig. 15-15.
COMPRESSOR ACCESSORIES
Low caparity single-stagc r e c i p r ~ ~ c a t i ncompressors
g a n d centrifugal
hlolvers requirc few accessory items. Air cooled cylinders, grease, or
simple oil lubrication suffice. Large compressors so typical of modern
chemical and petroleum plants demand a large number of accessory items.
Several of t h e more important items are: Fig. 1615. Vacuum-erpiprncnt seleelion chart. (Cawtrsp of Ingersoll-R:md
Conl,'an~.)
I. Reciprocating compressors
A. Auxiliary lubricating and cooling oil system. Provides forced lubrication prove fearihlr. Carefull? treated xmter is employed and large volumes of ~vatrr
and piston cooling oil in addition to lubricators o p r r ~ t e dErum compressor ;In,lirrd x i t h a trnll~rr:1tllr~
rice (I[ only tell decreer or Ims.
crankshaft. In a closed system if the m t e r has been properly treated, higher tempem-
1. Lube oil grar pump (motor driven).
tnre watcr can be used, 130-150" F, rvithout cscrssire corrosion or scaie
2. Lube oil cooler (shell and tube). formation. This high temperature permits the socccssful uppliration of air
3. Oil strainers. coold exchangers for cooling thc watrr in areas where ~vateris scarcc.
4. Oil filtrr. D. Kntickout drums. Condensate in compressor cylinders can have disas-
B. Intercoolers and nftercoolcrs. Shell and tube or extended surface (fin) trous effects. If condensate is expected to fornl, provision siiould be made for
exchangrrs for cooling cornprrsed gaws bet,wen st;~gesand aftm final dis- its complete re~novalafter rach cooling stage.
charge (aftrrcooler). In high prcssnrc installations less rxpensive constroction
E. Suction ;and clircharg~:surge drmns or bottles. Because uf the pulsat~ng
can be realized by pasing the compresed gas through the tubes. action of reriprocatin: rnnrhines surge riru~uaon both the sucfion and discharge
(2. C>-linder cooling water. Each cumpressor cylinder should be provided side uf each cylinder are necessary. Thcse arc drsigncd tu hsvc a volum*
n;lh a separate valve for controlling flom. Closed cooling wnter systems often
Compressors and Vacuum Pumps 325
5 . Tlier~nalreI:ty to 1,ruteet against operatin: overloads,
6. .\Iotor trmprl;~tnrcindicator :and alann.
son^ uf t h w motor :mt,--orivs are r a t h r erprmirr but ;arp entirely
justified mi the 1000 h1r :,lid largrr motor.; e~lcounteredin con~pre--orpracticr.
.\ hnowleilge of the ch;~racteri.dirsof the pon-er ~llpply3 r d continnity o/
o11er:~tirn1required in thr. prow-s run aid the electricnl e~x$tiwrgrcxtly in th<,
d c s i g of u >ysr<,nlfor ~uazin~mn reliability of uperntiun and tnxzinnnn niimx
life. Tlie lrrojcct engineer slior~ldsupply this information us n-ell ar inforniu-
tion on the ciSect of short pon-er interruptions on the procw.
COMPRESSOR INSTALLATION
Inatalltitioir is a i ~ i i p l cmatter for small low speed loncliincs but witL
the 1;irgcr unit:: Inan?- ~ : o ~ n l ~11roblems lcx arise. 13ec11nscof the u n l ~ a l s n r r ~ l
f w c c i ~~li:~r:iiwristir id large reciprocating ~ix~chine.. g c n t cart in fi~und:i-
tion ~lc.;ign :~ndpil~ingl:~youtis essmtial. Tlic high r p c c ~ l1111crationof
rentrifugnl ~nachinc., 11111liosaccurate nligr~luent imperative in order t o
a1-oil1 damiiging ~ i b r a t i o n s .
Compressor manufacturers furnish rcco~ii~ilended foond:~tio~idralvings
opmitiu: in ierit,-. for thrir units 11asrii on firm .<oil. Poor hearing mil ~ l e ~ n a n the ~ l s atten-
U. I~r?trutilent:rti~~t~ tion of :in expert fonnclatii~na i d suil specialist to insure the prorision of
1. Pressure gxgesmd temperzturc intlicntors.
2 . Flov contrullera (ventnri) on suction to cr~ntrol sperd of drivc or aileqliatr f~ninil:itions. l l n s s r : r t i ~ ~ofs fro111 2 : 1 to 4 : 1 (concrete t o
suction presure. eornlire-sor and driver weight) a r c c ~ ~ s t o m i t r i lused y for reciprocating
3. Suction gressure controller. uuits. I I i g l ~speed cel~trifugalsrequire c o ~ i ~ p i l r n l ~ratios. le (:o11111res-
Drives aurs fo~i~iiliitiu~is are hest dcaigned sep;w:$te from building Euun(lationi.
, (:as rngine or gur-diesel for reciprocating rolliprcssors
Scqmxtion imd insulatioti of the founclation f r ~ ~ adjacent ni flouring a i d
1. 8t:irting air compressors (250 piig).
3. Starting xir surge tanks. building Iicll~scli~iiinatevibration in the buililing.' \Vhen scveriil re-
3. D i e d oil t:inks, pump;., and filter. ciprocating compressors arc located in olm huilding i t is desirable t o pro-
4. Enpine oil :mr li11rn11,cooler, filter, :tr;iincr. v i ~ l ea I ~ O I ~ I I ~ I I Im
I I a t under all t h e foundations.
T h e building Iiousing the compressors should bc well ventilated to in-
sure cliniination of hazilrdous gas mixtures. Servicing space should be
provided a s reco~ii~ne~iderl by compressor ~ ~ ~ a n u f a c t u r e rTrolley
s. bca~iis
arc needed for hoists and tnu>t hc a t suilicicnt height and of sufficient
capacity to lift coniprcsaor parts.
Aclcquxte pipc sizes slic~uldbe used t u eliminate uriduc prcssurc 11rol1
erpi~ciallyin thc suction hc:i~lcrs t o rcvillrirati~igcolupressors. I n corn-
prcssor ~ " . : ~ r t i wa velwity of 30 to 35 ft/sec has been found ~ i i o s tsatis-
f:ictory. I t is unxiae to i~ntlwsiaecol~ipressurpiping.
T o e l i m i n ~ ~excessire
te friction loss changes in piping direction must he
avoided as tnucli as possible, and where they are necessary long radius
e l b i ~ ws h d d 11c osc<l. T h e : I ~ I ~ I ~ O : I < ,toI I the inlet of n rentrifugal rom-
Irebsor *hool<l II:L~I. a t least tu-,r d i a n i r t e r ~of strnigl~tp i l ~ r . '!Xis i.4 a n
3bsolute necessity for centrifugal compressurs. Sharp bends should also
326 Project Engineering of Process Plants Compressors and Vacuum Pumps 327
IIC avoidcd on reciprocating machines a t the inlet. The discharge line of q = heat added from surroundings,* ft-#
a centrifugal s l i ~ ~ n be
l d a very long hend, about 10 degrees. 11' = vork done on the surroundings, (work of expanaiorr), ft-//
On reciprocating unit? overhead piping is nut rec~~mrncnded since in # = poun~lsof forre
order to prcvcnt excessive ribration anchoring problems hcconlc r r r y S o \ \ - the exart different,ial for the energy hmrtion 1. (internal nrerg?)
(liffic~ilt. The ancliuring and supporting oi discharge piping is. in an? is d l : = T ciS - I' d17, and fur a reversihlr process dq = T d S (n-llrrr. s is
event. a priihlem TI-hicli drserve; careful attention. Tibration in ini- the entropy and ?'the absolute temperature). Hence, with the restrirtiuri
properly anchore~lsystems can cause fatigue and bursting of the line due of a reversible proress (ideal frictionless operat,ion) Eq. 1 hrromrs:
to fatigue. Piping for centrifugal compressors must he carefully supported
and anchored tu avoid strains on tlie compressor casing.
All conipressor piping should be thoroughly cleaned of scale and foreign
inatter, During initial operation. particularly, strainers should be in-
stalled in the suction lines.
COMPRESSION THEORY
To thc engineer who must only occasiorrally he conrcmed with the
calculation of compressor periormance, tlic formulations and numenclature Subscripts 1 and 2 refer to the initial and final state.
familiar to the compressor industry often appear baffling. If, lion-ever,
1ic understands scveral basic principles uf tl~ennodynamics,he realizes Theoretical Work of Compression
that all the many compressor design equat,ions are bared on tlicsc plin- For the usual case of coulpression d ~ e r ekinetic energy rfferts are
ciples. negligible eq. 2 becomes:
i1 P
~vllf'r~
n
=
=
pressure n ~q ft,
number of 113-moles
1'1,' = n1lT
1 V
R*
=
=
volume cu ft.
Gas Imv constant in vnnsislent unit,s 1,514
Reversible Isentropic Compression* I (#/sq ft)(cu ft,)/(h-rnole) (a R )
T (IS = 0 at constmt S
.: T' ilP = dH
H hrre 7 , = molal volume, cu it 113-mole.
I<c\ b:l+SlIlI.t: I ~ U T I I E R Z I A L COIIPRESSIOS(IDIXL
GIS)
Employing cq. 7 , u = /<TIP the ~vorliper mole ( ~-Ti7,,,) is:
Eq. 4 and 5 indicate two distinct methods for det,ermining the reversible
work of compression, First, if the relation betveen P and V is lino\\.11,
for the isothermal or isentropic process, the integration of the l1 V iil'
R ~ \ ~ S I B IISESTROIX
.E GAS)
(IDEAL
COXPRESSION
term \vill yield the ~vorli. Secondly, if d n e s of enthalpy and ent,ropy at
the initial and final condit,iolls are available, the work can be calcnlated as Similarly for the isentropir rase:
1 H - T A S for isotherm:d \vorli and AH for isentropio. Indeed, the ease
hg TI-hichisentropic reversible work can be calculated from a Mollier
diagram for a giveti gas has been a major fact,or in t,he adoption of isen-
tropic work as the standard or base for comparison. I<no\ving the initial \diere 111' = enthalpy change for an ideal gas, H t r ~lh-mo!r.
temperature and pressure and the outlet pressure, one only need f o l l o ~
a constant entropy line to the outlet pressure to obtain the h a 1 enthalpy
i C , = molal heat capacity at constant pressure, Dt,u '(Ill-mole) (" F)
and temperature. The final minns the initial enthalpy is t'he Btu equiv-
alent of the work and is converted to ft-lh by multiplying by 778.
(1 Btu = 778 ft-lb).' IIougeri and \Vatson"ave presented generalized
* A reversible isentropic process is a n adiabatic one since dq = I' dS for n rc\.ers-
ihle process. It is often common, therrfore, fol. iorntropic rumpression t o b r inllcd *It seems p r ~ f e r n h l rto rrrnember one gas ronit:iot ;and n i c k < , 1~0n\i~1~si011s
3s re-
adiabatic. Such a practirc is not recommendrd since :dl ntlinbatic processes are not q i 1 i 1 . 4 I n conrpwsrion rnlculntions lrss rhance fot. rwol. o r m w if : ~ l lunit; tire k q > t
nccessnrily isentropic or rcrwsible. m i w t . ~ , u u n t l s .:m<l~I~:grws
Hiiuhine
- W, =y 1
C, d~ = Cnm(Tz-- TI)
the equations above hy 33,000 ft-lb per minute per horsepomr.
Since the equations are developed on s molal basis the mold heat
capacity should be employed.
Substituting eq. 10, k can be calculated as C,_!(C,m - R').
or
or since P l v l = KT, * T h e work per unit weight (ft-#ilb) as with pumps is unfurtunntcly aften referred
t o as Head piirticolarly in wnt~.ifugaleomprpsior pnrlnnee. T h e tcrm it u i iwnd
stiould he re~nenlberedto be actually it-lb of foreellb.
332 Project Engineering of Process Plants Compressors and Vacuum Pumps
333
Tlic I~orscl~on-cr ~Irtcrlirincdfro111 this c.quntion i.< an eh11l:ltiolr of 1111, xr-hrrc 1) + CC, = volume: comprr~scdmmsurml a t inlct condit,ions
indicatpd horsepower.
Becausc it is so eary to calculntc iscntrnpie I I O ~ P I ~ I O I ~from C ~ cntl~alpy
diagrams, the use of the isentrq,ic hnsc for all enlcult~tions11ili mricl~
merit. The calculation of cornilressor xork is at Iltist an al~priiuimation Compressor Operating Efficiency
2nd the ~a111coht::inrrl niwt hr rnrrcrtcil to h n k c llr~rsrprwcr11y 1111,
(I~~uqircssor efficiency ran he defined in a nu~nbcrof ways depending on
cpplication of an appr~priilt~' e f f i ~ % u fc~~c t o r . I t woulil swm prcf?r:il111!.
thc )la+ clioscn. .in efficiency i-aluc ~vitllout referc.nr:c to t l ~ cbasis.
tlrcrefore, to base all calculatims on the .~ilnplcrisentropic case and us?
therefore, is meauil~glcs~.The use of compressor efficiency,in a111-el-cnt.
r:ffir.iencics haserl on the th~orr~tic:~l ismtropic llasis. For recipro~.atin:
1s ;in attempt to awount for the internal irrcvvrsibilities nnrl u ~ c r l l a ~ l i e ~ l
marllines the compression nrtually appro:~vhes iscntropir operation bc-
r;lllsc of the ~atcr-jnclictcilrylinrlcr. hut for uncm~l~rl rcntrifugal rom- losses n-llich occur in actual colnpressii~n. Thcse losses difler for I.?-
~.iprocatingand centrifugal ct~~iq~rcssion. For reciprocating compressorh,
Iressori that is not the ease althi~ugl~ the iscntriq~icbasis is still rccom-
t1ici.e losses :irn fl~iiilfriction losirs including lusrrs tirrough r:rlvcs :in<{
rnrnrled (see belun.) .
inlds and i ~ ~ l t l e t~nerhanical
s, frietim in moving parts SUCII :is tlic pi4toll
: I i t I . Lo-ses for emtrifugal coulprrssors i~lclu~le flui~lfrivtii,~~,
Compressor Efficiencies 1e:tkagc olong shaft rind between itngcs, disk frictiol~iiud 111~(:11alli(,:~l
!Iis ~lrsirablcat this ]mint to define tlic various cfficienr:ir.s used in the loss~~s in the h r i n g c aurl i~:~cliing.Si~nreof the morc frequ~:ntlyuser[
~ ~ l r r ~ ~ r cindustry.
ssor cfficitmcics arc listcd helo~v.
Isotlienllal efficiency:
Volumetric Efficiency
! Iicversible isothermal work X 100 =
1 -4s r i t h reciprocating pumps the actual volume of gas t&m into the Er
I cylinder of a reciprocating comprcvsor is lcss than the displar,ement of the Actual shaft input rorli
!
I cylinder. The ratio of act,ual volume measured at inlet conditions to thc 1 The actual shaft I\-orli is c ~ p i r a l c n tto the brake horscpo~r-r3r.
1 rlisplaccment is called the volumetric efficiency. ! Isentropic efficicrrey:
The relation hetween volometric efficiency and the clearance (C) cx-
-
I
I ~ ~ w r s i lisentropiv
~lc n-orli
pressed as a fractiolr of the tot,al displaccmcnt ( U ) pcr stroke is easily
~p~
X 100 13,
Actual shaft inpnt xork
derived. The clearance of thc cylinder is filled with compressed gas vhicb
re-expands on the return stroke. I t is this re-expanded gas volume t'hat llechaiucal efficiency
~ P ~ I I I Y ' the
S amount of g;~st,hat cnn be rrreived hy the surtion strokf,. Indicator horscpo~ver - Indicatot. hnrsepo!r-er
I
For irlenl gascs the clearance volumc at, suction ( V I ~is)related t o the clear- - X 100 = h',,
I Actual shaft input ~ r o r k Hrakc hursepuwer
anix volume a t discharge (Tryc) by:
11.L172;= I ) , vl:
I Polytropic efficiency:
I'olytropi~.w o k
X loo = I?,,
.Ictual shaft i n p ~ vork
~t
\Then the lldytn~pir:cxl~oucl~t is dctc.rnrincrl f m n ;ln :ictil:rl inrliwtol~
Fract,ional voh~metricefficiency - IL =
Inld- ri~lnme
- -
l~isplae~~uient
rlingram the pdytropic efficiency bnscil 011 the n w l u e thus dctcrlnineil i-
approximately equal to the mechanical efficirncy.
334 Project Engineering of Process Plants Compressors and Vacuum Pumps 335
ugals more nearly approach 11olyti.opic compression than isentropic. I t isentropic base, and e~nployingisentrupic rfficiencies to correct tlleoretical
is: tl~crefore,arguedl and R-it11 merit t h a t the isentropic efficiency of a work to actual work. Table 15-1 presents pime t y p i r d isentropic re-
giren machine ~villr a r y markmlly x i t h the gas. This is true because all ciprociiting ~ O I I ~ [ I I ~ C ~dSfFi O~ ~i ~ . n e iivhirli
rs nrny bv ci~nsi,lercdto be equir-
tlic losses icxcel)t iuechanical loises x h i c l ~are oniv a small per rent of alent to t h e niechnnical efhirnries a s well.
the totali heat the gas being cu~npresiedand increase the deviation froni
iscntropic condition-.. Tliesr various deviatimn rrquire different isen-
tropic efficiencies for c a d i gas considered in one machine.
0 84 heats,
60 70 80 90 100
Pdytropic Efficiency
II
2.5 80-89
Tlic pu1ytro~)icefficiency may be cimrerted to an isentropic efficiency for 3.0 82-90
the gas being consi~iervdl ~ yuiemsuf Fig. 15-17, and this makes i t possible 4.0 83-90
to use l\Iollicr c l ~ n r t sur entliall~ytables. *Multiply the above values by 0.95 for motor-driven cumpressors
~LECIPHOCAI.ISC COYPHE~SOH E;WICIENCY Temperature Rise w i t h Compression
Since reciprocating r o ~ ~ ~ p r e ~so
s i onearly
n approaches adiabatic c o n - T h e actual final gas temperature from reciprocating compresstirs can
pression there should be no hesitation in basing all calculatinns on the be estimated from eq. 10, or better, a hlollicr diagram, iirrer. tilt, nrncliine
336 Project Engineering of Process Plants
Compressors and Vacuum Pumps 337
approaches isentropic con~pression closely. For uncoolcd centrifugal and bhp curves for any inlet pressure. I f the inlet pressure rcmains con-
compressors, ho~vcver,the isentropic temperature riac is not comparsble stant and thc inlet temperature changes. thc iscntropic head remains
t o the actual since most of the losses in a centrifugal serve t o heat the cmstant if thc compression ratio changcs t o fulfill this constancy (eq.
gases being comprrsscd. An approximatim of the actual rise can bc 11 I . Dixhargc pres.surc curves for i11l1.t temperaturf changes, therefore,
obtained from the follon~ingrelation: can be calculatcd from the new cornpression ratio.
C,, ATs
Isentropic efficiency = E, = --
C, A16
One large manufacturer designs the major portion of its centrifugal hccomes for S .;tagc;:
machines for a normal peripheral velocity of 770 ft/sec. Hence for an
average value of K = 0.55, 10.000 ft-lb of forcellb per stage is a good
average value for estimating the required number of stages. The num-
It is preferable to calculate the hp for each stage separntely since ap-
her nf stages ii thus set by the overall compression ratio and the x ~ o r kper
proximately 5 psi sl1~1n1d be added to the discharge of each stage in order
stage. The peripheral velocity is related to the impeller diameter and
to allow for friction lusrca in interconnecting piping and intercoolers. For
the rpm as follows:
mechanical reasons, it is desirnhle to h a r e approximntcly the same work
in each stage. IVit11 actnal gases this does not necesrarily ronform to
equal compression ratio per stage." '4
Dodge' repwts that maximum pressurc ratio in any stage of multistage
machines is 11etn.ecn 3 and 5 . Each case should he considercrl on its own
meritd. ho\wvvr. anil the eriinomical rompression ratio determin~~d in CII-
operation n-ith the cnmpressi~rnianufacturcr. Typical compression ratios
where = diam in in.
used are:
N = rpm
Large pipeline rornprc~:ors 1.2 ti1 2.0
Hence Process eom~~ressors 1.5 t o 4.0
N =uT20-
a 11
-
aD d\/ri ""A
-i 2 0 \ / G , -
-
D
A standard nnpeller size can thus be chosen and the required rpm cal-
?mall pilot plant high pressure 6:l
The final d c c i r i ~ ~isn l~asedon many factors. I t is, of course, desirable
to use as few stages as [,ossiblc. The limitation is the gas outlet teni-
perature. The discharge teniperatnre of the gas from a cylindcr .should
culated. be kept below 300" F. Compressor manufacturer's murt estimate the
actual discharge temperature sinct: it depends on the cylinder c ~ o l i u g
Multistage Compression water arrangement, although a rough idea for estimating can be obtained
Rlultistage compression as discussed in this section shall refer to eom- from the isentropic calculation (cq. 10).
pression v.ith complete intercuoling het~veenstages. This is accomplished
Calculations for Actual Gases
by passing the compressed gmcs thruugh 1,-atcr-cooled intcrcooiers be-
tween stages of a reciprocating i.oml~rersor or l ~ e t w x nt ~ centrifugal
o Most of the equatiuns presented thus far are for ideal gases. At liigh
compressors. I n this manner the gases can he cooled to near inlet tern- pressures sonic gases deviate markedly from ideal beharior. Tlie pc,rfect
perat,ure after each stage nf cotn[~rrs.;ion and the compression process gas law has been empirically corrected to apply for actual gases by a
thereby approaches i s ~ ~ t h e r moperation
al for which the work of cornprea- multiplier called the compressibility factor.*
sion is the least. (That isothcnnal operation theoretically requires the Pu = zRT
least n n r k for a given roniprcsrion ratio can be seen by comparing eq. 8
and 1 1 . ) The compressibility factors of all gases have been found to correlate
I
The total work of compression in a multistage operation is simply the (Fig. 15-20) ~ i t h i nengineering accuracy n-itli rctlnccd teml~eratnre7 " T r
sum of x o r k in tlrc various stages. Assuming k and the suction tempera- - and reduced pressure P / P c , lier re T s m i P are the ahsolute tempera-
ture t o each stage is constant and setting the differential of total work ture and pressure and Tc and P c the absolute critical tcmpcrature and
pressure of the gas. For mixtures it is satisfactory ti) calci~lntethe r(,-
with respect to intermediate pressure equal to zero the opti~numcom-
pression ratio per rtage is found to he the S root of the overall compression duced temperature and pressure employing pseudo-critir,:il tcuilvrntnl.r-
ratio: ( P outlet;P inlet)'/" for each stage x h t w S is the number of and pressures. These are determined from the molal average of the
stages. This is the xell know1 rule of equal wcork (equal con~pression critical temperatures and pressures of the romponents.
ratio) for raclt stage. Strictly this derivation l101ds true for ideal gases * I t is often referred to as tlic si~pc~.eomp~.essihility
factor. Such sope~.lnlives,how-
only. On the basis of eqnal cornpression ratio per stage the total work ever, do not alter its value or rncamng.
1
i
340 Project Engineering of Process Plants Compressors and Vocuum Pumps 341
Cumlxcssit~ilitycan be t l ~ u u g h tof a s :I correction factor by rrllicl~the
ideal gas rolumc must be multiplied to produce a n actual rolume.
EXAMPI.E:Calcnlate the volunlr occupicd by lGO0 113 of nrrthanr at 60" F
and 2000 p i g . Critical tmmprraturr of nwtlxine is -116.5" 1.' 2nd
critical prcssurr is A73 p i g .
I T ~ n a l l yT2 is no1 know1 but cnn 11r approsirnated from t h e ideal gas
rrlatinnship
966.000
Since R i d g ~ a y ' sapproxin~at~ion is hased on correcting the ideal gas Work per stage -= 8.630 ft-#/(lh)(sttlge)
(28)(-l)
horsepo~ver,k shonld hc c ~ a l u a t c dat 0 psi, and w should 111, a n ideal gas
c. The selection of the impeller diarnetel. depends ronsidernbly on the re-
specific volume (RT1/P1). quired rapacity of the mtlcliinc. manufacturer'^ data indicate an 18 in. inli>ellcr
T h e method has been popular a n ~ u n gcompressor mginrers because of for the inlet capacity of 6500 cfm.
the ease b y which values iiir ideal gas h o r s e p o w r can he corrected to Fronl eq. 17:
horsepower for a n actual gas.
First it:ige:
-- 1.23
(1544)(545)[(2.0)0.'Y7- 11 = 990,000 ft-!,.'lb-mole per stage
1.13 - 1.0
Efficiency from Table 15-1 = 82 %
(990.000) (4.75)
bhp/c! linder = = 174 hp
(33,000)(0.82)
c. Tot:rl bhp = (li.i)(:3) = 322 lip
ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES O F M O T O R O P E R A T I O N
Series-wound Motor
A aerie;.-n-uund mutor lias the ficlil and armature circuit,^ connct.tcd in
serics. .is the load dcvreasez, tlie arlunture current c1eiwii.i~~an11 the
Fig. 16-3. Ilistortion o i m n g n ~ t i c Fig. 16-4. Simpliiied direet-
field lip inlr.oductiim af rondur- eurvmt mutor. iniltor increases spccd. If such a motor is arranged for belt drive and t h e
tor. belt breaks suddenly producing no load, the motor will peed up to dan-
gerously high rpm, causing complete destruction of the niotor. Series
hook forn1.l Tlic Underwriters' Laboratory, Inc., has issued standards niotors liave extreinely high starting torques and are adaptable t o such
fur the construrtiim of various parts and fittings for electric motors and services as crane motors and drives for mobile equipment.
appurtenances.
The Compound-wound Motor
MOTOR TYPES A N D APPLICATIONS The iwrnpound-wound niotor 118s two field windings. O11c is ri~nnertwl
I
in parallel with the armaturc. and the other in series. -4s n~i$it he :us-
Direct Current Motors 11rrtc(I, these motr~rscomhine features of \loth A u n t - am1 serir.i-\viiunri
A stronger msgnctio ficld can be produced by replaring the magnet ir~otvrs. Tliry Iinvc relativrly l ~ i g lstarting
~ torrpwi and will qiccil 111)
shown in Fig. 16-3 ~ v i t han i r m core around ~\-l~icliis wral~pedwire in the as tlic load becomes lighter hut not to excessively high slieeds. Thcy arc
p a r t i d a r l y useful on appar~ttui; producing varying loads and wliere
form of a coil. As cuvrent is passed tlirougli this wire, a strong magnetic
field is produced in the air gap.
i constant speed is not required.
If the single conductor, shown in Fig. 16-3, is replaced hy a loop, as
illustratcd in Fig. 16-4, tlre principles of a direct-current motor can be
illustrated. Tlic loop ~vircis called the armature (or a t least serves to
illustrate the function of the a r n ~ a t u r e )and the helically-mapped iron
core is called thc field coil. If a direct current is permitted to flow in
I
I
Direct-current motors cannot be started under full-current loads. It
is necessary t o einliloy a starter wit11 a large rwist;mcc so that the rurrcnt
can be increased gradually lnlt,il the motor rearhes its nrrnnal s i ~ r e d .
both the field windings and tlic armature, magnetic fields will be set up 1 Despite the larger initial cost of the dirri+current motor, r o n ~ l ~ a r e d
in both. Tlie south pole of the armature will be attracted t o the north with an alternating-current niotor, tlirre arc rases in wliicli tlit, greater
pole of tlie ficld coil causing the armature t o rotate. At the instant the ease of speed control inakes the dirert-currmt motor il ilesirahle choice.
north and south poles are (~ppositeeach other a device called a "commu- Tlie speed of a ,I-c inot,lr is easily controllc~~l, either by rl~iingirigthe,
tator" reverses tlie flow uf current in the armaturc, causing it again to v,~ltt~gea t the arnlaturr or l ~ ycliwngitig tht, strciigtli of t11v ~iii~giietir
field. Reducing tlre strength of tlic magnetic ficld increases the spccd
352 Project Engineering of Process Plonts Motors and Turbines 353
,,:
This spec11 is tennrrl the syncl~ronousspced of the motor. The actual
rotor speed of an induct,iori motor is this synchronous speed corrected
for sliu.
(ion dip
I Actual speed = (synchronous speed)
,
I The squirrel-cage induction motor is unsurpassed in sturdiness and
i economy through a wide range of horscpo\vers. B y altering the design
Fans
e n i e r n p motor1 i1 miill varying characteristirs, from low t o high torque, and from I m t o
high slip. I n general an inriuct,ion motor ~vitirnormal torque and norn~al
darting current is used. I n starting large cquipnic~t,l~articrllarlyq u i l l -
I
mcnt under load, such as coinl~ressor,-,it is often necessary to specify
I~ightorquc, lo^ starting current mi~tors. I n this dcsign a higher resistive
~liaterialis used in the rotor bars. I t is important for the project engineer
l o realize that there are a numhcr of induction motor types manufactured
and thc electrical enginccr should be permittcii to specify thc type which
has the best electrical characteristics for tlie job.
Wound-rotor induction motors are sometimes used instead of tlw
I squirrel-cage rotor. h wound-rntor ~ n r ~ t oisr composed of insulated coil-:
arranged t o form poles on the rotor and the same in number as on the
stator. This motor can be started with low current by adding external
revistnncc t o the rotor circuit. I n this eamc manner the speed of the
motor can be controlled down to about half its normal value. The
I voan(l-rotor mi~tor,hoa-ever, is inorc expensive than the squirrel-cage
354 Project Engineering of Process Plants
Motors and Turbines 355
type; and is, therrforc, only used on systems rvhich ~vouldrcquire un-
constant speed, lion.ever, is not its greatest advantage. The p r i n l a r ~
acceptably high starting currents. advantages are:
Thc stator of a single-p11:ise induction motor can only havc one winding
and thns t h r magnetic field does not inove, although tile polarity changrs. 1. They can he constructed to operate a t very IUK speeds ( h e l o T ~
500
If the rotor in suc11 a motor is turned 11). hand an11 made to cross the I . ~ I I ~ and
high efficiencies nnd arc, thcreforr, uwful for operation of slolv-
I
magnetic ficld, rotation will then procepd automatically as it continues moving machinery sucli as reriprocnting con~press~~r..
to cuc across tile magnetic ficld of the stator. Hand-starting is. of cmnw, 2. At lolv speed ratings and a t high Iiorsepo\\-el ratings t l ~ cc<,st
nut ilesirahle an11 a u t ~ ~ r n a t imeans
c have been designed. The nlost synchronous motors is often leas than induction motors.
common means of starting the single-phase induction motor is en~ployed 3. A synchronons motor ran be designcd to operate 11-ith a Ic:rrlin~
in the split-phase motor which is equipped ~ v i t han auxiliary n-inding uower factor which is advantageous rdwn the inductive load in a plant
locatkd t o differ in its magnetic position from the main winding. The is large. The lrading pmvcr factor of the synrllrnnmls motor tcnds to
main or primary winding and the auxiliary winding prodnce a torquc cancel tlie lagging power fartur of t l ~ rinduction motur.
on the r o t i r npon application of current, causing tlrc rotor t o nlovc. As
tlic rotor attains normal operating specd the nnxiliary rircuit is n p m c d Starting Alternating Current Motors
Several different designs of split-phase motors are ~ n a n n f a ~ . t n r e d . ~ ~ l l . " Sinall single-plia.se motors are invariably started by applying fllll
I t is intcrrsting to not? tli:it in polppl~aseinduction motors the rnt~ition ~ o l t a g cacl.osa the line. A11 squirrcl-cage induction nlotorr can he startell
of the inotur ran be changed i ~ yinterchanging tlie cunnectiuni ti1 any a t full-line vnltagc. Standard or cross-the-line manual or n~agnetically
two of thc terininals. A single-pliase in~,tnr.on the otlwr h a n k vill rot:itr operated starting rrluipinent is manufactured for this vl.vic,,. Lon. spcrd
in tlir direction in which it is started by thc anxilinry st;lrting devirc. synchronous motors are often started under full-line voltage, but higher
To changc the rotation of a single-phase motur requires a change in the speed synchronous nmtors are preferably started on reduced voltage to
starting device. lower tlic current (Iran-n from the powcr circuit. Hesist;~nceand autu-
Single-phase motors are most frequently used in small horsepower and transformer reduccd-vnltagc starters are used for snrh ccrvicc anrl are
particularly fractional horsepower applications. Although polyphase :rlso nsed for starting squirrel-cage induction motors w11en it is dcsirnhlp
fractional horsepower motors can be built more cheaply and are of simpler to reduce the starting current in urder to avoid affecting uthcr loads on
construction, it is often not convenient t o bring polyphase current t o loea- the power circuit.
tions requiring small motors. A small pump or o t l ~ e rstnall rnachinc may
be needed in a remote portion of a plant. In such a case single-phase MOTOR DESIGN AND SELECTION
current used for lighting in that nrca is usually availnl)le and the inotor
Classification
may he connected to existing lines ~vithoutthe added expense of installing
three-ptlasc powcr lines. The National 1 l c r t : l ;\Ianufaetnrers .4ssociation"a rl:is:ific~l
ir~otors*in accordance v i t h n~ecl~anical
protection and mctliods of cool-
Synchronous Motors ing as i o l l ~ ~ v s :
.is the namc inq~lies,the rotor of a syncl~ronuusmotor rotates a t the
same speed as the stator winding field. The magnetic field in the rotor, Classification of Motors According to Mechanical Protection
therefore, must he induced by means other than crossing lines of flux and Methods of Cooling
created by the primary or stator. Thc rotor field rurrent is generated by Abbrwinted list appiicablr lo proreis plants. lldapted from rtandards of thc
a small direct-current gcnerator called an exciter, which is either aepa- Sationsl Eleetricd h1:muiacturers .\ssorintion.~
rately driven or directly connected t o the synchronous motor. I. Open machine
A synchronous n ~ o t ~isl r started as an induction motor. The excitation .hopm rnachint, is orir having ventilating openings 11hirh pcrniir p:l..:axe of
then begins, and the poles of the rotor move in step with the revolving external rooling air ovrr and around the windings.
time synchronous speed is reached.
armature field a t ~v1.1lich 8.Drip-llror~frn:~rhine
A drip- roof machine is an opm machine in vhich thr w n t ~ i a t ~oprnillgs
n~ a1.r
The speed of a synchronous motor dcpencis upon tlw frequency of the
powcr supply and thus provides dependable conetant-speed service. This
* For brevity several lrw inryurtant catcguriss h a r e been omittebfrom t h e NkZRIA
list.
356 Project Engineering of Process Plants Motors and Turbines 357
TABLE 16-1. Relative Costs of Motor and Control Enclosures*
termed :iirtialit.
.\. Tr~tnllycnclosed non\rntil:itcil ~ii:iri~ino
A totall!- enrlosrd noslrentilatrd n~:irliinei i n tot:iliy cii<~lwrdii~:~<.Iiit~c n-llich
i: not c q i ~ i p p ~Em
d corrlii~~ by nnc:ms cstiwxd to thc i.iidwing parts.
B. Totally rnclowd f:m-cooled m : ~ c l ~ i n r
A totall>- ~ n c l o ~ r Snn-roolr.<l
rl nr:~r,hineis 3 tot:rlly mclosr,<lmacliini, crlitipli?il
for estcrior cooling by means of a fan or fans intrgral with the machinr IIII!.
external to t h e rnclosing parts. h i v i n g u n i t s locaterl in(ior,rs n-it11 n o iiaz:~dori. : l t l i ~ i ~ ~ j iI)TOIIICII~
hv~ van
C. Eq~lrlsion-proof mnchinc use t h e drip-proof motors a n d s a w c m r i d c r a b l c nionc3y.
. i n rxplo-ion-proof nlacliin<: is a totdly enclosrd ni:rchine ,!-hose enrlosurr is
~ l e s i ~ n e:~nd
d ronrtructed to n-ithstnnd ;in explosion of a specified gas or mprlr I i r i ~ p fe t i q ~ l i a ~ i z tehse desirability of locating s t a r t e r cquipincnt r c u ~ o t c
n-hieh inny occllr n-itliin i t and to prcvmt the ignition of t h r sperified p i or f r m n liaz:~rdous a r e a s or i n specially ventilated rooms t o avoid tlic use of
v:ipor sl~rnn~nrling thc machine hy qi:~rki,flashes, or explosions of the spwiticd cxploiion-proof s t a r t e r s a n d c o n t r d l . Tile reason f o r t h i s c a n b e rurdily
:as or vapor wlfich mny occur within thc marhine casing. seen i n T a b l e 16-1.
I).Il11,3t-~rploiion-proofmachin,:
A 1111st-r.;plosi<~n-proofmnrhine is :I totall!- encloscd machim, \\-liosc cnclw!in: H a z a r d o u s Locations
is dmianrd mid r o n i t r ~ ~ t csod :IS not to cause the ixnition or rzplusiou nf :111
ntnhieut ntnlosplierr of thr specific dust, and d s o n r ~ tlo r:i!w llie i g ~ ~ i t i oofn the T h e X a t i o n a l IClcciric Code' l ~ a sdrfincd various 1i:izardous Iocatiiins.
d u n oil nr around the iiinrhine. h l o t o r s a n d control equipment a r e ~ n n n u f a c t u r c df o r t h e variou; c l u s c i
E. Water-proi~fmachine of hazardous Iocatiuns listed I~elo\~\..
A rater-pnmf marhine is a totally enclusrd maehinr so constnicted that it will
rxelude \rater applied in thc form cf a s t n m n from a hose, excrpt that lcnkanr
may rlccrlr around tlie shaft provided it. is prevrnted from entering thr oil
rcwn.riir and prrivision is mad? for mltomntically ilminin: the niarhine. The
n m n s for automatic draining may tie 3 check r:tlrr or n t:~pperlliole a t the
loa-cst p;trt of the frame d i r h will srrve for :ipplicntim of a drnin pipe.
C l w I. Highly intI:umiihl~~ g : ~ sor v:1por-i.
Totally Enclosed Motors in t h e Process Plant Uivisim I . II:~z:~rdorls: ~ t ~ n o ~ p l i te1i.t
~ r r s continr~o1~4y or ran ocior i l ~ l r ~ u g
I i r o p f ' h a s presented a n intcrcsting t a b l e ( T a b l e 16-11 showing t h r course of norinnl o1,cr:ltion.
relative costs of e n e l o ~ u r e sf o r motors a n d controls. T h e differential Division 2 . Flnnnn:rble liqniils bandled and processed hut norninll>-routint~~l.
hetsvrcn splash-proof a n d drip-proof m o t o r s is relatively sninll a n d of Ilivision :i. L o c n t i o ~ ii~h e r e iqit;ible deposits of paint m i l otlirr fini-lies
r.:m ;~ccr~mul:itr.
little conscqucnw in snrull motors. Tlir s a m r r a n h c said in r a m p a r i n g
C1n.s 11. Comhuatible dust.
tllc tutall.5' cnrln-c,l :LIIII tlir ~ [ I ~ S ~ O L I - J I I . 111uti~r.
U U ~ Uirision 1. U w t sllrpmded in xir curitiiiuuu.~lyor dixing rottrsc of normal
In llrocess 111a11ts having it ~. ) r.c l ~ ~ t i d ~ ~ u. i l l~az;r~.rlous
~
nce a r r a s it lia. oneration.
o f t e n h e n found advantnecous .. t o s t o r k onlv ex1110sion-proof nrotors. Division 2. Suspension of dust not likely but idlere drporits oi d w t can
I W I I ~ a ~ lw~ ixniteil
l h>- sparks.
T h i s proco~lurc m a k e s ;ill niotors esrlialigca1)lc t l ~ r o u g h o u t t h e plnnt.
C'la-3 111. L'mribustilde lilhc. ur il>.ings.
n l d avoids uuiieccssary a n d dis;istrous errors. C e r t a i n plants, l ~ u \ r c v e r ,
l)irisiou I . 1.ocations iu s-llicli ignit:~l~lc fihrc. :,re 11;1a,llr~d
ul- u a d
Motors and Turbines 359
358 Project Engineering of Process Plants
these ratings go u p to 75'C. Yew types of special purpose motors are
i i 2. 1.ocati0w in n-hich rnsi>- icniriblr films xrr stored. i n d a t e d with silicune tlasc niatcrinli and tun be opcratcrl rvitIl ],iglles
I l ~ l ~ ~ i p n ifor
c n t thr-r tbrw rl:i.z-e- of :~tmn-idiert.sran he tested and nppruvccl
for t h fo11o!\.ine
~ iltmo~pherict y r s : temperature rises. Operation of motors for proli~ngcil perioils above
I 4 . .itrrwphrrci rontninin~;icet?lrnc. tlir, nornial rated liorsrporwr \\-ill produce tcunpcrature rises in tlic
Group B. Hydrogen or mlini~i:~ctnrol gas. abiive the guilrnnteed wlhr-ahle; anrl. tlicrrhy. i ~ o l . t c ntllc life or c i ~ , ~ ~ -
G r m p C. Eth!-I ether rapor. plctely destruy tile ~ ~ s c f u l n e sofs the motiir.
G r D. I , petroleuiu, n;~phtlin, ;tlcohols, lacquer-solvent, \-awrs, Most niotor manufacturers will he producing niotors to confo~.rnto
aceton<,,natural IS.
Group E . Xletnl 1111st. tlie revised S E X 4 Standards of 1952. Cbnngc t u the new cloign rl~oulil
Gmnp F. Carbon black, coal or rohr dust. be complete late in 1955. Tliesc new designs xviil he m ~ a l l e rin size for
Grortp G. Grain d w t . a given liorsq)i~a.cr rating.
I t is possilile from this list to d~.cidetlie g r w p i n h w11icl1 a l ~ n o e tany TABLE 16-2. Suggested Motor Voltage Ratings*
nornlally occurring iiazardous rxlnterial \\-ill fall.
~ ~
Fig. 16-6. Typicnl prucem plant nroior xpl,lic:h>ns. [Reprinted \>y permission. STEAM TURBINES
Victor J. I<t.opl, Clwm. Eng., 58, Xu. 7: 123 (19511.1
Classification
of starting torquer. and if intermittent service is anticipated, the frc- Turbines Inn? he broadly cl~issificdinto t x o ~ul~divisions based on tlic
qucncy of starting sliould he given. The a t m o q ~ h e r i cconditions nntici-
~lioclcof tra~iimissioni d Iirnt energy into ineclianical encrgy. T h e in~pul.<c
pated including the possibility of Iiazardous or corrosive gases should be trwhinc l ~ r i ~ d u c emi~vcllieut
s oE a rotur hg tlic E O I T ~ i,f r;teanr impinginp
defined. on the bucket or blade. The reaction turhine is caused t o revolve by tlic
T h e elcetrieal engineer must also he provided rvitli s complete dcscrip-
m w t i o n of stcam issuing from jrts attaelied to a revolving d i s k Tliere
tion of the pou-er supply, power costs, and a list of other po~verusers iu
~xre ni:~n>-~ ~ x ~ t ~ t<,[ i i ~wlvrl ,i ~I I H L ~ W d w s i f i w t i ~ n i . 'UI(, f u l I , > ~ $ i tl,ri<>f
~g
the plant so t,l~a.tan intelligent choice of control equipincnt and motors l i s h g r r ~ p r w e ~sui~ir,
~ t s of tlic, tiiore it~ipurt:~ut types.
can he made for maximum economy and maximum poxes factor. The
choice of the proper voltage to bc applied to a given motor is a n impor-
tant one and a. suggestion of desirable motor voltage ratings bas hccn
presented by Kropf" and is reproduced in Table 16-2. These suggestions
362 Motors and Turbines 363
Project Engineering of Process Plants
in F i r . 16-7. Full ~,xpansionof the steam takes place in the i~oszlc,and process plant applications. One of the advantages of a turbine is that
thc revolving tmckctr: rrccive the .stcan1 without further 11ressurc dn,p i t p r ~ d u e r ~[.lean
s lo~r-rrpressure steam n-11icl1IWI bc e ~ n l ~ l o v as
c ~ llroccsE
l
and transform the kinetic erlcrgy into work. h a m (heating, etc.). The well-~lrrigncd plant, therefore, car1 elnllloy
(bj V E L ~ C I T Y - ~ ~ ~ TURBINE.
~ ~ ~ ~ : S IDn Eurder
D to use more efficiclltly a number of single-stage turbine. as pl~rnpdrives anrl at the ~ a n l etilnc
thc available thermal m w g y , velocity compoiln(led turhines have brrn ~ m v i d ethe nccessary quantitics of low pressure pnmaa stcall1 fol. use
rlcwlnperl n.11irlr rcdircct the ateam issuing iron1 the first roll. of bu~.kcts throughout the plant.
inti1 a second and evcn third row of moving buckets. In this manner ~ u o s t T l ~ emore expensive multistage turbine is generally necdcd on large
of the velocity of the steam is dissipated. The re-directing of the stcam loads, fur which case the steam economy is an in~portantfactor. Tl~esc
can be accomplished in several ways. Stationary guide buckets may he high-efficiency turhines are then often operatcd as emdensing units for
used as in Fig. 16-8, or a re-entry nozzle (Fig. 16-9) or the helical-flow driving generators and large centrifugal cornpressore. In p o w r stations
"age (Fig. 16-10). The lattcr design employs a specially constructed many ingenious means have heen devised for ot~tainingn~axilnnmsteam
~vheclwith semi-circular buckets cut into the rim of the wheel. The economy fur each unique situation. A straight condensing cycle can bc
-ttmn expands in the nozzle and enters the semi-circular bucket, makes cu~l~loycd, or a feed heating cyclc in ~ h i c hsteam is w i t h d r a ~ wfrom the
I. turhines a t various points for heating feed r ~ a t e r .
n c ~ ~ m r ~ l180'
e t c turn in the hucket, and then is redirected hy the reversing
chamber into subsequent buckcts.
Extraction Turbines
Reaction Turbines: I I ~ ~ d e rboiler
n plants produce extremely high-pressure steani. and it is
Actually a practical true rcaction turbine is not manufactured. In necessary t o reduce the pressure of the stram froin the i~i~ilers 1)eforc~
fact, thc insistence on a rigid definition of impulse and reaction turbines piping i t t o parts of the plant for process use. Extraction turbines prove
is not advised since t h r last stages in multistage impulse turbines produce extremely useful for this purpose. Steam is withdrarvn automatically
m a l l amounts of reaction. What is often referred t o as the reaction from these turbines a t intermediate stages for use as process steam. The
turbine should more properly be called the impulse-reaction turbine. remaining steam passes from the exhaust of the turbine t o s condensing
The "reaction" turbine is constructed of rows of moving blades attachcd system. B y this means it is possible to generate large quantities of poi^--er
to a wheel or rotor and an equal number of fixed blades attached t o the and a t the same time provide the required amount of process steam at
casing. The fixed hladcs act as nozzles. I n passing through the fixed several pressure levels.
blades the steam nndcrgoes a prcssurc drop; and, therefore, an increase
in kinetic energy or velority. I n entcring thc rows of moving blades an Turbine Application
impulse is produced just as in the impulse type turbine. These mo\,ing Koncondensing single-stage turbines make up the largest group of
blades. i~orwver,are designed so that a pressure drop wilt also occur :is turhines for process use. They are gencralip designt.d to o p e r ~ t rat steam
the stcam passes through the hladc passages, producing a reaction. The pressures up t o approximately 600 psi and a t exhi~ustpressures from 0 t o
turbine is thus driven hy a cou~hinationof reactive and impulsive forc~,s. 100 psi. Special noncondcnsing, so-called "supcrposcd" turhines :~r,,
Uoht turbines are of the axial-flow type, that is, the direction of r:teanl available for operation at steam pressures up t o 2000 111 and exllnl~st
flow is approximately parallel to the axis of the turbine. One notahlc pressures up to 600 ib. These turhincs havc prove11 particularly :idran-
exception is the Ljungstron~turbine, a reaction-type with radial flow. It tageous for power stations in which high-pressure stcam is ~ ~ r o t i u c e ~Tll.i ~ ,
is noted for high capacity and efficiency. lower-prcssnre stcan1 can then he uscd in the standard ~ n u l t istage con-
- densing units. Condensing turbines are dcsigncd for steam pressnrrs LIII
Single a n d Multistage Turbines* to 900, and in some cases 2000 psi \vith exhaust conditions a t 28 in. oi
Single-~tagcturbines ate built in sizes up to 1500 hp in speeds ranging mercury vacuum. These units are most frequently used for large-scillc,
1ti1111(iM) to ilround 7000 rpm. T l ~ e yarc1 invarial~lyd~signedto opcrat~, industrial power generation and for driving large compressors and pump^.
as n o n c u n d m r i ~ ~ngn i t anrl Irnvc become particnlarly popular for many
Mechanical Features
A typical lnnltistage turhinc is shown in Fig. 16-11, Casings are 11uri-
zontally split with the steal11 inlet nod outlet in thc lo~vcr11:11f for e;lsy
364 Project Engineering of Process Plants
Turbine Control
The speed of a turbine can be controlled by t,hrot,tlingthe steam t o the
t,urbine or by rontn~llingstcam flov to the nmzlrs in a multist:~geturliinc.
For nozzle control the first-stage nozzles are divided into several groups
cach of which is served by a separate nozzle valve. The nozzle valves are
designed to operate either open or shut (at full-steam pressure) and thns
the throttling action is kept to a minimunl. Nozzle valves are opened
one by one as the load increases, and a t full load all the valves are open.
At fractional loads only some of the valves are opcn.
Tlie adventage in nozzle control is that throttling losses are eliminated.
Sozzle control shows economies on the large multistage maehines in
EXHAUST END SUPPORT
Motors and Turbines 365
~vhichprolonged partial loading is :mticipated. Most small and me-
dium sized turbines typical of process plant applir:rtions are ilcsigned
for -tcnln throttling. Often, hon.e~-er.Iiaird-~.ontrollcdvalws arp wetl
t ~ ir ~ ~ t - o uexcess
t nozzling so that rnasimun~ fractional load eciinon1:-
n-ill he rcalizcd.
The slxed sensing device, or governor, may be the common centrifugnl
type d ~ i c hconsists of t v o rotating \\-eigl~tsrlirect-conncctcd ti1 tlre turbine
.Irnft or ronnected through gears. The centrifugal forre on the rot;~ring
\wights is resisted by tmsion in connecting spring.-. Tile poritiun of tlrc
\wights is indicatire of the spred: and the movement, therefore, can lrc,
tr;~nsn~ittcd ti1 tlrc tnrhinc-regulating device. I n place of the centrifugal
governor, a so-called "hydraulic" sl~ceilgovernix can bc employed. It
irr~nsi~ts nf an oil p n ~ n pdriven off tlrr, turbine rllaft. ('l~wngrs in turhin~,
speed produce changes in oil pressure ~vlricl~ can he transn~ittcdto tlic
turbine controller.
Tlhr tr;~nsnlissionof the governor signal on sninll t~lrliinesis l ~ ydirrct,
inc3anstlirol~ghlevers connected to the stcan-throttling valve. On l a ~ g c r
turbines the signal is transmitted througi~;I r ~ n a l lpilot valve. Tllc llilct,
v a l w is supplied with oil from ;in nil liump ~vhiclrin turn operates a pistun
to open or close the steam-throttling valve or tbc various nozzle valves if
automatic nozzle control is employed.
I n process plants it often h~conresd ~ ~ i r n l )tloe control o u t k t prwsurc
or differential pressure of pumps and compressors rat11~rthan use tlrr
speed of rotation as the primary control. Irr such rases a dinplrragm-
operated pressure regulator is used. It is c;et h r the required ]irwsl~rc
or differential pressure and automatically oper:rtes the rtr:rni throttling
valve so that the turbine ~villrotate at tbe speed necessary to p ~ ~ I u c c
the desired pump or compressor discharge pressure. A standard ccn-
trifugal-type governor is usually included, liowver, so that it can contrul
the turbine should the pressure rrgulator dtmand excessive spceds.
Emergency govern~irsarc installed on all turbines. Such governors
i,onsist of a ~ ~ c i g l e~:~,rntrivally
it n ~ o r ~ n t cn-hclr
~ l , ii; deigned t,) swing
out by centrifugal furcc at speeds IIL' 10%):rllovv normal. In bvinging out
it t r i p a. dcvicc whicl~closes the luxin steanr v;rlrc and stops tile turbine.
Turbine Colculutions
I n preliminary estimates and eronomic studies and for the comparism
of bids it is often necessary t o cstim:~teturbine pc~.fur~nancc.P:~lcul:~-
tions are sitnplc. TurI!ines operate in the reverse fashion t o eunlpressars
and the same principles apply. A Rankine cycle is assumed for the ideal
case and an ovcrall efficiency is applied to rurrert for actual conditions.
'l'he steam a t its inlet conditions is rspanded i,sentrnpically (constant
ch~triqiy)to tho fii~nlconclition. 'I'11e diffcrcnce in entli:~lpyrel)rtwntr. the
366 Project Engineering of Process Plants Motors a n d Turbines 367
tl~coreticnlivork dnnc prr lh cf ~tt~n111.Sinw .\lollit>r diagrams for steanl
are readily avi~ilablc.tlli; rn1cul:ition is 111~wt~.onvenientlyand rapidly
done on a Mollier diagram.
\Vork = H2 - H I Htul Ih of steam (1)
where 1 1 2 = inlet stcam enthalpy
HI = outlet steam enthalpy
H? - HI hp-hr
or
2544 Ib of steam (2)
Tlw reciprocal I I eq.
~ 2 is callrd the tl~cimticaletcam rate or often the
tvater rate. T h e units are 111 of steani per hp-lir. T h e actual steam rate
.-0,c
I Noncondensing
2 Noncondensing 600 psi rn
c
a 30
4 Noncondensing Turbine Steam Press. 200 psi
v
c 5 Noncondensing Turbine Steom Press. 400 psi
0" 6 Noncondensing Turbine Steom Press. 600 psi
20 7 Condensing Turbine Steom Press. 200 psi
8 Condensing Turbine Steam Press. 400 psi
to
Rated BHP
Fig. 1613. Average efirieney of multistage turbines. [Adapted from DeLnmd
Engir~erring 17a,idbouk (104i). 1)cLuvnl Strnlrl Twhine Cornpan?-. hy prt.nrission.1
can he cstiniated by tlic application of a n a l ~ p r r ~ l ~ r i overall
ate turbine
efficiency. steam rate in I b h p - l l r i and the load in convenient unite. This straight
line, ~vliiehis called the Villiam.; line, affords a sinll~lrmeans fur cstimat-
Theoretical steam rate ing steam consunlj~tionfur any loading of a. given turbine when ti?-o valuei
Actual steam rate =
l'urhina efficiency arc known.
Values for estimating purposes arv givcn in Figa. 16-12 and 16-13. Kozzle-governing tnrt~inesdo not produce the straight line rclationsllil~.
' h e s e curves represent typic:~l effirit.nries at full 1,ind and present a hut rather a serics of lVilli;~ms'lines of varying plolles interconnected 11y
correetion factor for obtaining thc (,Hit,ienyy at mr-half loa~i. steps corresponding to each noezlc x-alre o p n i n g . A straight line rela-
It has been observed t h a t t n h i n ~ rontrt~llccl
.~ by tllrottling exhitlit a r . p r d u r c cmserx-ative vaiurs of steam HOW for
tionship, h o ~ ~ c v r \\-ill
lincar relationship between stearl1 consumi~tionin lh per hr (not unit estimating [~urlxrses.
368 Project Engineering of Process Plants Motors and Turbines 369
T h r propcrtir.> 111 rrl~:irlst itcam from a turhinc a r r of intered !r11en T h e first con~monuse of gas t u r l ~ i n rin t h e process industries was a s
such steam is to bc used a s process steam. These properties can be con- drive, for air cimprcssora suplilying rcgenrration air to Houdry fixed-
v n i r n t l y e.timatrd knon-ing thp tnrbinc cfficit3ncy by subtracting from bed catalytic cracking units. Hot pmducti of culilhstion from the cat-
the initial stcam enthalpy the actual energy in Btu/lb used b y the tur- d y s t regeneration cycle ~ v c r eexpanricd in the gas turbine. Any surplus
bine in useful x o r k [112 - I H ? H I ' \ (Efficiency)]. Since t h e turbinc p m c r from the turbine m s utilized by generating clcctric povcr v i t h a
cxhaust pressllrr is kno7~-n,thc intersection of the corresponding constant small generator connected to the turbine shaft. T h e use of fixcd-bed
pressure line wit11 the calculated final enthalpy mill yield the temperature
of the steam and thus a complete description.
t ~ he analyzed b y similar methods. Extrac-
N o r e conlples t ~ l r b i n can
tion turbinc~s,for instance, ill exhibit a scries of Williams' lines for
various ~ a l u e sof constant cstrnction fl01v ~ s - l ~ iacrle~ obtained b y adding
the extraction flow to t,he original line for no extraction. Turbines eni-
ploying regenerative f e d ~ v a t e rheating cycles and other similar tech-
niques m a y bc handlcd by making heat balances around each steam user
with t h e aid of a Mollier diagmm.
E X A ~ P LC LA L C U I . .d~ single
~ ~ ~ ~singe
: 350 1111 IS00 rpm turbinr is to opcrare
nonromlenrino ~ ~ - isteam
th at. 385 psig and 520' F :nld is to rshnust a t 60 psig.
a . I'reparr~ a chart shoi~-ingthe steam consumption a t any load.
b. llcterniine the :ir,tnal rzhallst s t ~ a l nproperties-
Inlet enthalpy H z = 1256
Exhaust enthalpy (from hfollier diagram) = - 1115
Total enel.gy 141 Btu/lb
iood in B r a k e Horsepowel
From Fig. 16-12 fnll-load efficiency is 22%
2544
Actual steam rate = = 82 lh/hp-hr
(141)(0.22)
units d e c l i n ~ ~h ~ i. w v c r ,: ~ n d gas turljincs gr:~ciu:~Ilyd i ~ : ~ p p c a r e dfro111
(a)Full load steam consumption = (82) (360) = 28,700 W h r
From Fig, 16-12. half-load factor is approx. 1.17 1)roccis 111i1nts. As ~ilcscribetlh y Millcrl" the Houdry 11r11rr.s~ n.:li unique
in it. t~daptahilityto the gas turhine sinw tlic rcgcneration t e ~ n l x m t n r e
:. Half load rate = (82)(1.17) =- 96 lb/hp-hr
:rnd t l ~ u sthe gas tclnueri~turcto thc t u r b i ~ l c11ad to be m;iintaineil Iwlr~\\-
Half load steam consumption = (96) (g)
2
= 16,800 lb/hr 1100' F I)? :lusilinry cooling t o prevent deactivation of thc catidyst. XI-
terials of construction for turbine temperature v e r c not difficult to fincl.
h uerformance curve or 15-illiams' line is plottcd for this unit from these two F o r t h e ordinary gas turhine cycle, Imwerer, roml~nstiontrmpcr;iturcs
points. See Fig. 16-11. a r c liigli and the gases must be r o i ~ l r ds i ~ m c \ \ - l ~I~cSori.
: ~ t rntcring tlic tur-
( b ) Estimated final enthalpy = 11%- (Hz - H~)(Efficiency) bine. A:: high tciiil~eraturc-resistalltt111oy:: 11cca111enmrc co:ninon. not
:is i n u c l ~rooling n.as required and the dc.sig11 of gas turl~inesI I ~ < , ; I I I I n111r1:
~
Intersection of 1225 enthalpy line on Mollier diagram with exhaust pressure simple. Once again, thcrefore, gas t,urbincs nre bring used in many
of 60 psig corresponds to 390' F or approximately 80' F of superheat. process plants for ccrtain applications in 1%-hichtllcy eSScct c c o n r ~ u ~ i w
co~nparcrlto lnotor us stcam turbine drives.
GAS TURBINES
h simple gis-turbine cyclc is illuslritted in 8 i g . 16-15. 11 cu~lsisisuf
T h e gas turbine produces useful work b y expanding hot gases from a multistage turbine cxpander, associated colnbustion chambcr for t h e
the combustion of fuel and compressed air (see Fig. 16-15). P a r t of the fuel gas, a centrifugal - a i r cornmessor, and a n elcetric ., ecnerator. Com-
energy extracted by the turbine is used t o compress t h e air for the com- pressed air is fed t o the colnbustion svstc:ii and t h c hot iwmhl~stioneases
bustion ort ti on of t h e evcle,
370 Project Engineering of Process Plants Motors and Turbines 371
expanding gase.5 j11rt as in a ste:it~~turhine produce rotation of the tur- 3. rtilizing waitr ga.r.5 for p r i ~ l u r t i ( ~ufn poa-er and rolnpressed air
bine which in torn drives t l ~ ecompressor and generator. Separate speed a. hfanufncturinp nitric acid; n-wte pap fro111 tlic acicl absorl)tioll
reducers may he used on earh shaft of thc turbine so t h a t the compressor colunln a t 80 psi:, is I I I Y I ~ Ltu~ 900" F hy cxchnngc n-itlr tltr convertor
and generator niay car11 he operated a t n l a ~ i r ~ i u nefficiency.
i reaction product. an11 t h n esl~:lnilcil in ;I :,:I.< rxpanilcr tltrllinr. Air i-
The stearn turtlinc has proved econumiral as a combination supplier conlpresscd for the l~rocessand electric poi^-er is generated frolll the
of electric puwer and [Irocess steam and as n drive for centrifugal r o n - energy thus recorerc~l.
pressurs. Procers steal11 is removed a t one portion of the cycle. 1x1 a b. Regenerating catalysts; products of conil~ustiunfrom the regen-
eration expand in :I turbine. (li~mprwreriair an11 clrrtrir 1Ion.cr arr
generated.
Compressed
air to users Thern~odynamiecalculations for gay turi)inrs systeuls f o l l i w the snnlc
~xinciples outlined for stearn turbines anid colnpreisors. T h e ~ ~ r c t i c ; ~ l
p o w r consumed by the air conrprf:.ssor ran h r Ijnsrd i,n iscntvupic corn-
pressiun. The gas turilinc,'s tlieoretic:il p i ~ w rproducti~)nis cilual t11 tile
difference in cntlralpy bctwccn inlct :mil outlet gases. ~ I i l i ~II:IS ~ r givc~n
'~~
the following typical efficiencies:
p
C o ~ n l ~ w isentrol~ie
~~or cfficicncy 85
Comhwtion efficiency 98
Power
T u r t ~ i n cefficiency 85 to 90
Centrifugal Turbine
compressor generator H e further suggests us approxin~ations2 111 5% p r e , s i ~ r edrops in the
mixing and combustion steps and a 1 to 3% of turbine enthalpy drop
lost in operation of turt~incauxiliaries.
Exhaust gas to
M a n y ingenious cycles have heen d e ~ d o p c dt o increase thermal efficien-
waste or steam cies. Thesc include generation of steanr frum tlir turbine rliscl~:irgcgases
generation and intrndnction of this stram intu the g:im entering the cinnbu.;tion
F i g . 16-15. Simple gas turbine cycle. system. Nevertheless, cnel.gy calculations becmue nu trrurr diffirult siocr
siuqlle energy halances around each portiou of the e q u i [ ~ ~ n c nare i alw:+ys
possiblf~. Operating tests, I i o w t ~ e r ,must l ~ emade to p r ~ ~ r i c lilat:i
e on
similar manner the gas turhinc has operuted economically as a comhina- tlicnnal losses nnd efficiencies.
tion supplier of electric p m e r and prorcss air atid as a centrifugal coni-
pressor ~lrive. Vhenevcr cheap gaseous fuel is availnhlc such as natural REFERENCES
gas, producer gas, or wastc gases, such as products of rnmhustion from
n process, the gar turhinr should he c~~nsidered.Some typical appli-
cations are:
1. Compressirig of natural gas
a. Pipeline boaster compressors.
-
b. Reinjection of nirtural gas into oil bearing fornmtions.
2. Supplying large amounts of process air
a . Ammonia synthesis; air for production of synthesis gas. 5 . I i r : ~ i t o n ,\Y.J., S l e u n i l'tirbine 7 ' h e w y and Pioctice, 5th E X , Pitman Pul~lisli-
b. Nitric acid ~ n a n u f a c t u r eair
; fur oxiiiatioti of anl~iionia. i n g Co.. S e w Y d . 1948.
c . Tonnage oxygen and n i t r u g ~ nproductiun. 6 . Kent, W . , Rent's .lldia~ti.ol Euyinrcrs' IIandbuok, V o l 11, Jotin TViley B.
Sons. Inc., S e n York, 1950.
d . Catalyst regcn~xration; air for burning cokc from catalyst (at- 7 . KrotLV. J.. Chern. ETin.. Nu. 7.123 (1951).
. .
tractive \\-hen regeneration is rondurtcd under pressure). 8 . Millr,r. B.. Clirm. ISrry., C. S o . 1 , 175; So 2 , 187 (1955)
372 Project Engineering of Process Plants
!,,,. .~[,,t,,+ ~,,,d ( ; c , ~ ~ . , ~ ~S~;~~ wO sI I, : , IE I P , . I Y ~ C : ~ Iwmi:~,..
!I .YE.II..I ,sI,,,,,I,,,.,~,~
twr1.s .lsioeia~ion.S p w 1-OI.~, 1949.
10. Xminn. L . E.. -4. lir1li.1..J . 11. 1,yun;. ;ind I,. H. TFnlpi. .llndwn ' h i - h e r , Jolln
\T-ile>-6- Son-. I n c . 3i.v York. 1944.
11. Shomlts. D. R., C. J . R i i ? :tnrl T. C . Jolrnron. Elccliic .lli,l~min I ? t d i i s l r y . John
Kilq & Suns. Inr. S r w Y o l k 1942.
12. Killis, C. H . . :mil 11. &I. C l i : m d c ~ ~dl..,
, 1izlioduclmy Electrical Engineering,
D. Van S a s l r a n d Co., Inc., S e w Ywk, 1962.
OTHER
PROCESS
EQUIPMENT
In the preceding chapters of this section, equipment common to all
process plants has been discussed. I n addition there is other important
equipment ~vhiclr the project engineer must help select ior certain
processes.
To make intelligent selections the project cmgineer must have some
f m ~ i l i a r i t ywith the theory or c~npiricalu ~ e t l ~ oused
d in design and the
Q kind of information required by the nianufnctnrer before recommends-
tions can be made. Various types of prl~cessequipu~mtare dizcussrd
hricfly in this clrnptcr and reierences for more intensire study are given.
Information required by the vendor is listed for each typc of equipment
considered in this chapter.
AUTOCLAVES
Tlrc sizing of el~cmicalreactors is the specific job of the prore% engineer.
I
Cl~cmiralkinetic data togetl~erx i t h 11tmch scalc am1 pilot plant data arr
- used to determine the size, style, and shapc of a g i r m cl~emioillreactor.
The reactors are then built to order.
Certain processes, especially those requiring batch operation, such as
some polynerization reactions, are best handled in autoclaws. The
~lem:mcl for autoclaves n.it11 attached agitators an11 heat transfer surfactt
has influcnccd sercral n~anuiacturcrsto develop a cornpletc liue of suclr
n t to ofie~.n x~idcrange of standard sizes many of w l ~ i ( ,are
~ , q u i l ~ m rand l~
avnllahlc f r o n ~stock. In the interest of economy, therefore, i t becomes
< 373
374 Project Engineering of Process Plants
Other Process Equipment 375
n e m s a r y to adapt one's need.< to these standard size autoclaves. T h r
c . Is explosion-proof equiplncnt required?
volunrctric rapacity uf the autoclave must he ~ e hy t the proccss mgineer d . .iuziliary eqnipn~rntrcquircd.
since the autoclave mnnufacturer is n ~ ) familiar t !~.ith the reaction, and e . Loration of equipnient idesrribr).
it is often prefcrslllc to avoid revealing rcartion date o u t d e the company. f. Special attachments required, if any.
T h e autocla\-e manufacturer can and should be asked t o d e w l l ~ pthe
hcnt tr:micr surface, agitator, and i ~ t h e rn~echanicalfeatures. T h e high-
pressure p c k i n g problems, thick-wall pressure vessel design, and fahrica- REFERENCES
t i m n i c t l i ~ ~ rn-it11
l . rnrious alloy*: are all best handled by the n~anufacturer
since his experience v i t h these problems is superior. Autoclaves m a y be
h m l r d 11y hot r a t e r . stcam, direct firing, hot oil, D o r t h e r m , and electric
iirating. Each of thcse systems, especially the direct firing, Dowtherln,
and electric heating, requires considerable "know-horn.'' which autoclave
~ n ~ f i t linvr n ~acquired
s througll many years { l f exlrrricnrc. CENTRIFUGES
I t is necessary to p l r ~ r i d ethe manufacturer ~ r i t hinformation needed
for the selrction and &sign of a n agitator system: the heat transfer aystcm There a r e two primary types of rcnt,rifuges. One m a y he called n
and the vessel itself. Xlanufacturers arc aware of t h e srcrccy nrces:ary centrifuge and tlic otllcr a crntrifugirl filter. Tlic cmtriiugc, effect- >,.pn-
'%-it11somc prowsses, and i t will be satisfactory under these conditions t o ration b y causing a liquid o r solid t o move throngh a continutrus lirjrliii
describe the reactiim in terms of some similar familiar fluid. Pl~yrical p h a w under the influence of centrifugal forre. I n the rentriingnl filter,
~wol~cl.tics. l~oivevrr.should he reasonably accurate. the solid pllasc is supported b y a filtering medinni (e.g., perforated s c ~ c c n i
.Is tccliniques of applied kinetics a r e improved, it may be possible t o and rentrifugal force causes t h c liquid t o pass tl~rouglit h e solid. The
first is similar t o gravitatioiial settling and Stokes' Law can be npplirrl
I
conduct many reactions continuously in "pipe-line" reactorsf which have
heen traditionally carried out in autoclaves as batch reactions. while the second is similar to filtratim and t h e resistance of t h e filter
cake plays a n i ~ n p o r t a n role.
t
Information Required by Vendor F o r t h e settling type machine (centrifuge) i t r a n he shown t h a t
1. Ph!-sical and rhemic:~l properties Q = 2v,Z, where Q is t h e rate of liquid flow, o, t h e mlocit,y of p a r t k l e
a. i)en.ity of wartion mix nt operating conditions. sedimentation a n d Z is a constant for a given style a n d size machine.
b. T'isrrlsity of rcnrtion mix a t operating conditions. Ambler1 has indicated t h a t t h e performance of two centrifuges of different,
c. Toxirity and flammability of rraction mix.
d. Any other facts or description of material (or similar material) that it is size operating on t h e same system will be similar when z7, = r,?. Ilencc
possible to gire. Q I ' Z ~ = Qz 'Z2, a n d t h i s relationship provides a means for cornpuring
! c. IS autoclave is to he used for several iliffcrent rcaetions, give range of small a n d large scale nnit>s. Correlations, holyever, have not haen <.urn-
physical properties. pletely satisfactory, although steady progress is being made in illis firld.
2. Opmating eunditions T h e greatest success h a s been realized in t h c prediction of b w r i ccn-
a . ~ I a r i ~ n n presure
in inside autoclave.
b. Mosirnnm temperature (gire time-temperature cyck or rough limits) trifuge performance from laboratory data. Some encouraging rcsults
Souic idea of rate of temperature rise is necessary for carefd pressure vessel Ilavc been obtained \!-it11 other styles, however, particularly when the
design. small scale unit is operat,e.ed a t a speed such t h a t it produces roughly the
c. T!pe heating preferred. same centrifugal force a s ~ v i l lbe produced by t h e large unit.
d. .Jacket working presure (pressure and temperature of heating medium) Centrifugal filter theory is even less advanced t h a n t h a t for centrifuges
r . Is cooling required? Describe cooling mrdiom.
f. Ikscrihe extent of agitation required. Suggest agitator style preferred. a n d tests on large scale units a r e mandatory unless t h e material t r ~11e
9 . Describe ;luton~atictemperature and presstire rontrol system. filtered is exactly t h e same a s t h a t for sonic successfully operating unit.
3. Mati,riali of construction: Suggest materials based on experience with fluid Even in cases for which small scale test results are not reliable for
to he handled extrapolation, they a r e of value in indicating t h e nature of t h e problem
4. Miscellan~ms
~~~~~
t ~ ~ r ur
i c fl;~mni:ihlr. T h e integration indirated in thc
above eqnation can be done sim-
__t
I by either graphical or nu- Temperature
REFERENCES
nieriral means whcn a saturation
i . I - Graphical integration oi
1. Ambler, Charles M.,C h e m Eng. P w g r . , 48,150 (1952). (Evnlunlion of ecntl.if- curve of humid cnthalpy versus dtIH* - H .
ugnl pcrio~.mnnecand drscriptiun of one n ~ a n u f n c t u ~C. ~
~ rU ~~ ~
I ~ I T I I . ) temperature is available. Reion-
2. Ambler, Chorles M., Nex Jewry Swtion Meeting, Am. Inat. Chcnl. Enyrs.. M a y this rurvc a straight line or operating line is plotted based on the inlet
5, 1953. (Further craluatian techniques.)
3. Perry, J. H., Cl~ernicalh',igi?wr's Hundbook, 3rd Ed., 992-1013, hlrCra\v-Hill a n d outlet enthalpies H I a n d H 2 as shuwn in Fig. 17.1. Values of
Book Co., Sew Bork, 1950. (Equiprnunt descr.iption.) H* - H are then readily obtainable from this plot for t h e conditions
4 . Smith, J . C.. Ind. E n g . Chrnr. 39. 4 i 4 (1947). (Cmtt.ifu~e s~lrctiontrrliniqurs of the problem and the integration can be accomplished.
m d < i ? wiplion 01' I Y ~ ~ ~ )~ W I ~ I This technique permits determination of K,a for a given t o v e r from
378 Project Engineering of Process Plants Other Process Equipment 379
pcriwmancc (lntn, estiu~atiunof ton-cr performanre un(lcr varying condi- b. Data on prevailing winds.
tiuu., un(l calvulation of t(lxcr hriglrts for \ ~ t r i c lK.,a
~ is assumed. T h r c. Sketch of apace available for cooling tower indicating surrounding
11" - I1 term is t h r driving force and the more humid the air, the closcr equipment. sizes.
d. Location of nearby cooling towers.
tire oprrating linc mores to t h e saturation curve a n d thus the larger the e. Elevation above sea level.
ton-cr 1111i.t lie for a given duty.
.?
I Ire use of this siniplc but valuable tl~coretiralequation in design dc- REFERENCES
I E I I I ~ upon
~ accurate prediction of design values of K,a. Only cooling
1. Baker, D. R., and L. T. Hart, Petruleiirn Refiner, 31, No. 10, 97-10' (1953).
ton-cr ~unnufncturer::and perhal~scertain operating companies n-it11 large (Theory.!
amounts of (lain on one ii~anufacturer'st o v c r a r c equipped to m a k r sucli 2. Dealer.
- H. E.. Petroleum Enai., 22. S r , . 3 . p. C-29; S o . 1, I,. C-15; :and S o . 5.
predictions. I t . tl~creforc,becomes necessary to supply tllc manufacturrr p. C-25 (1950). iDesrl.iptive.)
~\-itlrone'z rrquirrments and permit him t o dcsign a unit t o satisfy t h e 3. Kern. D. F.. . . 563-6W. McGrarr-Hill Hook C o . . Smv
Process Heal T1-nnsiei. PP.
conditil~ns of operation. Because of the magnitude of cooling tower York, 1950. (Theory. calculat~ons,and equipment deseriplions.)
4. Perry, J. H., Chemical Enginecv's Handbook, 3rd Ed.. 789-iYi, MeGmm-Hill
instnllationi, ti1t.i~r~onstructionshould be rcgarrlrd a s a s u h c m t m r t and Book Co., New York, 1950. (Charts for estimating cooling tower size and inn power.)
detailed specificatiuns should be written covering t h e grade of materials
and x-i~rlimanshilitogetlier r i t h operating conditions. CRUSHERS AND GRINDERS
Classification of equipment has always bcen considered a primary step
Information Required by Vendor in the systematic study and understanding of any ficld. Often, however,
1. T>-peof coollng tower classification becomes m i r e of a problem than undcratanding. This i-
Induced drnft because of the lesser tendency for rrcirculation of disch:~rgrd true in the case of crushing a n d grillding equipment. For marly years
air is brcoming the most common. Forced draft, honrver, is more suitablc for grinding e q u i p l e n t has hcen classified in accordance with the type of
highly corrosive waters since the fan and moving parts do not contact the sat- product. B u t hammer mills, for instance, can hc applied successfully t o
urxted rapors as in thc casn of the inilnred draft design. Other types are used
for sprri:d :~pplic:ltions. (See referrnce belolv ) production of all types r ~ product
f such a s coarse, fine, and s u p t ~ f i n e . T h e
2. Operating conrlitiun~ project engineer, instead, needs a descriptiun of each typc of grinder
o. Capacity, gpm of m t r r currently manufactured including information on its field of application
b. Inlrt water 1cmpcr:ltnre. a n d its advantages and disadvantages. Such information is f a r more
r . C)ut!rT ~ m t e rtelnp~~mtureilrsired. helpful t h a n some ponderous attempt to classify rquipmrnt.
r l . Jlespn mrbient ~l-et bulb tmlperaturc. The dcsipn ~ r bulb
t temperature
should be selrcted on t h hasla
~ of economici :~ndshould not necessarily be the Empiricism reigns supreme in t h e field of crushing and grinding. T!E-
liigh<~-t\-:tlue rccurded for the arm. Onr common basis 1s the so-called .5 prr oretical equations for calculating power requirements a s propo:ml by
omt irct bulh This is a \wt bulb temperature d ~ i c his not, exceeded nrr~re Rittinger a n d Kick have proved f a r less accuratc tllan thc more recerit
tliarl 5 per cent of the time: elapsng between June and Sr.ptember. scmi-cmpirical correlations of Bond and Wnng.2 Although effort is hein::
e . h u i l oprrntlon tune (hours) made t o develop basic grinding theory, the ultimatc selcction of a crushrr
I. Noisr level of fans ,should br spec~fied.
g. Acwptanrc~trstr s h ~ ~ u lbr
d specified in nrmrdance with thr latest cooling or grinder for the grinding of a given material depends upon test ~ w r k
tm~-ertest procedure of thr ASME P o ~ ~ Test e r Code for atmospheric TTater or upon plant uperating data on the same 11r similar material.
rimling equlpmmt. Since no single cmnpany manufactures all types of crushing and grinding
3. 1l:rtmali of ronstruetion equipment, a manufacturer should not he expectcd t o give an unbiased
The type of lumber, filling, hardware, piping connections, basm, fans, and recommendation of thc typc equipment to employ for a certain problem
mntori. These details can ljr. developed in coopration with the manufacturer
bnt should he included in thr specific:~tirms. The term r r i i ~ ~ o o dfor
, instancr, It is necessary, therefore, that the cheuiical cngincer make a preliminary
is not complrtely ilrwriptive. Rrdrwrrd is gradrd in accordanrc with thr' selection of a t least several types of grinding machines before making
sprciiic:itions of the California Rcdwml Associxtion and the proper grade* detailed inquiry to the n~anufncturcrs. T h e e q u i p ~ i e n tmanufacturers
:nust irr s p ~ r i f i d . should then be permitted to conduct tests on the material to be crushed so
4. M,kccllm~eons t h a t thc most favornt~leoperating conditiuns can be determined for the
n. S1,:ice limitations.
particular type grinrl~r. Smitlr"r:is prepared a must helpful rrport t o
aid t h e cngineer in s u c l ~p r c l i m i n ~ qsclections.
!
380 Project Engineering of Process Plants Other Process Equipment 381
I
T h e particlc size of feed and product, capacity, and the size d i ~ t r i l ~ l ~ t i o n 4. 1 , l . I . II,,;,cI. I ! , I . 8 . I s 1 3 1 ( r n lI.,, nl gri,,<ling ir,.I,.
and other physical properties of the product irlust be known bcforc i ~ t - niqnr~drwrihcd.)
5 . Pirct. I-:cigar J.. Chmn. E n g . Progr., 48, 56 (19531. (Kerirr of theol.ctieal derel-
tempting preliminary ielection. This infor~nation,together v i t h morr.
opmlms.)
detailed d a t a as o u t l i n d heloy, should he furnished the manuf:~cturcrto 6 . Smith. Jdian C.. Chem. Eng.. .iB, S o . 6, 151-166 (1952). (Description and sog-
aid in the final selection of a unit. Saluples of materials t o be groru~i~l p,..tioni to aid in preliminary grinder scle~.tion.)
sllould he sent l o t h e manufacturer. A five- t o twenty-fivc-pou~ids a n ~ p l c
is required for niost pilot plant units. If a larger scale test is t o Le madc, CLASSIFIERS
a t least 100 puunds is advisablc. T11c n ~ o s tiniportant application of classification equipmrnt is in closed
circ~litgriniling where t h e ohjcct is to scparnte finisl~cd~ ~ r o i i u c~ t~ I I tliv I I
Information Required by Vendor 111:1tr>ri:11TT-I1ir.11 rcv~uirrv f u r t l ~ e rgrimliug. S I I ~ I a11plir:1tim*
I :tw l ~ , . < t
1. Phyiral data <lrvr~lopulin i,onjunotiun ~vitlrthe selection of a grinder. Tit(, grinr1l.1.
a. Description of m:~teri:~l to be handled. n l a n u f a r t l r r c arc prepared to suggest equiprnrnt t h a t is hest a d r i l ~ t t ~tol
1. Chemical proprrties. I tlicir units. T e s t s in the field of ore and mineral dressing give detailtd
2 . Simil:rrit?. to othcr ~vcll-kno~~-n
m;~tcrixls. j information on classifiers.
3. Size of piecrs.
4. Hygroscopic, rorrosirr, infl:mmablc, tosic, etc. I CRYSTALLIZERS
b. Bulk ilrnsit,y of fwd (indirat,e density <lrt~rniinationniethod).
c. Bulk density oi finidled product (indirxtr dm-it>-~1etemiin;itionmethod). I A >upcrrnturated solution liiust, be formed in order trr produce r ~ y t n l i
d. Sievc analysis or particle size of deireil groduct igivr Ion-rm and up pi^ fro111:I given solution. This supcrsnturatiun can bc pro~lnccdlry waling.
limits) c ~ n p o r a l i u nrif the solrent, srtlting rlut (:ulrlition of n fi~rcign. ~ ~ l ~ . s t : ~ n r c
e. Per ccnt moisture content (if other liouids Dresmt in the nl:iterial. rime 11-11iclic;lucrs t l ~ cni:ltcrial of interest to erystallizci. or :I coml~irl:ltionof
and give percentage). t l w c ~r~etliod.;.Iinon-ledge of tllc solubility tempcraturc rel;~tion.slrip~
f . Solrents for nlatcrid being" ground. Smcest solvent most desirable for
cleaning rquipmmt. air1 greatly in t h e selection of thc general typc of cry~tnllizinge q u i l ~ m m t .
g. Abrasire properties. h rclntively flat solubility curve indicates evaporation while a rapidly
2. Operating conditions rising (with t e ~ u p e r a t u r e ) curve indicates a straight cooling type of
a. Feed rate (minimum and maximum). crystallizer.
b. Operating temperature (mximrun ;md minimum; list teniperntures a t i
Couipletc solubility d a t a for most w l l - k n o w n con~poundsliavc been
~rhichmaterial melts, decomposes, or r1ni1ergoc.ssomc othrr nnn:~ntcd chmgc)
c. Can mntcrinl be ground wet'! published, and cxpcrimvntiil x o r k is being done in orctcr t o bcttcr undcr-
d. Is drying permissible before grinding? stanrl t h c rncrh:inism of crystal fomiation. Such information lias aidcll
e . Is heating or cooling of material :dlorvable? i greatly in improving cryrtallizer design. Crystallizer operation, Iiowvvr:
f. Type of clasification drsircd aftcr grinding.
3. Materials of construction
i docs not consist merely of the formation of crystal nuclei. Simult:ineon.
formation and growth of crystals is colnnion to industri:il c~ystallizcrs,
Suggested materials for corrosion wsistnnce should be given. In supplying
this information it should hc rimembered that thrsr, m3tcri:iii must also be and these l~rocersesare f u r t l ~ e rco~nplieatcrlhy diffusiunal resistanre.~.
resistant to abrasion and eroiiun.
4. Misccllaneons
a. Poxr-cr supply.
I Tliesc several r a t e processes have also been studied but s u i t a l ~ l yacc~lr:lt(,
r:~lcul:ltion of the rate is not yct posril~lc.
This lack of reliilblc r a t e d a t a malics it nccessnry, vrl~winllybccnusc
b. S l m r limitations. of the m a n y different crystallizer rlcsigns, t o design and select crybtallizers
c. Drscription of proposed location.
d. Safety precautions now in effectif matenal is hazardous.
1 largely a n t h e basis of laboratory tests a n d performance ilata. Such test?
i a r e particularly important \vlicn trace impurities are suspcctrrl since
REFERENCES
1 crystal forliiation and g r o x t h m a y be strongly affected b y small amounts
1. Bond, F. C., Trans. A I X E , 193, 484 (1952). (Theory.) I of certain impurities.
2. Bond, F. C., and Jcn-Tuug \Vang, T r a m A W L .I n s l . M h ~ i n gM e l . Engrs., 187, 871
(1950). (Theory :md cn~.rclntionsfar power czlimntion.1 Information Required by Vendors
3. Erickson, Henry W., C h e m . Eug. P ~ o g r . ,38, 63 (1953). (l)cscri~,lim:iml selcc- I , Ph!.sieal and d~emicalproperties
tion.)
I a. ('hemicnl composition of feed liqlror tracc impurities
382 Project Engineering of Process Plants
Other Process Equipment 383
b. S d ~ ~ h i l i ttemperature
? relations. and recommend the design and size most suitahle. T h e potrntial pur-
r . 1Tr:it (if rrystallizatiol~: sperifir hrats of sohltion, mothrr liquor :1nd
rrystnl-. ie~ith;iil,y-coneel~trntion diagr:im dr~irableif nrail:ihle). chaser, howcrer, must make some preliminary deci~ionson the type dryer
d. llcn4ty of fwd :~n,l~n~othm liq~mrs. desired.
r . hiling piiints of S r d and mothrr liq~mrs. l f a r s h a l l a n d Friedman2 have prepared a n outstanding section in
f. Tosirity or flamm:~hility, Perry's Chemical Enginee?.~ Hnnrlhook. They g i w a tabular classifica-
2. Oprating conditions tion of commrrrial dryers. Thcir detailcd d i r r u s s i ~ ~ nof
s dryer types,
a . \Yri?;ht of feed liquor per unit time.
b. IYeipht of crystals to he formnl. design, selcction, and test proce~inresaid greatly in the preliminary dryer
c . Fred tenipimture :~nd final de-irrd liquor temperature and crystal J-irld. selcction. An example of dryer selcction is also given.
d. Desired rrl-stal siar and sizc dictrihntion. (This may hr some tnlly
optimum value or ma:- rlepmd on the wishes of the buyers of crystals, whethcr Information Required by Vendor
thrw ivi~hesa r logical~ or not.)
e . O p r a h g hours pvr day. 1. Physical and chemical properties
f . Sn?- special reqniremmts for finished crystals cho~ddbe stated. a . Description of material (chemicd name, rharacteristirs xhen iret and
3. Xitwials of con~tructiou dry).
S11:gest lnw possible nlaterial~to rmdor. b. Size, shape, and size distribution of particles.
4. hli.~cellnnrons c. Density (bulk and true) of w t , commrrrially dry, and boue dry m:+terial.
a . Stpnm prt+s,ire :and trmper;ltllre (npproximatr cost). d. Toxicity, flammability, and corrosive nature.
b. Coding water. e . bloisture content of feed (give bas>. and methud).
1 . Source. f. hfaximum moisture content nf pr~lrhlrt igirr :1nd mrtlmd).
2. Ttmpenrt~~rc. g. Shrinkage and decomposition tendencies of iliatrrial, if kno~vn.
3. :Ipprosimntc~ cost. 2 . Oprrnting conditions
c. Other cooling mrdia available. a. Feed rate.
d. P o w r supply. b. Continuous or hatch operation.
c. Honra operation per day.
d. Treatment of material before and after drying. (Will some "before-
REFERENCES treatment," such as forming rr-rt material into pellets bc prrmissible?)
1. Perry. J. H.. Chrmieol Enginper's Hnndbook. 3rd Ed., MrGraw-Hill Rook Co., e . Estimatc of probable drying time.
New Ynrk. 1850). (Throly and apparatus dcsrripiion.) f. Maximum drying temperatnrcs perniisible (~vhen~s-etand d v ) .
2. Tliompson. -4, Chi,,,,,. Eng., 67, S o . 10, 125 (1950) (Description and sel~ction.) g. If hot air available, rr-hat is maximum trmperatnre and hnmidity?
h. Fresh air supply (temperatun, rxnge, hruwidity, xnd cle:dinrir).
i . Room temperature (range)
DRYERS
j . Feeding mechanism iby n~anufaetureror p ~ c l ~ ; i i ; edescribe).
r,
T h e theoretical aspects of drying h a w received particular attention ic. Fuels available.
in recent years, and tlle d r r e l o l ~ m e n t sresulting have aided greatly in the 1. Steam (pressurr and trmprmturei
understanding of drying f u n d a n ~ m t a l s . T h c unique dcsign features in- 2. Cns (prcssnre, grarit5-, hrating value).
3. Oil (gravity, viscosity, and heating r d n r ) .
herent in the m a n y different typcs of dryers, however, make i t mandatury 3. Materials of construetion
that the sclertion and final design of a dryer be based on tests made with Specify where possible in coopiration with m;~nufncturer.
experinlcntal dryers t h a t simulate the q m a t i o n of the plant-scale dryer. 4. Miscellaneous
It is necessary, therefore, t h a t samples of the material to be dried be sent a. Space available (drscribe or r~rovidrsketch).
to the m a n u f a ~ t u r e r . T h c sizc of t h e s a n ~ p l crequired will depend upon b. Floor loading.
c. Type of automatic controls desircd and ~ h furnishes.o
t h e type dryer and t h e nature uf t h e test. A large sample is usually d. ~ & r rsupply.
preferred. c . Motors and starters (type ;and !rho f,~rnishrr).
Drying theory has becn most hclpful in t h e correlat,ion of test data. f. !Tho will fnrnish air filters and other xccessnrie.5 (i1,wify)
T h e transfer unit roncept has heen adapted t o thc design of several dryer
types, Dryer tests are requircd in such cases for thc determination of REFERENCES
drying rates and u p t i u ~ u noperating
~ conditions. T h c manufacturer of
a given typc of dryer is the moat logical p a r t y t o make the dryer tests 1. Friednrnn, S. J.. l l p a i i r < g ond I'c,rfilrrtirq, &, Yo. 2 . 96110 (18.51). (D1.ycl.srlw-
tie,, ,II.O(.P,~LII.P.)
384 Project Engineering of Process Plants Other Process Equipment 385
subtracting from the total cost tlie estimated r:~lue of inatrrials nrccssary to
make the individ~~aloffering compatible n.ith the arbitrarily chosen base design.
S(F - I ) )
AR =
P
where A = area required, sq f t
R = settling rate ft,:hr
p = density of liquid, lb,/au f t
F = weight ratio of liquid t o solid in feed
D = weight ratio of liquid t o solid in underflow discharge
S = weight of solids treated pcr unit t,ime. W h r
Coe and Clrrengcr2 also described a method for cstilnating the rolunw REFERENCES
and thus t h e height of a thickener from settling t,ests made in a graduated
cylinder. The rolume can be cstimated from the retention time necessary 1. I(row\-n. G. G. ct nl. i'nll O p e r a t i w s , John \\-ilcy & Sons. Inc.. Kpw 1-01k1950.
2. Cuc. H. S.. and G. H. Clevmgel.. 'l',.ons. Am. I i i s i . .lliriiw . l l c l . Eugrs., .Ti, 356
~ I produce
I the dcsired underflow consistency. Similar and n x ~ r ercliahle
teats on pilot plant scale equipment have been d e r i m i , but the principles
are essentially t h e same.
hltliough these techniques are simple, t h e settling rates and required
retention time must he determined experimentally. Such experimentation
involves small scale laboratory tests followed b y pilot plant operation rln
equipnient of the type selected for the particular job.
I t is highly desirable to conduct these tests using a n actual saniple o i
the feed rather than a synthetic one. Small quantities of a niaterial t h a t
v i l l alter the properties of the suspended solids can have niarked effect
on the settling characteristics (c.g., w t t i n g agents). Such materials iuight
be overlooked in usual analytical procedures. Sedimcntation equipment
manufacturers maintain extensive laboratories for testing c u s t ~ ~ m e r ' s
samples with their equipment. I n addition they h a r e extensive files of
data on operating units.
Piping Design 395
also used, chiefly for drainage as is the practice today. Cast iron pipe
\%-asin use in the sevetlteentlr century. Some of the original cast iron pipe
laid in those early years is still in use today. Lead pipe was also exten-
sively used in ancient times. It was perhaps the first pipe made from
nietal.
t the turn of the t ~ v m t i e t hcentury steam p o w r n.ns ~vellalong in its
ilevelop~uent. The earliest pressure piping practices were developing
PIPING DESIGN
Any book i n project engineering of process plants would be incomplete
vithout a chaptcr on piping. At the same t,iule it n u s t be understood
that complete information on any single phase of piping u-ould in itself
fill an entire book. The information included therefore is general. It is
hopcd that it will create interest, and serve as a starting point for addi-
tional reading in the listed references. An attempt has been made t o cover
briefly only those practices, materials, and accessories most used in piping
for process plants and the several utility services generally found in all
plants.
I t is believed that no other single industrial product has had so much
to do n~itllthe progress of the human race as does pipc. Conduits of one
kind or another for t,ransporting water were ell known and used in
ancient times, perhaps centuries before the beginnings of recorded history. Fig. 18-1. Piwring rvlimlriral hilkt in manr~fnrtr~reof wamles4 pipe. !Smarlrss
The reciprocating steam engine was developed t o provide a means of Strrl Institutp.)
reuloring seepage water from the mines of Cornwall, England. Aside
from the development of the engine itself, therc is no doubt that much t o meet the needs of steam power and various hydraulic operations. Im-
ingenuity was requircd to provide some kind of pipe which uwuld with- pri~vementsin pipe manufacture continued, hut each manufacturer fol-
stand the ilydr~ulieheads. Pumps or other devices for the movement lowed the requirements of his particular customers.
of water had been in use for many hundreds of years previous to the devel- I n contrast to the early nlcthods of pipe manufacture, pipe today is
opmcnt of the stcam pump. I n 1581, Peter Morrys, a Dutchman, installed made by a nunlber of different processes and of such ~ ~ i d e lvarying
y
:I watcr-driven pump for the 1,ondon Bridge n'ater Works, to increase materials as carbon steel, alloy steels, brass, glass, plastics, and rubber.
the London water supply. This device was built almost entirely of wood. The several steels and alloys steels are the most cornnlon piping materials.
Paddle wheels located in the water of the Thames River provided power. Their manufacture into pipe is accomplished either by forming flat plate
Rotation of the paddle wheel shaft was converted to reciprocating motiou to a cylindrical shape and welding the seam using one of the several
by wooden toothed gears and cranks, connected t o a series of pistons, welding processes (butt, lap, resistance, fusion, and spiral] or by pierc-
each acting independently as a pump. ing a heated billet which is forced through a pair of revolving rolls a s
M u c l ~of thc piping in these early times was h o r ~ dfrom logs or con- shown in Fig. 18-1. This piercing operation produces a seamless pipe
strurtcd of W U U I ~ ~ Istaves
I siniilar to barrel stavcs. This pipc g a x very which is specified, because of its greater allowable stress, for a majority
good results. Various types of terra-cotta or other clay products were of process plant operations especially a t high temperature and pressure.
394
396 Project Engineering of Process Plants Piping Design 397
T l ~ ei~ietliodi. ..i~~iiI:~r i r c.C:IIIII~W
10 tlri~tL I . Siu~ t 1 1 ~ i i : ~ n n f t i r t ~of ~ tuhi:: TABLE 18-1. Abbreviated List of Some Standard Pipe Sires
except t h a t tubing tolrl.aniw arc marc rigid.
Snrninal Schedule Outiidr Inside TTcight.
Starting in the t~venties a number of interested consulting cnginecrs size, in. number diameter, in diameter, in. Ib, ft.
together n i t h various users' and ni;~nufnctnrrrs'enginer1.s began tlrr task
of standardizing the inany codps and 11mctices then in exi-tm~,t'. T h e 96 -10 0.405 0.269 0.245
80 0.405 0.215 0.314
C d r frw P r r i s n r r 1'ipinC4" ci\-r-s a bI~orl,lwcril~iionof this n-crrk 'Tihi,
. ' it will lw rc,ferr!,,l to in t11i.s i,li;il)t,w. ~ 1 IN?1 : ~ l ~ ~ ~tol i:ill
( ' ~ l c , ~:IS ul x 40
80
0.540
0.540
0.364 0.4%
types of pil~inginstnllations. cxci.11ting erl.t;rin stwlll g('nt,r:ltillg 1)ij)illg 0.302 0,.i:35
: ~ n dpiping govcrneii 11y v a r i o n ~ITS. Go\-rrnnlcnt s1wi4ficntiuns. T h e
?4 40 0.675 0.493 O..iliX
~ d t i m a t egoal of tile ctnun~itteci\vorking on tlic codes \\.ill he thc inclnsit~r~ 80 0.6i5 0.;(23 0.730
of all p r a c t i c e and acceptance of tlie Code hy all gov".mlental agencies,
invluding mnnieil~;~l. stat? ;111<ifc~leval,as a ri~ritroilinginstru~nontfor :111 ?4 40 0.8-10 O.(i22 O.R.51
piping. I t s d e ~ ~ , l o ~ ~ha; ~ i ~11cm
e n t of i~icalcul;il~lr .srrvice t o industry. 150 0.840 0.5-1li 1.086
160 0.840 0.4M 1.301
I t s ilse. ~vliilenot ~ n a n d a t o r ya t present, is ~vidcspreatl in the proress
industriv-. 9i 40 1.050 0.824 1.131
SO 1.050 0.742 1.471
TRADE PRACTICES 160 1.0,iO 0.614 1.03i
Pipe Sizes
1 40 131.: 1.040 1 .ti79
80 1.315 0.957 2.172
Pipe and tubul;lr l ~ r o ( i u r t m
s a y be ol~tainerlin a ~ ~ - i variety
dc of sizes 160 1.315 0.813 2.84-1
and ~naterials. Sinre carbon steel, or simply steel pipe: iz in more general
use than the many alloys and otllcr nlctallic or plastic materials, most of 1% 10 1.900 1.610 2.718
80 1.900 1.500 3.632
the trade practicrs are b a d on steel pipe sizes, eornlnouly notell :is I.P.S.
160 1.000 1.337 4.866
or Iron Pipe Size.
Pipe is sized according to n nominal figure, n.hicli only in the large size? 2 40 2.375 2.0li7 3.653
ithove 12 in. referr to an actual dimcnsim. Thus. 2 in. I.P.S. pipc. Ilas an 80 2.375 I .$l:3!) 5.022
outside diameter of 2.375 in. and its inside dianletcs rnny vary fro111 2.157 160 2.3i5 1.689 7.443
in. to 1.503 in. arcorcling t o the rcquired wall thicknrs;. "Pi11e" r c f w s 3 40 -,.ah
-,
3.500 3.068
to the 24 nolliinal 11ipc sizes fro111 i n to 30 in. ordinarily listcd fo? 80 3.500 2.800 10.25
c ; ~ r l ~ osteel.
n (See Tahlc 18-1.) I n tlrtw sizes there arc some 200 or 160 3.500 2.624 14.33
more T-nriations in thickoras, of vllicb perhaps 100 are rarely if ever
4 40 4.500 4.026 10.79
qw14ied fur process piping, or ;rrr unol~t;iinablcexce~ltby s ~ i r r i a lorder.
80 4.500 3.8213 14.99
S o m i n a l pipe sizes listed in T a l ~ l c18-1 a\)ove :'/u in. a r e the sizes ~ n w t 160 4.500 3.438 22.51
generally used in pvocess piping. 'rlie list is incomlilc.tc; 1y2in.. 2!$ in..
3% in.. 5 in. sizes are also ar;tilnblc. hut selrlon~used. Tlie sizes 11rlmv 6 40 6.6'25 6.065 18.98
'/Z in. arc used in instrun~entatiunpiping. and a t times fur snlall ilmins. 80 6.625 5.iIil 28.58
1 60 6.625 5.189 45.30
T h e snialler 11ipe sizes arc not nard for proccai; piping even \vlrelr flov
rates permit. Kccause of their structural u-raknesa continnour s n p l ~ ~ r t 8 40 8.625 7.981 28.56
or added intermediate support is required. I t is also necessary t o pro- 80 8.625 7.625 43.4
tect s~ilnllpipe during tlic construction period. I n addition, tlie small I60 8.625 6.813 74.7
opening is much more suhject to closure by scale or foreign matter. It
I n the stainless itcclt, vast irun, and n ~ m f t ~ r r o n111ittesi:ds
s there arc
has beconle cornmon practicc to specify heavy \vnll pipe (Scliedulr 8 0 )
i n n n n ~ v r ~ b luthcr
c sizes :md tliirknesss. Since t l m c ~ n a t c r i a l sare not
for all sizes below t o 2 in. in order to assure good structural stability.
398 Project Engineering of Process Plants Piping Design 399
uscd t o the extent of carl~onsteel, rle-cril~tive inforumtion will not be
included; however, the references completely ccver most of the ordiqiry Materials of Construction
materials. 'There a1.c over 150 different materials .specifird hy the American
Tubing is nianufactured in even-numbered outside diameters x i t h Society for Testing .\luterials ( T I for use in the inanufacturc of
various wall thickncsees and close tolerances. I t is often uscd for piping pipe. These inrlude carhi~nstecl. alloy utccls. 2nd a vide selection of
and is always specified acci~rdingt o the exact outside diameter (within nnnferrous niaterials. The .WT\I and the ASLIE (;\nicriran Sot,iety
tolerances). Its wall thickness is sonlctimes specified by a gage number. of Xechanical Engineers)" h:srr provided an invaluable servire in prc-
Tubing of the same dimen~ionsand spccifirations as pipe may be oh- paring detailed ~pecificationsfor thc bewildering array uf niaterials that
tained, but generally the major purtion of tubing is uianufacturcd in sizes are available.
below 2 in. diameter. Tubing is avnilahlr in a niuch greater nunihcr of It xvould seem that steel will continue to bc the most important piping
varying rlianietrrs and \\-:ill t11irkne;sca than pipc sinre it has a x i d e material. Tlie usual severe service conditions of prcssurc and tempera-
use in conduit services other than for the conveyance of fluids. ture encountered in process industries makc its use mandatory in tlie
majority uf 11rowsies. Plastic piping materials, horevcr, are making
Schedule Numbers spectacular gains in low prersurc and low temperature scrvicer. I n
Table 18-1 is a condrnsed version of a list of nominal pipe sizes. the four-year period from 1950 tu 1954 the sale of plastic pipe increased
Ouly a portiun of tlic rsiigc of thiek~icssesor weight* and nominal sizes from ?I n~illionto 30 ~nilliul~ i~~uui~d::
a ?car. Pulyetll~leue,i~r~lyvinyl-
arc included. All rolurnns are self-explan:~tory except that titled chloride, polystyrene, cellulose acetate butyrate, and styrene-butsdiene-
Schedult~Kunibers. The rcl~rdulcuurnber is an approximation of tlic acrylonitrile have all hrcn used with considerahlc success for ~ ~ - a t eandr
cxpression: many corrosive chen1ic2tls. Polyvinylchloridc and polystyrene valves
and fittings wliicl~sell for less t l i m some alloy steel valves and fittings
Schedule number = 1000P/S are offered by several inanufacturers.
Plastic pipc can be installed with the minimum of effort. The light
where P = internal pressure in psig rreight and forming properties of plastic niake it easy t o handlc and its
S = allo~r-ahlr!\.orking stress in psi use should he considered whenever cconomical. It would be futile, h o w
This expression is based on the a c t m l formula used for calculating required ever, t o give a cost comparison of plastic pipe since the picture is h a n g -
pipe thickness. ing rapidly in this nerv industry. The enginccr should maintain an open
mind and cvaluate each new develop~ncnton its merits. Tlie industry
is developing rapidly and as soon as badly needcd standards arc estah-
lisi~cdfor plastic pipe and fittings consuniption nil1 increase trcrnendously.
A riuruber of other piping materials have proved unusually valual~le
where D = outside pipe diamctcr in in.
for corrosive services. Thcy include rubber-lined steel, lead-lined steel.
t = thickness of pipe in in
C = corrosion allolmncc ill in. and glass pipe. Tliesc can rvithst,and higher pressures and temperatures
than most plastic pipe and h a r e the advantage of years of successful
The schedule number is thus a rational cxpression t h a t is approximately applications in many services.
proportional to the ratio of the working pressure to the allor\-able stress The ASTM specifications provide thorough descriptions for each type
and also the ratio of the corroded thickness t o the diameter. of conventional metal piping material including the process of nlanufae-
Before the use of schedule numbers the ternis standard, extra strong, ture, chemiral coniposition, tensile properties, bending properties, and
and double extra strong served l o dcsignatc pipc ti~icknesa. Sizes required testing procedurcs. Careful reading of these specifications will
through 10 in, in schedule 40 arc tlic same as stnndard m i g h t and aid t,he designer in selecting the lnost suitahle material for a given service.
sizes through 8 in. in scliedule 80 arc the same a s the former extra The follo\~-inggeneralizations. ~villserve as guideposts in the evaluatioli
strong. Double extra strong pipc sizcs hav? b c m discontinued in some I I ~steel piping materials described by tlie ASThl.* For the many
sizes and schedule 160 is nscd instead. The older designations are * A d a p t e d by pelmisrion, Piping Engirwering, 2.011 Tube Turns, I n c , I.onisville,
gradually disappearing front use. Kentucky (1947-53).
400 Project Engineering of Process Plants Piping Design 401
q ~ e c i a lp r d ~ l c ~in~material
~s selection, howe\-er. conipct,ent metallurgistr Abbreviated List of Pipe and Tubular Materials
TABLE 18-2.
must hc consulted.
3Iaterial ASTM sper~firat~on Cltin~atetensile strength
I. Pn,i,rs; Seamless steel (die011 killed) .\-I06 Glade .1 48,000
A . Open hearth and electric furnare grades are suprrior to Resemer because Seamless steel (silicon killed) A-106 Gmde B 60.000
of the better quality control possible. Seamless steel A-53 Glade -1 48,000
B. Deoxirliz(d (or killril) carboll steels are of more uniform structure and Seamless steel A-53 Grade B 60.000
arc brtter for rold or hot forming than open (or rimmed) steel;. Setln~lesssteel A-83 Grade A - boiler tubing-
C. Silicon killed steels hare higher creep strrw than aluminum killed steel?. Seamless stecl A-110 - restricted use
D. Steels oxidized !\-ith both silicon and aluminum are preferred for lon- Lap-irelded steel h-53 45,000
temprratnrr senice. I3utt-welded steel .I-53
11. Chrmical composition Electric fusion welded steel .i-I55 Grade C45
.4ffects corrosion resiitance, weldability, forming properties, strength, and cost Electric fusion welded steel &I55 Chide C'50
.i con~pluted i s c u s s i o n ~ o ~covrr
~ l d the whole ficld of m~tallurgy. Some generalisa- Electric fusion rveldeil steel .\-I55 Grade ('5.5
tions of value are: Electric resistance welded stcel A-135 Grade A
.4. H i ~ hcarbon and manganese. 5:lectric resistance velded steel -1-135 Grade B
1 . High tensile and yield points at moderate temperature.
2. Lei? weldable and less ductile. 1
Pipe cannot be specificd completely b y ASTM nun111crs alone. I L is
B . Silicon.
1. Increnscs rrsistance to osidntion. to bc hoped t h a t a t some time in t l ~ cfuturc specifications for carbon steel
2. Improve. sulmro inipaet strmgth. 11ille m a y become more specific so t h a t a single numbcr will be sufficient
C. Phi~sphoro~~s and sulfur; objectionable except in small amounts. for a colnplete specificati~~n..is a n illustratim note A S T I 1 A-106. This
D .Molpbdenum and tungstcn; promotes high temperature or creep strmgth. is seamless pipe specification. thus, i t is unneccssary to consider different
E. Chromium. classifications such a s butt-xelded or lap-~veldedn h e n specifying A S T M
1. Inhibits graphitization.
2. Produms resistance to certain corrosive agents such as sulfur compounds. .I-106, but it is still necessary t o specify the grade.
3. Strel \r-ith ehrominm and mol?Mmum combine the features of high Usual carbon steel pipe specifications for process x o r k a r e ASTM A-53
creep rt.sistnnre with resistance to high ternprmtnrc oxidation and corrosion. or A S T N A-106, t h e latter of ~vlrichis only manuiacturcd a s seamless
F . Sickel: makes steel tough, particularly n t snbatmo~pherictemperatures. pipe. These two specifirations in ~ e a m l e s spipe arc crsmtially the same
G. Nickel-clirurni~imalloys.
except ASTRI A-106 is subject to lnore rigid certification of the com-
1. High erecp strength.
2 . Corrosim resistance to a number of agmts. l~onentsa ~ l dn i c t l ~ ~ nf
d sn ~ a n u f a c t u r e . S T 3 1 A-106 is q~ecifiedfor s e ~ c l . c
3. Colmnbiwn or titanium net as stabilizing agents in these alloys by service conditions for ~ d ~ i ccarhon h steel is satisfactory and for piping
preventinp carbide precipitation a t high temprmtlms. requiring spccial bending. I t costs 4 to 7% murc tlian ASTM .i-53.
4. Molyhdenun~enhances corrosion resirtance of these alloys. A t times neither ASThI A-53 nor A-106 pipe are rcadily nv:~ilable in
111. Tensile prop~rties;a compnrison of the te~rsilestrengths and yirld points sizes hclon. 2 in. I n sucli cases ASTM A-83, which is a t n l ~ ~ ~specificn- lar
specified is an aid to the meaaurc of quality.
IT. Test8; the types of tests and the requirements of the tests give evidence tion, is specificd whcn smaller seamless pipe is rcquired since it has prop-
of the suitability of the material for a g i r w wmire. crties similar t o both A-53 a n d A-106.
A. Hydrostatic; safeguard against defects. M a n y process piping fabricators stock only ASTXI .I-106 This prac-
B. Check analysis and tensile; assurr conformance to physical and chemical tice reduces inventory and eliminates thc possibility of installing lnn-er
specifications.
C. Bending; suitability for bending operatious i n d i c a t d
- grade piping in high pressure service.
D . Flattening; indicates suitability for forming and checks qualit>-of srams T11cw ;ire a number of piping .pccifientions t h a t are un(lesirab1e for
on nelded pipe. 1m,eess Aui,ls, but wlricl~iuay be acrtytable for utility scrrict~r,suclr a s
low-pressure air, exliaust steam (15 psig and b e l o v ) , water, and low-
Table 18-2 gives a list of some of t h e types of tubular products used pressure condensate. Cast iron pipe and fittings are restricted to l o n -
in process piping. This list is similar t o lists found in the Code except pressure and temperature scrvice by tlrc codc. Therefore, cast iron piping
that it larks a tabulation of allowable s t r e s ~ r sx h i c h vary according t o materials are only uscd for certain utility servires.
tcmperiiture. AIL,y .tccl. nonfrrri~ri-. nn<l lilastic pipr have l m o l n e rtantlarcl for
402 Project Engineering of Process Plants
Piping Design 403
certain services. I n lmusual or unknown scrvicrs it may he neccsiary
to develup the application of these materials by lahoratory tests. I t is.
of course, ncarly always possible to select alloy pipc 71-hicli will last many
y a r s under corrosive conditions. The cost of alloy pipe, however, is far
greater than the cost of several replacemcuts by carbon steel. Searly
all processes are subject t o obsolescence. It, is obviously wasteful t o use
costly materials with unlimited life in processes m.hicli are suhjrct t o
frequent modifications. I n certain processes, hoirerer, it is necessary t o
use alloy m:~terials t o protect product quality. ( h ) 90" Street Elbo~r.
The selection of materials must also be infl~lencedhy fabrication and
erection coats. Therc arc many inexpensive materials which could he
used, but the methr~dsof fabrication or the costs of installation may
render thcir use impractical.
PIPE JOINTS
For many ycars tlie only practical n~ct,hodof joining steel pipe w\.as by
connecting threaded pipe ends with coupliiig.~or other thrcnded derices
such as fittings, v:dres, and unions (Fig. 18-2). Improvements in thc
welding of carbon steel by oxyacetylene or other flame n-clding processes
and later the shielded-arc electric welding proccss reduced labor and pro- ( d ) Clors ( 8 ) 900 Elbow (1) Female Union
vided a completely sealed and niucli strongcr j o i n t . " L k t present,
threaded pipe joints are usually limitcd t o pipe sizes 1% in. or 2 in. and
M o w . Larger pipe is joined by flanges a t joints that may requirc dis-
mantling. All other joints in continuous runs of pipe arc welded. The
flanged joint consists of two flanges, a gasket or device serving thc same
purpose, and t l ~ cnecessary 11olts or bolt-studs.
Welding-Neck
The welding-neck flange is probably the lnost widely used type. Its
installation is Icss costly, requiring only a single r e l d . The rvelding-nerk
is stronger than other flange types because it.; integral long-tapered hob
provides d d c d ~ e i n f o ~ c c m e n lI.t is nicd [or 111ost~ e v r r el)roc~.i-.st.rvi~t,s.
Slip-On
The lehs costly slip-on flangc is also ~ ~ w l d et do tllr l)il,c. Slignnient
prior to welding iu greatly simplified l)ecausc the flangc slips on t r ~tllc
pipe and is thereby automatically held in thc proper position. Two melds
are requircd for the attachment of a slip-on flange, making installation
more costly than for the welding-neck. Costs studies by pipc fabricators
and construction companies, however, have inriirated that the installed
costs of slip-on and ~vclding-neckflanges are equal. Slip-on flanges are
reconnnended only for moderate service conditions.
Lap-Joint
The la])-joint flange is uscd with a stuh. A singlc \veld joins the r;tul~
and pipe end. Lap joint flanges h a r e sonw ad\-antagc in fal~ricntion
since the flange proper is free tu rutate. Tlic bolt lrolrs, tlrrrrfore, do nut
need to be carefully aligned during fatxication.
-1further use of lap-joint flanges is in alloy or nonferrous pil~escrviwr;
or corrosive srrvices in n'llicli all mnterials in contact with the fluid 1nns1
be capable of \vithstanding the corrosive conditions. TI-it11 I:tl~-jui~~t
flanges it is pussible to utilize a stub fabricated from the higher quality
material required to withstand the service and a relatively incspcnsivc
carbon steel flange, thus effecting a ct~nsideral~le saving.
I n the process plant it is frequently desirable to diiniantle equipment
for inspection or cleaning. The lap-joint flange is sometimes w e d sinc~,
disassembly is somewhat simplified with the loose flanges. Alodification?
of the lap-joint flange have been uscd for joints in piping m a n u f a c r u r ~ ~ ~ l
fro~lrplastic or other nnnferrous materials, without sufficient bending
406 Project Engineering of Process Plants Piping Design 407
strmgth for flanging. In tliwe applications tlrc flange is m n e t i n ~ cron-
~ The \r-elcling of cart-iron in piping srrviccs has only limited application.
structed so that it. ran hr installed back of the flarr~ltwd of the llipe. Though it is under closely controlled conditions, the costs are
prohibitive. Hence, if cast-iron Ranges are used with steel pipe, they
are all%-aysthreaded.
The socket-\velding flange is very similar to the slil,-on flange. I t has
proved popular for small-size piping operating at high premlres. r n l i k e Flange Facings ond Gaskets
the slip-on, t,he pipe fits into a recessed portion (socketl of the flange. -1tight mechanical joint in piping could not be effected without some
The inside of the flange and pipe thus present a smootll uninterrupted plasticit,y of the membcrs to be joined, since obviously if both faces of a
surface. joint Tverc equally unimprtwionable only perfect machining or grinding.
could effect a sealed joint. I n order to close the joint without extensive
Threaded
niachinirlg and 1)ulirliing, gaskets are used. Thc gasket nrust he of a
Threaded flanges are used for services that rannot be welded. These material \+-hie11d l u-ithstand service conditions and yet he sufficiently
inrlude cast-iron piping, certain high pressure alloy piping that cannot plautic to deform under soft eolnpression so that all interstices arc closed.
he conveniently heat treated after field welding, and small piping 12 in. All of the AS;\ flange classifications may he obtained raised-fare.
. h e n work must be done in a hazardous location and
and l ~ c l o ~ v ) K male-and-female, t o n g u c - a n d - g r o ~ ~ ~ring-joint
e, or flat-faced facings
w l d i n g is not permitted, threarlrd flangrs may be used. I n general. (bee Fig. 18-4). The n o s t common facing is tlic rsiscd-face. Th? ring-
I~i~\vever, threaded flanges are t o be avoided unless absolutely essmtial. joint has a wide use in certain severe serviccs and is the niost, expeniive.
There arc icvcr:~l stand:ild types of n~achiningavail:lhlc for the portion
Lens of the flange in contact with the gasket. For ordirrary services the ser-
I n high-pressure work, a joint known as tlie "lens" joint has been rated or sn~ootli-farefinish is satisfactory.
successfully used. The pipe ends t o be joined are rnarhined to a concave may he obtained in a wide variety of n~aterialsfor practically
shape, and a convex ring usually of thc same material as the pipe, is m y type of service. Ast~estoscombined wit11 otlrrr materials is perllaps
placed hrtwcen these ends. Flanges are screwed loosely on each section tht. I U I I S ~ common gaskcting material. Ring-type joints employ metal
of pipe, with the pipe protruding. When the flange bolts are tightened, rings that arc softer than tlie flange material.
compression is exerted between tlie tnw pieces of pipe and the ring or
lens. Threads on the pipe and the flanges are awally very roarsc so that Special Flanges
thc flange is not "tight" on the pipe. This joint Ira,* ~ o m eof the advan- Many special typrs of flanges have been designed t o meet particular
tages of the lapjoint Range in that tht, flanges are not fixed in position requirements of a single industry. These include certain flangcs common
and are not an integral part of the pipe. to oil fields2 and atnnionia fittings. The latter is a tongue-and-groove
type, with oval, triangular, or square flanges. I t s a s devclopcd carly in
Cast-Iron
the century for alnnmnia refrigeration c o q ~ r c s s i o nsystems and continues
Two flange ratings ior cast-iron, 12.5 lb ASA and 250 lb ASA, have to be used by some portions of that industry even tlil~nglr standard
the same drilling (facing and bolt, hole circle) rcspertively: as the 150 tongue-and-groove or ring-type flanges vould serve equally well. Special
lb and the 300 lb ASA stecl rating. Cast iron flanges are manufactured flange? such ah tliex shr,uld 1112 aroi~ledin \lruce.-s plants. They have
in accorrlance with ASTM A-126. no particular advantages and only complicate \varcllol~sing.
A raised-face steel flange is never joined against a flat-faced cast-iron
flange since the shoulder caused b y the raised-face portion of the stecl Bolting Practices for Flanges
flange can centralize or overstress the cast-iron flange. As the strength Two general types of hits are used for flanged joints. The innst com-
of cast-iron in bending is limited, failure could occur by overtightening mon is a modificaiim oi the mtlinasy cnrhon stwl m:wliine hrlt with a
the flange bolts. The Code and manufacturers of cast-iron eqiupment, square or Iicxngon Iread nnd a hexagon nut. 'l'he other in the $11-called
therefore, recommend that the raised face on steel flanges be ground off I~oltstud. It consists of a fully tl~readedstud with ~ T ~ 11cxagur1-headed.
I J
or that flat-faced flanges he utilized wherever steel and cast-iron eqaip- rn~ts.
:nent are joined together. As piping pressures aud temperatures increase, carbon steel l~oltscan
408 Project Engineering of Process Plontr
Piping Design 409
no longer meet the stre% requiremcntz and alloy steel l,olt~must be used.
At the present time there are four ASTM specifications for carbon steel
bolts and studs, twenty for alloy steel, and twelve for nuts. Vogrin
et a130 indicate in their study of bolting practices that ASTN -4-307
L a - Grade B carbon steel bolting should be used for services to 450" F . Above
RAISED FACE UPPED JOINT 450' F alloy steel bolting materials A-261, A-354, and A-193 in a numher
of different grades are recommended for temperatures up t o and above
1500F. For low temperature services helo~i--20F, A-320 is r e c ~ ~ ~ n -
mended in seven grades t o -300F.
Vogrin recommends Class 2A fit for bolts and 2B fit for nnts in nonhigh
temperature bolting. For high tempcrnturc bolting, Class 7 fit for the
bolt and Class 2B fit on the nut is suggested.
Table 18-3 summarizes present piping bolting ,,--Tubing
practice.
URGE MALE AN0 FEMALE
Miscellaneous Joints
4 compression type fitting is often used for
joining 1 in. and smaller strrl or nonivrrous tnb-
ing (Fig. 18-5). I n prwess plants these fittings
are primarily used for instrument tubing.
There are n u m e r ~ ~ uother
s methods for joining
pipe, such as the solder-joint ~vhic11is naed in
plumbing, the leaded joint for cast-iron piping.
and thc integral flange sometimes used for cast Fig. 1 8 5 . Flnl.cd fitting.
URGE TONGUE AN0 GROOVL
SMALL TONGUE AND GROOVE
and other formed materials. The leaded hell and
spigot joint for cast-iron piping is still employed ?xtensircly in inunicil~al
services such as water piping, gas piping, and wxcrs. h M t e d n ~ e c h a n -
cal joint for cast-iron pipe is heronling popular sinrc it requires less
labor for installation than the leaded joint.
PIPING FITTINGS
Welding Fittings
I n welded piping systems now naed in nearly all process installations,
butt-rr-elding fittings have been dc.vcl~ipedt o rerh~rc the necwsity for
bending pipe. Welding fittings are manufactured under various trade
names.i3,?5.2fi The fittings conform t o standard pipe sizes and specifica-
u tions and can be obtained as tees, ells. reducers and pipe-caps (Fig. 18-61.
SMALL MALE AN0 FEMALE
Yearly all such fittings are seamless and have standard dimensions. The
Fig. 18-4. Amcncan standard flange farings. (Courtesy of Ladish Company.) center-to-face dimension on all long radius 90" veld ells, for instance, is
1y2 times the nominal size. This standardization simplifies design and
construction.
An ingenious prowss is used for tht. manufacture of the various hends.
410
Project Engineering of Process plants
Piping Design 41 1
Seamless pipe cut to a predeter-
mined length is forced over a spe-
cially designed mandrel shape so
as to produce the desired bend.
Careful control insures uniform
wall thickness, smooth inside wall,
and no rcsidual etres~es.
All welding fittings are finished
d l 1 beveled edges so that full pen-
ctration velds ;ire assured when
joining the fitting to the pipe.
Fittings are a ~ a i l a b l ein most of
the same materials utilized for
pipe. Each fit,ting is stamped with
an idcntifying marking, and all
nonalloy steel fittings are painted
to prevent corri~aionin stornge.
For reasons ( i f cconumy many
users restrict the use of tees. In-
stead pipe can be carefully cut and
the branch connection welded into
place. This method is morc eco-
nomical for small branch lines
rounecting into large pipc. Costs
of rtwly-made tee* and conetruc-
tion of branch connections in the
field s h ~ l l l dbe compared for each
,ioh and policy outlined for their
use in the piping specifications.
Flanged Fittings
Cast-steel, forged-steel or alloy-
steel flanged fittings are produced
in nearly all sizes and have the
same ASA pressure and tempera-
ture classifications as flanges.7.31
Flanged fittings are used only
when maintenance requires ire-
quent disassenlbly sillre additional
flanges, bolts, and g;i-lids arc ex-
pensive and suhje,.t to leaks. .kc-
412 Project Engineering of Process Plants
Piping Design 413
on the pipe iteclf. Since all valves abol-e 2 in. vill nur111;llly bc flangcd.
'There arc a nulnbrr of jointi: for cazt-iron 11ipe. T h e most wirl~.l?:
the joints a t these valves can be used for clisassembly. It is, therefore.
used in process plants a r e hell anrl spigot, nrechanical flange. cnmpression,
not necessary in most cases to provide a number of ~clditionalflanged
fittings unless frcqucnt disassembly is anticipated. I t h r e a l c . T h e characteristics of thesc joints are hriefly outlined i r
Tahle 18-4.
Screwed Fittings TABLE 18-4. Cast-Iron Joint Types
Screwed pipe fittings are obtainable in nearly all materials and styles
( ~ i jg-21.7.1:3.29.31.32
~ . lhwril,tim~ ' k g
I:su;~l Ikmnrks
Srrc\vcrl fnrged-strel fittings 1inl-c a v i d e llse service
in procesz applications zince they arc satisfactory for high trmpeiaturc 13ril--htrpcil end reccires .Jute twine T'n(1el.- Fluids must hl,
Rell :nn<l
operation and \\-ill p r o d e an c r t r a safety factor in cane of fire. spigot stl.niglit hliigot end to and le:ril g m m l wet so that
forin jniot water piping jut? re~nniw
CAST-IRON PIPE AND FITTINGS u p to 200 espt~nderl
psi. I-nder-
Cast-irnn pipe, valve*. anrl fittings are generally usrd fur undergr~r~rucl ground gas
utility wrvircs such a . watcr, air, fuel, a n d sewers, and drains operating piping below
a t Ion- prrisurel and tcuq~eratures. 10 psi
X l t h ~ ~ u pc:~st-iron
li plweded .tee1 a > a piping inaterial by srveral ll~tn-
.\lechrniical Straight portion of pipe Rubber orC+asl~iping Wthstanrls
illwl ?.car.>. ~ t : ~ n c l a r d i z a t ihas
~ ~ tnot
~ yet bcen aacour~~lished
a s i t has been tylre fits into bell-shuped end rompusi-at moderate rihrntion :~n,l
for strel piping and accrsrorics. Changes in t h e val.ioni codes and siec fitted with a gl:rnd tinn pressures. and ezpnnsiot~
spwifications h a w had to bc d o ~ vbecause of t h e v i d e use and long life n-hieh tightens ugninst .Usu n-ater
of cart iron pipe ill nruniripal installations. gasket piping
r>
1he codes or spccific:~tionscorering cast iron p i l ~ eand fittings include Flange ASA flanges Class 25, Standard Above- .ibovr-grouud
125, and 250. Integral gaskets ground vatel. linrs awl
thure published l ~ yt l r Au~erican Standards A s s o c i a t i o ~ ~i.iSh),4 t h e
part of pipe or serewxl for flat- waterlines, lm--pressure
American K a t e r K o r k s Association (AWWA) ,E t h e h n ~ c r i c a nGas Asso- to pipe face and low- gas
,'
ciation ( A M ) and tile L-.S.Govcrnn1ent.1 1 Aanges pressure gas
Vntil 1922 cast-iron pipe was cast in stationary sand mol~is(pit cast).
Compl.ession Plain cnd east-iron pipe Rubber Gas, oil, nud Perniits
Sincc then most cast-iron p i p has been pmduced b y the centrifugal c a d - coupling is held together by a n-nter expansiou nnil
ing process. I n illis process n ~ o l t e niron is introduced into spinning molds. coniprrssion type contr:irtirrll
Because of t11c centrifugal force: castings produced are denser and stronger cuupling
t h a n those made b y the old pit methods. Thre;~cled Scl.ea-ed couplings Sone iYoncl.iticnl Threaded type
T h e SMTh q m i f i c a t i ( ~ nfor cast-iron pipe cover* pit-cast pipe only similar to steel pipe wiste and compression
and is, therefore, obsolete. ('cntrifugally cast pipe, l~ccauseof its denser couplings n.;~t,erlines joint also
n\.aila\>lr
structure, need not bc ai: thick a s pit-cast t o tiithetancl a given pressllrc.
Until recently userr specified cast-iron pipe on the hasis of Fcderal C a r t - i r m jlipc for process fluids such a s gas or oil nlllst have positivv
specification M'W-P-421 for centrifugally cast pipe. I n 1953 the ASA ;ittarhmcnt betr~wenjoint sections or it will not nrect Code rrrluircments.
published specificatii~n,~ for centrifugally cast iron pipe.4 These specifi- h large numher of joints are required for cart-iron piping sinre veldi in::
cations are based on the latest experimental evidence accumulated by the is not pussible. .\Iaintenance and installatim costs, thlwfore, are higher
AWt.l, .4GA, and ASTM. They t a k e iull advantage of the s t r e n g t l ~ for east-iron systems. This disadvantage together ~ v i t hthe service linii-
of centrifugally cast iron pipe a n d should be used in all specifications. tations imposed by the Code (not pernritted above 400 psi a t 300'F belon:
Cast iron fittings may be specified as ASA or A T V A fittings. T h c -43.4 ground and 150 psi a t 300" F above g o u n d ) restrict the use of cast-iron
specification A 21.20 is for short-body fittings 3 in. through 12 in. These pipe in the process plant.
fittings requirc less laying length than the more familiar AWWA fittings.
T h e AWWA ~pecificiltionfor fittings, d l i c h is still in use, covers fittings VALVES
f n m 4 in. througl~60 iu. T h r .i\VTV.i type fittings a r e tllc only available Thc valve, which is the most important piping accessory, is nvnilable
l ~ c l lnntl . q ~ i g dfittings i r ~5izl.s nl~ovc12 ill. il: n ~ a t e r i a l sand designs of almost unlimited varicty.*~'.1~'-'~~2"~2!'~31
" Oni l , n ~ , ~ i i ~ ; i lir.:,>.
~iim~ \.illiO1l.
(.l,ll~l,illcl ~ ~ d v m .
tlliilll~iill~l~re~~.-i
414 Project Engineering of Process Plants Piping Design 41
Plant warehousing and maintenance are greatly facilitated, however, if A
thr types of valves stocked are kept t o a ~ninimum. It is t~spcrially
econornical to rtan~larriiaein the smaller sizes hy selectins a on+ or two-
valve design \\.hicli will satisfy a11 servirrs :inticip:~ted.
Classification
NU1
Valves nstd in process piping may
Wheel be cl:~ssifiedas gate, globe. plug, check,
and cmtrol valves. The service con-
Siem ditions of inany of the more common
Packing
types of these have been standardized
Nut as well as the face-to-face and flange
Glond dimensions of flanged v a l v e s . 4 ' , l V n
gcneml, ho~vcvcr, rcfcrcnrr must be
Packing
inadc to inanufacturer's ratnlogs fur
c ~ m p l e t c sprcificatims and descrip-
Stuffing
Box
tionz of a givm rulvc. Thrsc ilcsorip-
tions togcthcr 15-itl1 pul~lisl~wl ~III~EZ
Bonnet and stanclanla for valves2.*' ',1".'7.2s
will aid in the selccti~mof tht. inost,
suitable valve for a given service.
Disc
Body Nomenclature
All gate
- and d o b e valves have two
Fig. 18-7. Valvc pmts (Conrtc~yof
similar basic parts, the body and the
Crane Company.) bonnet (Fig. 18-7). The body con-
tains the orifice, the part ~vhichcloses
the orifice, and the necessary flanges or screwed openings for connection
t o the piping.
Thc bonnet is the upper part of the valve joined t o and closing the
body. It contains the gland, supports and guides, the stem, and valve
wheel or closing device. There are three types of valve bonnets (Fig.
18-81, The screwed bonnet is the most inexpensive a s well as the least
reliable. Tight sealing of the stem requires screwing the bonnet strongly
against the neck nl~iclioften causes distortion of thc valve ncck. The
union bonnet is designed t o provide a n easily disassemhled valve. The
fluid pressure acts to seal the joint more tightly. No distortion occurs
even upon repeated disassembly and reassembly. The bolted-flanged
bonnet has a bolted packing gland and a large stuffing box. It is the
sturdiest design and is used for most larger process gate and globe valves.
I n such installations it usually has flanged ends. The importance of the
method of attachment of the valve bonnet is indicated in paragraphs
309(d) and ( e ) of the C0de.4~
41 6 Project Engineering of Process Plants Piping Design 417
Tlic valve stem r11isc.- and lo\\-crs t l ~ cplug or gntc \\-l~icl~ clo-cs the Tlic v n l x -c:it is that portion r ~ ftlir orifice \vhirl~is rlocrl hy thc 11111g
orificc. Tlic gI;11111 .i the lu~ckedjoint t l i ~ . i ~ u gn-liii.11
l~ tlri, s t c ~ i~I:IY-P*.
~ or gate. Valves may be fl~rnisheil~ i t integral h seat- or rcnewahle yeate.
P:l~lde\>v : l l v ~ ~rrinilr
: in .~iiall sizes o n k , li:lve a bellon-: tyjle att:icIilneut 1-alve trim is thc term applierl to the materials r~liicl-Iform the seat,
d i i c l i eliniinntcs tlic pucking gland. plug or gate, and the stem.
Valve ends are dcscril~rd as s c r w c d . flanged. or r ~ e l d i n g Screwed
ends arc the cheapest and are more rapidly in.~tnllcdin t h small ~ sizes.
They: ho\wver, always ronstitntr a potcniinl sor1rr.c of lrnkagc. Flnnged
cnils ~ ~ r o v i da estrong leak-proof joint, and cvrv tl~ougli1110rr costly. tlicir
reliability and superior strength makc tlicir u w almnst mandatory for
I:irge process ralres. \\'?liling ends are u ~ e only ~ l for spccial installations
requiring absulute insurance against leakage.
Gate Valves
The gate valrc (Figs. 18-7 and 18-91 is the most commonly used valve.
Fluid f l o w discrtly through thi! gate valve axial to tlie piping (Fig. 18-10)
Tlir valve consists cwmtially of n sliding plate or gate set in grooves. The
111:itc is niovcd directly across the orifire and is closed b y means of a
rhrmderl stem rotated by a hand ~rhecl. Tlie gatc m a y be 71-edgc-sl~aped
SII t h a t i t n-ill seat tightly against the sides of grooves, or it may consist
of two plates expanded against the sides of the grooves. Gate valves,
liowever, are generally used a s block ralves for isolating equipment or
lines, or in iull open or closed position serviim. They ale rarely used for
throttling, for if thc valve is kept in tlic partially open position, the
l~oltornof the gate becomes eroded. Throttling service is usually re-
5trictcd t o the more easily controlled glohe rolvc. Since the orifice is
approximately concentric and the flow is axial t o the piping, gate valves
Ir:~ve a lower pressure drop than glihe valves.
Globe Valves
T h glohe r a l r c (Fig. 18-11) is different from the gate valve in that
the globe-valve orifice is arranged perpendicular to or on an angle to
tllc :rxia of flo~v. Closing is acwmplislied by a disk or plug attncl~edto
;t sccni vlrich may be rotated t o opcn or close the circular iirifice. Fluid
Plug Valves
T h c 111ugvnlvr. or cock (Fig. 18-12'1 as it is s o n ~ e t i m rrnllrd.~ is tlir
xncestor of all ralves. I t xvas developed froni the XT-ooden spigot. Its
~uutitandingfrature is d i l l its simplicity. \\'lien the valve is open. fluid
flon-s 1,arallel t o the pipe all tlrrouglr a plug bored the same size as tlrc
1,ody r~rificc. Flow is shut-off hy rotating tlie plug 90' so thnt the orifice
in t l 11iug ~ is turned past the body orifice. Certain phtg valves h:iw :r
~ c n t u r i - t y p ebody orifice so t h a t pressure drop is much lo=-er tlrau for
any other type of valve.
Plug valvcs nray he obtained in materials suitable for high tcnipera-
t ~ ~ r r . they
-: h a r e been usctl in services 1111 t o 1200nF. For light hyrlro-
c r l j o . a scrviccs. and for many corrosive services the plug c w k i.
usually selectedl since i t may be niannfarturcd in nearly any t y l ~ cof
~natcri:d
Th,,y ;lrc, ]rot n- conunonly used ah the gate ralx-e. Some arguu~cnts
against their use for all process work arc: (1) The possibility i1f the plug
'.freezing" open or clu$ed; i 2 1 no visual eridencc of tlirir i~eini:11pc11.?ncll
as ~ v i t hthe rising-stem gate valre; ( 3 1 tlicy must Ilc lul~ricnte(lto ~ I J I I I -
pletely real in somc scrrices;* (4j in the smaller sizes more rigid s u p p r t
must be provided t o operate the plug. X a n y adrersc criticisms of thrre
valves, ho~vever,can hc traced to faulty maintenance.
.\lodcrn plug valves l ~ a r ebeen designcd t o insure ease of movenrrnt
and a r~oiitivescal. Lubricated plug cocks. for instance, employ a semi-
solid lubricant which is injected hydraulically. It is possible to lift tlic
\.alve l'lug soine\~hatby rotating tlrr l u h ~ i c a n tinjection s c m - , and thi*
; i d o n forces thc lubricant under the valve plug. Since the plug is taprwil
it is free as ~0011as it is movcd. Larger sizes of plug r a l r e s h a w a grar
:ind wl~cclfor manual operation. The smaller sizes, 4 in, and helo\\-, are
operalrle by a lever \vrcneh.
Check Valves
C'11~~rh
valves (Fig. 18-10) prevent "backing-np" of fluid in a line. i e . .
u u
revrrsal of fl<w. Lift. check and .\\-kg check vulvcs are the t x o m a j t ~ r
Fig. 18-11, Cast steel globr v;rlrc, plug-type disk. (Conncaj- oi Cnine Cu~npany.) typcs. The lift check is provided with n 1~811or guided phrg \vl~irhis
lifted hv the passage of fluid in one dircetion and is seated upon a reversal
fuuctions not unly as a v d \ - c but d s o :is il 90" pipin:: 11vnd. Flo\\- (mters of flow. The lift check is lnost often used for sizes 2 in. nud snmll(.r. I t
the bottom of the w l r e , pishe. ulnrurd througl~the orifice. and t u u : 90" dues not have a great tendency to slam and is, therefore, specified for
services having irregular or frequent reversals uf flow. I t is installed
tu leave the valve. Since bends in piping s!.stem itre subject to greater
strains than str~light-runsof pipe. :inglr r a l r o s are not. nscd rxtcnsircly. su tlie direction of lift is vertical.
The swiug check valve is more frequently used. It produces less
'1'11~ Y-valve (Fig. 18-101 is .imilnr lo o glnhc r a l r r in throttling r11n1.-
:!cleristi~syet ~)rovi,lvsllow arc1 c~~tnl~:tr:~l,lv lo ;L X:I[Vv;~lve,
Project Engineering of Process Plants Piping Design 423
resistance to flow and is spcrified for sizes larger than 2 in. Frequent,
fl(m reversals prodr~cc a "ch:ttt,cring" in .swing v a l r w whir11 can hc
:~llcviat~il
hy tlrc USI, of s r i n ~
vnlvcs rqiripl~c~l ~vitll:tn ni~tsiclclrvrr nnd
wciglrt. A lever is :ittnched to an ~ r t t m n lrnntinuntion of tll? Iringe.
A weight, the los sit ion of n.hiclr v:in l ~ crh:mgcil, is :itt:dird to the lever
so the sensitivity of the valve ran be v a r i d Tn this m;lnner r h t t r r under
low velocity flow renditions and ~lrockon rloiing ran 111. :~voiilril or
reduced. The outside lever can also be used to aid in relcwing the disk
if it becomes stuck.
Control Valves
Control valves are fundamentally similar to the glohe valve. They
arc made in all the ranges and materials found in gate 11rglobc valves, but
the "trim" and bodies of control
valves have liieher
., nualitv. sucrifica-
. Pressure
tions than ordinary valvcs.
The diaphragm control valve is
the most widely uscd. It is opened
or closed by a stem attarhrd to a
plate or diaphragm which forms the
movable side of a chamber (Fig. 18-
13). The force required for move-
ment in one direction is produced by
air pressure in the chamber, and in
the opposite direction by a spring.
Movement of the diaphragm and
thus the stem causes the valve plug
t o open or close the valve orifice.
The air pressure on the diaphragm
is controlled by the primary eensing
instrument.
Control valves may be obtained
either n%h double-pork or &h a
single-port (see Figs. 18-13 and 18-
MISCELLANEOUS PIPING ACCESSORIES 4. Thcnno- Vwlve attached to hellom cwituining Cannot freeze.
static volatile fluid. \Vhcn steam contacts Yrr>-~ a p i d;ti7
I n addition to the nccessary pipe, valvcs, a n d fittings for transporting bellows, increased vapor pressure (if fluid \.enting and bigh
process fluids, a number of othcr items are required, which m a y be causes expansion of bellatis and closing condensate capacity
classified a s accessories. of discharge port
5. Liquid Similar in principle to No. 4 except Cannot freeze.
Condensate or Steam Trap exptmsion expansion of a liquid (oil) is used to move Cnntinur~us
T h e condensate t r a p , often erroneously called steam trap, is uscd in valve ~liscliargea t an:
desired temperature
s t e m piping systems for the removal of condensate which accumulates
as lipat is lost from steam. T r a p s a r e located a t low points or pockctn 6. Ball float As condensate collects in trap body it Discharges
in steam piping, a t regular intervals in extended runs of steam piping, ciiufies a ball float connected to thr condensate
discharge valve to raise and close the continuously at
a t steam-driven cquipment which could be damaged b y condensate, and
vl~lvc steam tcmpernture
:it steam-hcated equipment of all types. an,] nitlrmt shock.
Tlrc ideal t r a p must remove condensate a n d air from a system with
negligible loss of steam and a t a rate of removal such t h a t the operating 7. Imoulse Onr ivorking part, a valve. .It r l r near Cann-! f1.eez.e.
ste:m tempel.:<ture, cr~mlcnsatethat liar Vw>- sm:tIl and
equipment will perform a t peak efficiency. collected in a chamher during disrh:irge light \\-eight. High
I n Table 18-5 seven popular t r a p types a r e listed. 4 brief outline of flashes and the increase in pressure closes capacity to size
the operation and distinguishing features is given. Fig. 18-16 illustrates the discharge valve ratio
the most widely uscd trap, the inverted bucket. It is not possible to give
exact recommendations for t h e use of each type. Stearn pressures, corro- helpful charts and design procrdurcs n h i r h are time saving and are bnserl
sive conditions, and individual plant experience a r e important criteria on considerable operating experience.
fur the a~lectionof n t r a p type. I n specifying t r a p s for a projert a list of all the traps is usunlly
T h e reputable inanufacturers are prepared to recommend the use of I ~ r e p a r c don a dra~r-ingor other reproducilile f o r ~ n . T h c list includrs a
their traps fur services in which they will be successful. These manufar- detailed d r a v i n g of one or more typical t r a p installations wit11 a list uf
t m w a should he consulted f o r assist,ance in t r a p selection. M a n y publisir t11e nrrcssary valves and fittings for each type of inrtallation. Numb<,rr
428 Project Engineering of Process Plants Piping Design
?..
for idcntificntion mrl ~n:itcrial,llrrrsurc : m I Row s j w i f i w t i o n ~a r r a 1 ~ 0
given. T l ~ cli.5t is w e d for (1) material take-off of all tllc snail v a l v e
and fittings required for trap installations; (2) procurement operations;
s n d for ( 3 ) an in.st;illntion guide. T r a p nulnhers arc used in identifica-
tinn, both on piping drawings and d i ~ r i n gwarehousing and erection.
Expansion Joints
, .
1 l ~ cinnnufnctured expansion joint is used for tlrc reduction or elinlina-
ti011 uf s t r ~ s s e sand for o v e r c o ~ ~ ~ excessive
ing vibrntion. Exarllples ( ~ fthc
t \ v < n~ m t cunlmon types, the slip-joint and thc packlcss-joint are shon-n
in Fig. 18-17. Each of these joint types is madc in a variety of styles
Fig. 18-17. Eqmnlion joints. (0) Piston-l.ing rxp;insion joint ! i n t c ; ~ ~ . ~ lguided);
ly
arid inatcrinls t o fit elrery need. T h e slip-joint has a stuffing hox to pre- ( b ) p;~rklrsscxpnnsiun joint. (Courtesy of Adsco Industries. I n c )
v m t lenkagr; and, tl~erefore,requires more maintenance than the eorru-
gated linckless joint. T h e slip joint simplifies expansion calculations installrcl positiun, cold d i n ~ e u s i ulioi
~ ~ ,imsitiuu, hut d i t i i t ~ l s i o ~axial
~ , deflec-
hcc:rurc its lcngth of travel is fixed. tions, and estimated cycle periods frul11 hot to cold.
The ~ ~ r e s s u rtemperature,
c, and movement in each expansion joint must If a numhcr of expansion jirints are to he installed, procurement is
11r carefully inyestigated and specified. T h e specifications nluet i n ( , l ~ ~ d r si~nl~lifitdI)? :I iI~.:twingnllirli ~ . l ~ i ~1 1\1 v1 , sv:wio~i.. t y l ~ joints required
clwription I I flnid! ~ nlaximum pressure, m a x i ~ n u ntemperature,
~ cokl or
in t\vo or luol,e vicws. A t:il~ul;~tionon tile d r i ~ n i ~libts ~ g the joints by
430 Project Engineering of Process Plants
Piping Design
number together with operating data. Using this drawing t h e manufae-
tnrer can prepare his proposal with a minimum of written information.
T h e data requested from the manufacturer should include recommended
joint type and material, magnitude of forces necessary to compress,
extend, or cause axial movement in both hot. and cold positions, a n d
Fig. 18-20. Spring lrnnger nnd typical installations. (Courtesy of Elren Mrinl
Products Company.)
Hangers are best suited and most often used for supporting pipc insirk
huildings. Honevcr. horizontal structural memhers are used for sup-
ports inside buildings n-hen large numbers of lines are run side by side.
Field fabricated shoes are used in preference t o hangers for outside
installations because the shoes are easier to install and ran bc more
readily protected from corrosion by painting since all surfaces are
accessible.
Spring hangers such as shown in Fig. 18-20 are used both indoors and
Fig. 18-21. hlanufsctu~.edline blind. (Couhsy of I I m m r Valves, Inc.)
outdoors on hot piping installations. Tlicy are the least expensive and
most reliahle type of flrxihle pipe support available. Line Blinds
I n designing pipe supports it is usual and good practice t o set a specifir
bottom-of-pipe (B.0.P.l elevation for all pipe run a t the same relative T l ~ cn ~ ~ n u f a e t u r el di r ~ c - h l i ~(Fig.
~ d 18-21 ) is u s d to seal d f 3 line or.
elevation. The ~vordelevation is intentionally used since the dimension yicce of equipment. It l~ruvides:t inure pusitive :~ndreliable seal than a
is measured from the bottom of the pipe t o grade. When shonn on draw- e o n v c ~ i t i o ~ ~valve
a l and is vnluablc wl~rwportions of oprrating systems
ings as 125, for instance, the number 125 indicates that the piping is 25 ft must be isolated f o r maintennncc .. putyoscs.
ahore nominal area grade set arbitrarily and for conrcnience a t 100 ft. I t is more costly but 1110r(~couvtwie~~t tllal~the c ~ n ~ e n t i o homemade
~~al
spect:irlc or figure 8 bliirtl \ v l ~ i r is l ~ :I 111rt:~l
11l;itc in the sh:il~cof :I figure
434 Project Engineering of Process Plonts Piping Design 435
8 with a hole the size of the line on one side of the 8. The line is sealed equipment sucli as pumps in a group simplifies power supply and control
by inserting the solid portion of the plate between flanges. This is accom- systenir and thus reduces costs.
plished by partially unbolting and springing the flanges apart after first Connecting piping, as f a r nr is poasil~le:is aln.ayr run overhead in racks
draining the line. With manufactured line blinds the line is sealed merely above the smaller equipnient ~vhicliis located nrar grade. The primary
by manipulation of levers and a l~andwlleel. The spectacle plate is re- purpose in elevating piping is to provide clearance a n ~ n n dequipment.
leased and clamped as rlesired by means of a mrlvahle hub which is con- I t is usual practice t o group nll parnllel piping in a bank a t the same
trr~lledby a hand wheel-operated worm and ring gear. elevatirm changing elevntion when dirertion is changed. I n this manner
space is provided for connections t>et~vecnsucccvsivc layers as veil as for
Other Accessories remora1 and maintenance. Care must bc cxcrcised, hon.ever, to avoid ele-
There is a wide variety of additional accessories and specialty equip- vation changes which create pockets in lines rvhcre liquid can accumulate.
ment used in piping. hlanufacturer's eatalogs'~31 should be studied for
a cornplete description. 2. Transmission of Stresses and Vibration
The transn~issionof strehaw from piping to equipment can be eliminated
PIPING LAYOUT AND ARRANGEMENT by tlie installation of n~anufactnredexpansion joints in such serx-ires as
I n the layout or initial arrangement of piping for the process plant the steam or exhaust connections t o turbine3 or other steam-dviven equip-
designer has six related problcms t o consider. ment. The possibilities of cimosion, erosiun: an(l cyclic >trcraes in 1)rocesa
services, h o u w e r , often limit the w e of mect~aniralexpansion joints. Frlr
1. Process requirements
these reasons the piping designer nmally attempts t r ~eliminate piping
2. Transmission of excessive stresses from piping to equipment, and
stresses on equipment i ~ y roper piping arrangement and the use of
tlie transfer of vibration from equipment into the piping system
3. Economy
supports and anchors.
There are two reawns for eliminating stresses a t piping connections.
4. Operational accessibility
One is t o prevent the overstressing of the tlody of a machine or valve to
5 . Xnintenance and replacement
rvhich the piping is attached and tlie other is to prevent misalignment
6. Excessive stresses in the piping system
of equipment parts causcd by differential nioren~ents. XIanufacturers of
1. Process Requirements equipment will not recognize any guarantee if a failure can be traced t o
external stresses.
Except for some particular "process reasonu* the hest arrangement is Vibration in piping is usually encountered when piping is connected
not always accomplished by connecting directly from one piece of equip- t o moving machinery. Proper use of supports and hangers or rihralion
ment to another as shown on a flow dia,grain. A study of any process dampeners will eliminate most cyclic vibration. High-frequency villra-
plant piping installation will show that essentially all the piping is tion caused by high-speed niacl~inerysuch as centrifugnl cornpressors can
arranged t o run in definite patterns, always changing direction wit11 a be relieved by applying fixed supports. The correct location for these
90" turn, whether the change is in the same plane or in a different plane. support,^ may be determined by experimental application of weights
When hundreds of lines must be routed t o various portions of a plant, it while the machine is in operation.
is essential that this orderly arrangement be used. Routing each pipe in
a straight line ~ v r ~ u lrreatc
d a confusing and impractical arrangement. 3. Economy
Since all equipment is suhject to snnie kind of mechanical maintenance, Cost considerations are often overshadowed hy process requirements.
and inspection and cleaning, it l m s t he accessible. Safety demands that A capable layout designer, hr~rwver,xvill avoid wasteful use of fittings and
certain equipment he located a t a particular point or as distant as possible supports. There are no precise rules wl~icti can be set down as each
from other equipment. system will vary, but the best economies in piping are usually obtained
The simplest piping arrangement is made possible when the equipment, by simplification of the piping specification.
is locatril in parallel rnws or in some other rectangular pattern. Identical
or .;iinilnr process equipment. suc11 as pumps. vwsela. or heat exrl~angcrr. 4. Accessibility
is usually grouped in conrccutive rows. The location of power-driveu Valves and other appurtenances which must be used during operation
A pemliarity dictated by the process and/or which require periodic maintenance must be located in a con-
438 Project Engineering of Process Plants Piping Design 439
l\lanufactured cspansion joints are not extensively uscd in I1roces.C costly. Several short methods of piping stress evaluation which utilize
plant piping. They are used for utility piping and in process applications charts for the more common factors are offered.ls.31 The simplified
where piping size or space limitations would render changes in confignra- methods, hu~vcvcr,are not completely acceptable to all designers. Even
tion impractical or costly. the more rigorous or formal calculations depend upon assumptions, some
of which are admittedly questionable. The designcr, therefore, can only
COLDSPRISCISG expect to err on the safe side regardless of the method used, the degree of
Forces generated by expansion are caused by movement of piping a s error increasing n-ith the more simplified procedures. I t would appear that
its dimensions change from atmospheric to operating temperatures. One analyses which err on the safe side and yet permit the piping configura-
method for decreasing the final intensity of stresses in the hot condition tion t o remain within reasonable economic limits should be acceptable.
is t o cut the pipe short and spring i t into place while cold. This springing I n order t o illustrate the variation in strcsn with configuration. the
produces a tensile stress on the system which changes t o a compression results of a calculation on an expansion U-bend are given in Table 18-6.
stress in the expanded hot condition. Both of these stresses will have a
lo~r-ervalue than t h a t which would occur if the pipe had heen cut to exact TABLE 18-6. Variation in Stress with Conflguration for
dimensions for the cold condition. an Expansion U-Bend
This tcchniquc of installation is called cold springing. It is discussed
in paragraph 620 ( e ) of the Codc nhich defines thc limit of stress rcduc-
tion to be assumed when pipe is so installed. The Code rule applies to
actual erected lengtl~i.. For this reason when pipe is being shop fabricated,
corrections for tempcrature differentials b e t m e n shop atmosphcrc and
crcction atmospllere 111ust he made. These corrections are required when
alloy ur stress-relieved pipe is used since these materials cannot ordinarily
Total Pipe
be reworked a t the point of erection. Whcn ci~ldspring is practiced,
actual ficld measurements of the space for any given piece of piping
Length in ft Stress, +
(L 2 H )
Case L II IV psi in it
should be made.
where V' = internal mergy per lb of fluid The velocity terms (kinetic energy) are usually very nearly the same
and the expression (uz2 - 2 1 ~ ~ ) i 2 can
9 , be neglect,cd. The acceleration
P = Dressure: #r'sq ft
v = apecific volume, cu i t &
due to gravity in most locations is approximately equal to g,(32.17) so
that g, g, is most often called unity. Hmce, assuming an incompressible
u = velocity, ftisec
fluid or an average specific volume, eq. G becomes
Z = height above a datum in ft,
g = accclcration due to gravity, ft sec2 u(Pl - P?) = Zz - i l + F (7)
g, = factor to convert poundals to lh of force, lb-it,'#-sec2*
~vhere~(1'1 - P2) is the "head" change in ft-lb of iorce!lh of mass
Y = heat added to system, Htuilb
or ft-#,.lb, betveen points "1" and "2".
TV = vork done by system, ft-//%*
Z2 - Z1 is the difference in height betxeen points "1" and "2".
The expression Pv is often called flow xork and represents the amount The units are also ft,-#/lb since g!g, does appear
,.
of erlerby required to force an element of fluid i~it,oor out of a system.
l w o additional basic concepts of therrnodynan&s may be stated as
although numerically it is unity. Zz - Z1 is often
referred to as static pressme.
follo\rs : F = head loss in ft-#!lh due t o friction.
dU'= T d S - Pdv (2) I t may seem to t,he reader a t this point that undue stress has been
*For convenience use $f t o represent a pound of force and lb for 21 pound of mass placed on the background to the simple equation for pressure drop in a
442 Piping Design
Project Engineering of Process Plants
Losses in Fillings
*Reprinted by permission-Raac, H. F., Prli-oleurn Refiner, 32, No. 8, 141-114 *Reprinted by pcrmission-Kahc, H. F., Pelroleam Refiner, 32, Nu. 8, 141-144
(1953).
(19.53).
452 Project Engineering of Process Plants Piping Design 453
w i b c pipc. valrcs. fitting?. ! ~ n dpiping a p l m r t e n a n c e ~for car11 antici-
11ated type ui wuvice :mil \\-it11 piping drawings constitute n rompIetc
descril~tionof tlir pil~ings?..tem.
IS tllis lin? ,\-we crmstructetl of Solietlulc 40. -1-1; pet. wnt ehrolne-moly wit11
:3OOii I1T.1 rhmme-moly flm~ges,the cost n.o~~ld he c:ilcul:itetl 11)- wing tlir :rpImr- T h e first step in writing piping specifications is the preparation of a
printe factr~r.;. list of all the prwc-;i nncl utility fluids in tile plant. T h e list d~onlciinclurlc
:I description of each fluiil. its prc,rsurc. temperature. and an? service
peculiarities. Careful study of this list h s e d on a knon.lcdge of the
?. (11~)(2..ij = z..jxo propcrtiei of piping nlatcriak a i \\-ell a* the operating conditions n-ill
+
d. 1030 10:N) = 2.0fiO rcrcal certain c;~tcgoriesur rxnge. of servicc conditions upon ~vliicli
r . Gateb: 12)(205) (l.i)(l.25) = 872
Chrrk: (1) (%O5)(l. i )(1.25) = 436
specifications can be 11nscrI.
Tot:~l ?51O.%iO Therc ;ire t v o extreu~esin q~ccifirntionwitin:: t h a t ~ h ~ ~ be u l;rvoidrd.
d
h ~ e p a r a t especification ran III, ronceivahly 1%-rittcnfur I::I~II fllriil : ~ u dfor
Y 111nn11erof SIIIIIII q ~ c r a t i n g1.anges. T h c s:~vingin purcl~a*e11rice>I:IIV
Nomenclature
.is explilincri in Chnptcr 5 it is convenient to dcsignatc <me11 fluid by
smne letter rymhol and e:lcll category or q~ecific:~tionby :I convcnic~nt
s y n ~ b o l . T l m e symbols \\-it11 thc line mnn111.1. comprise tlic coinpletc
clczcripti~~n of cach section of piping for use on the niec11:inical in How
where P = psf
diagram, piping drawings, m a t e ~ i a llists, and in n.arehousing n i ~ c r : ~ t i r ~ n s
I, = i t of pipe
rll~ringconstruction.
1 r = I13 S C I ~
1-alvcs n k o are descritld by :I nnnil~rringF ~ S ~ C I I tI .is w u a l liractice
I J = insiclc dialnt:tcr in it
t r ~includc in the piping spccificntions a typical valvc and catalog nli~nbcr
H = 1341
1'= " I t wit11 the n - u r d ~"or equal," im~netliatelyfolloring tlrc nanle. This i b
follon.cd b y a valve number. Use of the r a l v e nullher on piping dm\,--
\Vhen it is nut possihlc t o neglect t h e change in pressure causcd b y ing* rednccz the size and conlplexity of notes on t h e draxing. Furtlrer-
diderences in elevation a s in deep gas \\-ell-: nlure co~nplcxcquutiotls rcsult. more, the same number is used in tlic lists or hill;: of material and
Solutions h v e been presentcd,G.'2.'9 but the process plant wlrlun~ purcl~aseorders. T h c manufacturer also places the valve nulnbcr on a
presents sue11 problems. t:ig :itt:~cl~cd to each valve, enabling positive identification during storage
a t the jr~l~sitc.
PIPING SPECIFICATIONS
\\'hilt or a f t e r the piping specification is c a r :I v;11vt, list i:i
Carcfnl\y prepare11 pi11ing s1~tTific:1tionsLIW r q u i r m l for the s ~ ~ ~ r e ~ ~ f ~ l l n l ~ ~ n w i ~c ,~r :~~l li-t ~ I I ~ : I ~ ~I ct . i. , ~c o n ~ n ~ o11r:wticc
n to h \ v S : ~ t ~ - t o - i ~ i v , ~
cconuniic d~higrr:lnd ~ ~ n ~ t r u ( ~oft ipnr ~ ei c - sp l i i n t ~ . Specili(.i~tiun- ~ k - d i n ~ e n - i ~ ~and
n s oI11er p ~ w i n m td a t : ~F U ~ :I> I AS.1 flange l.ating< O I I the
454 Project Engineering of Process Plants Piping Design 455
v;llvc list. This list aids design-drafting since it providrs in a single piping spcrifiration and as a guide or cheek l i d for those preparing
compilation all pertinent data for use on the piping drawings. spccifiratiuns and not as a recommendation of specific items. Indeed one
of the no st unfortunate practices in enginccring design is the copying of
Specification Preparation ~pecificationsused on previous projevts, hiaterials and eqnipment mllit
I n order to more fully explain the technique of specification preparation he evaluated fur each joh and a rarefully ronsidered decision made on
an exanlple of a typical specification is given below. It is preceded by the basis of facts a t the t i ~ n eof design.
tlie reasoning 1%-hichusually accompanies the selection of materials and
specification categories. Flange a n d Bolting a n d Gasket Selection
Table 18-11 presents a summary of the fluids to be considered together 150 111 M A flanges and flanged fittings, according to .4SA BIG-5 of
v i t h their service cunditions and letter designations. the Code, will be satisfactory for all the services in Tehle 18-11. except
9,HA: H B , and H C for w-hich 300 lb ASA flanges are required. F is also
TABLE 18-11. Summary of Fluids for Example Piping Specification ~ i t h i nthe 300 lb ASA limit, which allows pressures of 340 psi and 300 psi,
Operating rrspertively, for 750 and 800" F. Raised-face flanges can he uscd for all
Fluid pressure, temperature, of these services. For service H C , however: although operating a t no
desienation S c n x e and fluid pig "F higher temperature and pressure than HB (300 psig and 800" F. Maxi-
HC Hydrocarbon - mumi. ring-type-joint flanges (RT.1) will be specified since t,his srrvirr
HR Hyrb~ocarbon 250 800 is for heater cross-overs, for wliich a t times operating temperatures m a y
H.1 Hydrocarbon 250 750 Maximum
be morc severe. Tlie R T J flange facing (Table 16 of tlic Codc'~permits
H Hydrr~carbon a teniperature of 850" F and a service pressure uf 300 psig Thus a safety
6 Stetmr
Steam. exhaust margin of 50 psi and 50' F is provided.
Steam, condensate 15 240 150 lh .4SA flanges will be used for services A, AC, F, and C since this
Air, utility 100 Ambient rating is the lowest nominal steel flange rating. AC, which is dried air
.\ir, instrument, dried 50 .\mhient
50 Ambient for instrument services is often run in galvanized piping utilizing s c r e ~ d
Fuel, natural gas, dry
Caustic 50 Ambient malleable iron fittings and flanges. I n this servicc galvanized piping will
Instrument piping Rltnie as line services be used; however, all fittings will be forged steel and all flanges will he
TTater, fire protection cast steel bcrause of the possibility of fire. For the same reasons servicc
\Tater, process cooling A, utility air, F, fuel, and C, caustic, will also utilize steel fittings and
Water, utility 75 Ambient
40 Ambient flanges, hut, the piping will not be galvanized.
Water, sanitary
Service I N , instruments, must have tlie same specification as tlie procesi
The numher of specification catcgories has hecn restricted to five, line when in contact with the process flnid.
11, 3 , P, 9, and Z. This mas made possible by specifying certain items,
surli as bolting, according to tlle class of fluid. Further simplificat,ion Gasket Selection
\ma acconlplislled by careful planning so that the specifications have been Compressed asbestos ring typc gaskcts will be specified for all s c r r i r r i
limited t o four types of flanges, twu types of bolts and five types of pipe. except S, HA, H B , and C. F o r these inore severc services corrugated
I t is a t this point t h a t the procurement sertion of an organization can iron, double jacketed, asbestos filled gaskets will be used. For HC, a
be no st helpful in kceping the project engineer aware of changes in avail- ring typc joint flange facing has been specified, thus oval iron ring gaskets
ahility of materials. Before the specification is completed the engineer are required.
should determine if the materials specified are available, otherwise t h e
xill he wasted later in deciding upon substitutions. It may be desirable Pipe Selection
in wine cases t o list alternates for materials of uncertain supply. T h e thickness required for pipe in each service can be determined from
T h e example specification should not necessarily be interpreted as a thc equation presented previously and recommended by the Code
recrnri~nendationof certain types of valves, fittings, or piping materials. +
[ t = ( P D / 2 S ) C ] . Reference t o Table 21 uf the Code indicates t h a t
T h e specification is written in a complete form as an illustration of a ASTM .4106 is satisfactory for services above 800' F. Tlie allowable
456 Project Engineering of Process Plants
Piping Design 457
ntrrsn f o r G r a d e h a t 800" F in 9300 psi nnrl i;cIrc.il~~lc 80 p i p n.ill 11r
L i n r .1 pipe m n from one point tu another. The ile.ip:ition. Tine Sumhrr
satisfactory. Schedule 40. .ASTlI A106 is adequate for HH a n d H A is a niunh<,r :111d s!-tnbol appearing on the piping drawings 1,-hirh idrntifies the
F o r all other services except TI'S ( a n d where cast-iron pipr i; sprrifird pipr :icci~rdin: to sizr, proce~sfluid, :enera1 loention, and ~prrifir:it,on.
in W s e r v i c ~ s )t h e lees expensive s e a m l e s . X S T l I A53 G r a d e A pip? d l P . E . Indicates plain-end. Used to differentiate between thrcadrd-rnd pipe
be specified. F o r service \TS, sanitary w a t r r , ASTAI .I-120, whirl^ i- a and mill cut. A procurement term.
11.~11algnlvanized pipe sprrifiration, \\-ill ire ~jlecified. . The dcsignatiun P.S. is used to indicate Pipe Support, which -npliurt inxy
be one of the above anchors, guides, or shoes or several rtmbined to farm tlw
Pipe 2 in, anti b r l m - , fils all ~ c r v i e r rc x r e l ~ t \YS,will IIC s e a ~ ~ i l c s . support
l e .ST11 9 - 8 3 . Schedule 8 0 l ~ i p eis used in t h e smallt,r size.
S e h t ~ ~ l u80 R o n P i Pipe f i ~ r n i ~ h rind r:~ndrm,]lot c i ~ t lrngtlis*
,
tu provide structural s t r e n g t i ~ . A t t h e time of rvriting ASTAl A-83. tl~ougli Shoe. Dcvire iwlcletl to or clnmpeil to :J pipr ~liir11liru\-icle<n l ~ m s i n .
~ m r crw t l y (it is m a d e t o conform t o t h e more exact tubing specifi~,;itim I S.P. Sample point. .I sm111 valve wit11 necw.s~ryp111ingto ~ K I T T .::~n~plw.
-
I
to the code herein shall be understood to refer to the above ASA Code. 1.300 Line Snmbering System
.
,lhr: S d l o ~ ~ i nnumbering
g system shall be w r d as line identification on pij~ing
1.200 Definitions appe:l~.inpon How shcrts nnd piping drai~-ings The complrtr lint. nrnnber shall
The terminrhgy used throughout this specification and on the dmxings will I ronsiat of llir follon-in: components, :I? illustmtrd: 4-Ilh-101-11-The first
hc in g e ~ ~ e r that
a l conforming to currmt trade pr:rctires. ! ni~merulis thi, nominal line tizr. The HA de.ignntr,. the service; the 100, thr
dnc/tur. Point uherc piping is fixed is callr4 thr, xnclior point. The ~ i w i w :ire3 nrnnber, nnd the RZ rlr-ipnatca the piping spwification npplic:rhlr.
attached to pipe or the conlplete strncturr if it serves the singlc purpose of fixin? Line numbers ~ h 1.11:inge:
d ( 1 ) K h ~ nsix. I.~IRII:~..; ( 2 ) n-hrn sl1rr4ic:itirm
the pipe is calleil an :~nchor. d~anges;(.3i when bmncheu leave original line; ( 4 ) n.biwi-er an additional line
Bleed. .A small valve provided to draw off liquids. numbrr rrould simplify the engineering and dr:iftin:.
Uli~td. A plate sized to be inserted in a flxnge to isolatr n portion of n syitcrn i
Bloc/: T'nl~,e. h valve furnished to shut off a srpar:ite system The tcnu is 1.100 Lirte Sizes
loosely used x i d may be understood to mean m y valve which is wed for shut- Piping shall br sized in accorrlane? with best cnginrrring ~ m o t i e efor prrsrnrr
off service rather than for throttling. drops ronsi-tent xith proper oprrntiun of erluipmrmt. In genrrd thc Sollorrin:
B.O.P. Bottom of o~ltsideof pipe. Used for pipe $upport loc3tion. limit:rtion shall appl:-:
Control Valve. Any one of n number of different types of valves, remotely 1.401 Sizm .?k in., I$!( in., 2% in., 3% in., 4% i z ~ ,5 1 1 1 , and 7 ju. ~ 1 ~ not 1 1
opcmtcd from sonw type uf instrument.
i
be wed.
Directions. The Plant Xorth direction sho~rnon plot plans and other ilr:~\~incc
mill serve for orientation of equipment. 1.40'2 I)rnins, m n l ~ l r and
, rent lines ahnll be 7.i i n niininirun imlws o l h e r ~ i s e
nuted. Drnins for hot piliing sh:rll be not iris than 1% in. nonlin:d s i x .
Drip-Leg. A . rertieal section of pipe located in 11orizont:~lpiping to deHect and
"catch" co~deniate.
F I V . Field Weld.
I 1 . 0 Exr.q,t for inztri~nwnt tninm~isionlinri, pillin~run on suliport shall
Grudient. The siiccessive drop in elevation of piping to insure gravity flow and
drainage.
i d . D r r i c ~contrdling the direction of piping move~~ient
Hanger.. .I roil :,nil clzmp, a chain, or a spring device wrrl for snpporting
pipe is called n Ixloger.
Piping Design 459
458 Project Engineering of Process Plants
rods or ~xtrnsionstems, fipld fabricated, sh:~llhe prnvided for vnlre.< 1% in,
not be smaller than 2 in. Smaller sizes may be used for short runs less than one heion- rathrr th;m ch:iin 5,-he&
support space in length in special cases.
1.401 Underground lines beyond process area limit^ shall he 3 in. or larger. 1.506 Oueihead Clearance
S a n i t a n water ( K S ) may be 2 in. minimum. Certain utility lines may be smaller, Ovcrhead lines running from vessels or other elevated equipment to steel pipe
but must be considered as sprrial cases and approval secured. supports or to cuncretr deeprr.? shall have a minimum r.lear:ince nf 2 3 0" .~hov,.
p h n t roadways, and railroad (rails). Y-CY' shall he the mininnlm piping clenr:~rrer
1 jOO Genrral .Votes on P i p i q Design above \ralk\vays and platforms and above grade in the immrdiate pruicsa an,:i.
1.501 Aboveg~mmdLines 1.507 Bent Pipe
.ill process and utility lines within the process area and all yard lines outside Pipe shall not be bent to a mean radias of less than five (5) times the nrrrninal
from the process aren except ~s-nterlines, sewrr lines, :mil ccrtain designated pomp pipe zize. Exceptions, when ncrrsrary, shall he accon~plishedb>- mrma u i .sIlrir.i
and compressor line; shall he run ahovrgruund on concrete sleepers, or overhead radius welded fittings. Such special fittings shall be noted on arr;lngeirrnt
on structural ~ t r e lsupports. drawings. .4 minimum straight run equivalent to two or mar? pip" iliametrrs
should he allowed betrreen t v o adjacent pipe bends ~vhereverpwsiblr. Carbon
1.50'2 ilwangement of Abolteground Lines
strel pipe 1 in. and below may be cold hrnt on hrnding m;~clrinr-. .illuy pipe o r
Aboveground lines running in the s a n e pl:ine shall be arranged so that the other pipe subject to cold w-orking strrssrs sh:d he considered :u spwtal :ind
bottums of the lines, exclusivr of insulation, are a t the sanir devation. Sufficient shall he bent arrording to specified pruceilures.
height milst be allowed to clrar the insulatinn of insulatcd lines, and this height
ahall govrrn the d c w t i o n of uniiwulated lines as w l l . I..%% Angle T'alu~s
The use of angle vnlveu shall be avoided.
1.503 i?le~,ationof Aboz,eground Lines
K h r n pilring is run in parallel groups, one rlev:~tion shall be srlecterl for linrs 1.509 Drains, Vents arid Test Openings
runnitig to Plant R ~ t and h South and anothrr r:kwition for lines riinning East Drnins shall be provided a t low points and vents a t high points. Thr drain
and West. If piping is run in "hanks" or l a y r s un pipc supports the clear and/or vrnt shall consist of a 6000 lb forged sted pi111. coupling iwldid into
dimmyinn brtwwn bottom of pipe in one layer and top-of-pipe in adjacent the line, a short schrdule 160 nipple, and a 5i in. Gate V:ilrr in a c c o n l n ~ i with
,
layer r11:ill be three times thr mminal diameter of the largest pipe in either the line specification. I n hot process lines the drain or vrnt shnll not br lrss
group, plus twice the ertrnsiun of a flange beyond the outside diameter of the than 1% in. nominal pipe size. For these connections a hexagon shaped t l i r t d d
largpst pipr in rithcm adjacent layer. Lines shall orrlinarily change elevation steel plugX shall be madc-up into the valve. All snch plugs shall rztend :it lmst
whr~1thry rhunge direction, except a t the discretion of the designer in special 3 in. beyond threaded portion.
rases and for nboveground linrs not. running in a bank of piping. The dimension Teit connections ur threadrd connrctions for future use it, pil~ingor vrs.vl-
of cle:~mnceslid1 he the same as that given above. The largwt pipe sizr in the shall be fabricated the same a5 drains nnd vrnts n c r p t valve ma>- Ijr, omitrr<l
hank ~11:ilInln-;iys govrrn for rlearanrrs. (Plant North is an arbitrary direction and connrction plugged. Shipping plugs shall he rrmo\~rdfrom wch connwrinn-
set on Plot P h n i for nrirntation prlrpmes in all ~ w r k . ) and replaced with hexagon steel plugs as noted above. Phlgs for insulotd
1.504 I<leuation of L'nrleryr.ound Lines equipment shall be fahricatrd to extend beyond insulation.
Changes in directioll of :ill undergronml lines, except sewers and drftins, shall 1.510 Service Co~mectionsorid Utilities
be nccomp:inird 1,)- :I change in elrratian except in the caw of linrs 24 in. and % in. hose (manufacturd, heavy) connections for steam, air, and m t e r shall br
o w r . .ill imdi:rgmrind piling shall be arranged ns far ;ASpnssihle for free drain-
ing to snmr lnrv point. Access shall be proridrd a t drainage points. ii provided a t convrnirnt points in the process area for genrwl iltility p~~rlioir...
Utility lines a t vertical vrsiris are to be run nilj:~cmt to v e s d i ;ind outside oi'
1.505 I,ocation of Valves, Use o/ Chain Operators ! insulation but not outside of tower platforms.
Ilii~phriigmcontrol valvrs, motor oppratetl valves, special manual control valvrs
. -
and lubricated d u e cocks shall be located so that thn-" may" he r ~ a d i l yncressible
~~~
1
1% in. and smaller. 300 lb standard malleablr iron, screwed, ground joint,
iacr, swing-type, 11-13% rhrome stainlrzs rtrrl trim (V61. brass to iron seat.
2 in. and larger. Use flanges as specified above, or merhanicnl joints. On
1.80281 1'1~0 l:al~,es raqt iron pipe in acrordnnce r~-it11AS.4 A 21.11.
% in. Siap 2000 lb \TO(:, forged carbon strrl, z c r ~ w d Inbrimted
, plug rock
(V110). 1.8035 Bzrshixga and Plugs
1?L2 in. and smal1t.r. :300 lb 1T.P cast cnrbon stcel, s c r e w d , w e n c h operated ! Hrmgon steel bushings and hesagon steel plugs. Usr reducers where r e d u r t i o ~ ~
irtbrmtrd plug cock ( V S )
468 Project Engineering of Process Plants Piping Design 469
is mnrr than tn-n ;iaei. ?;OI(,:.ill cl~angeifrom m-t. iron to stwl ,.llnll be r(Fvrtr,cl 3i n .I . a n r F :I . I I A t a n l r l s t iron r o t a :
by a fl:inped cast iron it11b piece eonnertrd to a mechanical joint. Ule either xrerl-ed or flanged as required.
Note: The us? of cast iron Hanged fittings shall be kept to a minimnm.
I8036 Bolting
1.8044 i n i o m
Stsndard carhon stcrl square hmd machine bolts with semi-finished steel nuts
for steel piping. Bolting shall be supplied rr-ith cast iron piping in accordance 2 in. 1 . : I . 2W0 ib CWP forged carbon steel scre~red,ground, joint,
with AS.4 A21-11. intrgral stcel seats.
R in. and hrger. Flanges :ire perrnivihlr ns sprrifird obove.
I S 0 3 Gnshcts
x6 in. thick crmpressed n~hestos. For raised-facrd joints. Use ring gasket- 1.804.i Bi~shinysmid Plirgs
in. and :mailer. Steel llr~sagonhiwliin:~, and steel 11ez:t~onIx~rstorkpin:?.
for raised-faced joints and inll face :;iikets ior phin-faced ioints. Plain com-
position robber gaskets shall be supplied x i t h ca-t iron pipc. Use reducers xhere reductim is more th:~n trr-o size;.
1.8038 Valves 1.8046 Bolting. Carbon steel m:ichinr, hrilt.2. -pi. 1.901.
1.50381 Gate l'olvea 1.8047 Gos1:ets. ?Il6 in. ron~prrswila s b r s t o ~gasket.
1% in. and i'tnallrr. 1% ih SWP b r a s , screwed, rising -tern, inside scrcw
1.SO46 I'al13es. See 1.80:38 for f i l w Specific:ltinns.
(V47).
? in. and larger. 125 lb hS.i stnncl:~rtle:w iron, Hanged, O.S.&T., bmss trim; 1.8050 Specification Z
and s t n u (w6). This specification bhilll apply to instn~rn?iltscr\-icrs only:
2 in. and larger. 125 lh 45.4 stand:~rilcast iron, flanged, 0.S.R-1'. (fire service Instrnnlent Srrrices Rating, see Linl Scrrii.cs.
donble-di-b, nonrising i t r m , bm*.~trim, m y 1 ( V I l T ) .
1.8051 Pipe
l.S03S'! Glohe T'alws
Instrummt 1e:rrl linrs, or line? rv11ich carry f l o i d ~to and from inqtrnmrnt
1% in. and smaller. 250 S W P hrars, acrewed, rising iteln, m i o n bonnet (V51). elements shall be the s:lrnc spr,cific:ition or l,ctlrr, than the line wrriic? fro111KII~I,II
2 in. and Ltrgcr, Use gate valves. instrunlent line originntes. Srhcdnlr 160 uipplrs J u l l hr used up t o first blork
valve where any danger of physic;d dam:ige to pillin: is possible. Extensive
1.80383 Check Valves
runs of small sized lines shall hr avoidcd, lalt n . 1 wi.rss:in-
~ ~ i.trnrtr~r:d support
1 in. 2nd imallcr. 250 lh S W P br:w s r n w r d , horizont:ll piston type, Xi- nlr~stbe provided. Instrument 1,iping of p r o r v s fluids meceding 25 f t most be
Alloy sent. :ml disk (Y101) authorized prior to installation.
2 in, and lnrgcr. 125 lb -1S.4 standard cast iron, flangrd, sning type, Imss trim
(V25) 1.805? T~tbing
I SO384 Fire Hl/drants Copper t ~ h i n gih:ill he nsed for air tral~smisiion lines. .ill tribing ?hall be
in. O D . 0.0X'' Kall ASTM, B68, nonar~rnirnlrokl dr:t\m, v;rcmm annealed.
Two hnsr conneetir~n,p h n t type hyilrontq ( V F ) .
1SO53 Fittings
F1:irrd-type fittings shall be i~srilfor :ill cr1ppt.r tubin: lines.
1.6054 Values
Vidving n s r d in instrnment lead piping i11:dl be of the samc specification as the
1.8041 Pipe origin at in^ line specification.
S e ; i n h s cnrbon steel conforming to :\STY1 S p c r -153, C,r:idr A, lateat reriaion,
galvanizrd. .4STM-AX3 nrrcpt;lhle for 2 in. :ind .smaller.
? in. and smnller. Schedule SO.
3 in. thru 10 in. Schedule 40. 1.9010 Alloy Steel Bolting
Alloy steel bolting shall be provided for serriccs S, 8 , H.4, HB and HC and
1.SO42 Flm~yes shnll confornl to ASThI-.41'33, Grade B7, CI:w i fit for bolt, Clnes 2B fit ior
Cast iron, 125 ib -45.4 scremed, flat face, galvanized. niltr, ~71thtwo (2) henry series hexagonal nut? each. S u t s shall conform to
. S T 5 1 Spec. -4194, latest revision, Class 2H, oil qiwnched, hot forged. .411 other
1.SO42 Fittings bolting shall conform t o ASTWA307 with Claw 2A fit for bolts and 213 fit for
2 in, and smaller. Srrer~edtypr. 300 lb standard malleable iron, galvanized nuts, excepting bolting fumishrd by pipe vendor for 11' services, which shall
screwed, meet M i - . V ' l . l l requirements.
470 Project Engineering of P r x e s s Plarls
Piping Design 471
1.9020 Clenmnp a ~ t dp a b ~ t l w ( b ) .121.61953 Cast-Iron Pipe Centrifugally Cast in Metal Molds for Water
19021 After erection all lines shall b s cleaned ~ n t e r n a l l rby cirndation tr; or other Liquids.
remore :ill dirt and o t h w iorwgn matter bpforr thr, plmM h ~ , e l i loperntion ~ (el A21.8-1953 Cast Iron Pipe--Centrifugally Cast in Sand-Lined Molds for
C u r sh:ill lw taken t o t h o r o u p h l ~ clran :ilr hne.. t<, i r ; ~ c t ~ ~ a tdiaphragm
eil Kater or other Liquids.
control V ~ I . C S , hefore they are connmted, and niter ronnectlon up t o last fittine; id) .421.10--19.52 Sho1.t-Bodr. Cast-Iran Fittings. 3" to 12".
before initniment o r valve. ( c ) .A21.11-11153 illrr,hanieal Joint for Cast 11.on Prersurr Pipe and Fittings,
1 9 0 2 :ill underground (buried) shop fabricated stecl pipe 3 ni. thru 10 ir. Sperifirttion for.
siae shhll have e o a t i ~ gon the outside only and v r a p p i n g applied xs follows: ( f ) B16b-1044 Class 250 Cast-Iron Flangfs and Flangcd Fittings.
a. Clean by sandblasting. ig) B16.1-1948 Class 125 Cast-Icon Flanges and Flanged Fittings.
h .4pply one coat of bitu~nasticprimer. ( h ) B16.3-1951 Malleable-Iron Scmred Fittings, I50 lh.
c. Apply first coat of bituniastic enamel. (i) R16.4-1949 Csst-Iron Srrpacrl Fittings. 125 and 250 lh.
(1. Apply second coat of bitumastic rnar~iel i j ) R16.&1953 51ccl Pipe Flangcs and Flnugrd Fittings.
e . Spirally xmsp one layer of 1.5 lb asbestos felt ( k ) B16.+1951 Stwl Butt-llblding Fittings.
f . Spirally wrap on? la:-rr of 60 111 Krnft pnjler. ( 1 ) B 1 6 l G 1 9 3 9 Fnrc to Fnce Dimension of F c ~ o u sFlanged and Welding-
End Valves.
19023 ,411 underground ( h r i e t l ) steel pip<, sh;i11 have ~ n s i d eand outside ( r BlG.11-196 Steel Snekel-Welding Fittings.
c l ~ u n n iand wmpping applird o i follo\~s: ( n ) B16.1S1847 B i n s or Bronze S<:rencdFittings, 125 lb.
Slic~cificatiosisInside (for 12 in. a i d a h o w ) (0)B16.17-1949 Brass at. I3ronsc Scrpwrri Fittings. 250 lb.
n. Clean by sandbl;isting. ( p ) I316 19-1951 M a I l ~ a t , l ~ - I ~ .Sc~e~r.ed
on Filting*, 300 lh.
b. Apply one coat biturnastic p n m e r . ( q ) B16.20--1952 Hing-Juint Gnskctr and Ct.oovus for Steel Pipe Flanges.
c Apply one heavy coat hitumnstic enamrl. ( 7 ) B16.21-1951 Xonmr.l;illir ( : a r k ~ t sfor Pipe Flangvs.
'ip~cificntsonsfor coating a n d wrapping uutside cjf pipr: sh:~ll he same as inr [.*I 831.1-1951 Code for Prcsaore Piping, including s u p p l r n ~ m t ,U31.L-I855
:ii n , thru I 0 in. siae as specified abo\-r, 1W22. arid B31.1.8--1'352.
19030 Ftreproofing ( t ) B36.1 to 36.26 ASTM Iron and Stecl Plpe S1wr.ifiwtions neceptpd as
American S1und;rrds.
Pipe s u p p o r u carrying main steam hesdcrs o r hydrocarbons through arras
5. .American \Tatel. TTorks .Assori;~tion,521 5th .ire.. S e w Yolk. K. 1.. Standards.
subject t o fire hazards shall he fireproofed t o the point of t h e cross load beaxmy
6. Clinrdinst, IT. 0 , Oil a n d G u s J u w n n l , $3, S o . 4. 79 (1945).
niembers. or as noted on drawings.
7. Cmnr Company Cat:zlog Y o . 53, Cranp Comlmny, Chicago 5, Illinois.
19040 Steam Traps 8. C r m c Company T ~ c h n i r a l Papcr No. 409, Crenr Comp;my, Chiwgo 5,
Invertrd htirket-type stram traps shall be provided f a r nll srrvices e r c e l ~ i , Illinois.
t h w t ~llnnilling small rl,~antitiwof ~ t m mfur ir-lli?ll w i e ilnpulsr i\-jlr t m p s nlay 9. C I O C ~ PSabin, T. Piping Iin,iribr,ok, 4th E d , H m . . MeC~~.n~v-Hill Rook Co.. S e w
be u a d All l u c k e t type traps s11;11I li:i\-r ir,rnrd o r exst i t r d hudies with Yak 1955.
:illuwablr~ working p r e s u r r of 600 psi m n i n n u u All other traps shnll be steel 10. f i ; ~ i i i r d c u lr r i l w s , f : g o i \ . t h ~ tV:il\rs Co.. 115 \Trsf 7th St.. Los Angelrs 14,
:uid h31.r sen.icc ruting a t least t x o times line pressure. Califomin
11. F d e r ; d Sprcificntiuns, Snp't. of l)ocunrrnli, K;isl~ingtun25, D.C.
REFERENCES 12. Juffe, J., C l z e m Eng., 6fi. SCI. 8 , 130 (1949).
13. l m l l s i ~Cwtalug KO.55. I.ntliri~Co., Cwlahy, Kismnain.
K o ~ P Cerbain
, mnnufneturers catalogs have been included as references to de~crip- 14. I,uBmheimer, Circular KO.552, 553, 555. 1.uhenhrirnm V ; k r Ca.. Cinrinn;iti
t r e information. The omission of othcr manufacturers' prmted information should 14, Ohio.
not. he ronstrurd as a judgment ngmnst it. It would he impasabk I 0 inrludr .I 1 5 Manufactwr~.'FStandurdizatim Soriety of thr Vnlvc nnd Fitting Industry,
complete hst of the many excellent ratahgs available. 420 Lexington Are., S c w Yolk 17, S . B .
1. American Gas .ksoriation, 420 Lexington Are., Xcw YorG. N . Y . Standanir 16, Moody, I,. F., Trri,ii. A m . Slit. M c c i i . Eiigi?... Uli. 671 (1944).
2. American Petroleum Institute, Standards on Pipe, Flanges and Valves i A P I d d . 17. Sor.dstt.onr Valve Ctitalag S o . 10. Sot.dstl.orn Ttilrr D i v i s i m Rockwell Mann-
B, F, G-1. G-2, G-3, and L, API 600 A and If). American Petroleum Institute. farluring Company, 400 Lexington Avp., Pittrhul.gh 8. P i t .
D ~ n s i o nof Prorlnction, 1205 Continental Bldg, Dallas 1. Texas 18. Piping Engirir~rirtg,Tulhr Turn-; R ~ s e a r hStaff. Tuhr Twna. Inc.. Imiisr-illc 1,
3. Amwiran Society of Merhanical Engineers, 29 K e s t 39th SL.,Kew Ynrk 18. Kcntncky (1847-53). S~1.ir.siis f o l l o ~ ~ :
?J Y. 1.01 Codw :and SperiIikations, Snwres of Piping Drcign Info~~rniiliun.
4. Amernan Standards Bssociat~mspecification, Bmerican Standards Assmatmc. 2.01 Pipe h1;ttwinlx tmd Tllivknesses, Pip? hlntesials and tlrpir .Allonable
70 East 49th St., i Y ~ wBork 17, h' Y (A majority of the standards listpd below aro Stresses.
nppror.ed by the A S 1 and published hy the ASME I 3.01 l4'luiil Fluw Fluid flu^ in Pipe.
< a ) A21.1-1935 Compntntiau of srreogtk nod tbtcknesi cf Cmt-Iron PIFP. 4.01 Kr]vmsiun i ~ n dI'lrrih~ltty. Intrudrwlion to thr Piping Flexibility Prohkm.
M a m d for 4.02 Expansion 31111 Flexibility. Z, L, U , and Expansmn li hcnds.
472 Project Engineering of Process Plants
5.01 \ I ~ l r I ~.ruinti,
d Joint Prcpnration for Ruttwlding.
502 Welded Joints, Wclding Rings.
CHAPTER 19
6.01 Mechanical Joints. Standard Steel Pipe E'l;ingei.
6.02 bloehanicnl Jomti. Ratings of 1meric:in Stanilnl.ri Steel Pipe Flanges.
19. P o ~ t t m s n n .F. H.. J . Peti-olermi T e d . , 5, 317 (1951).
20. P o ~ ~ e Talrc
ll Catalog. Powpll Vak-e Co.. K m . Po\\-ell Co., Cineinnab 22,
Ohio.
21. Rase. H. F.. P~.ti.iilciit,iI<rfimi, .3?, So. 8. 141 (1953).
22. Refi,iu,v C o t d o g , Gulf Publishing Co., 3301 Buffalo Drivc, Houston, Trrar,
1854.
23. SlnnrLr~rIsof the 1Jyd,-riitlic lrt.sLil,itc, Hydmnlic Inatitutr, S e w T o k (1951).
24. Standaxla of t h e A S T I I . P w t I and 11, Am. Soe, for Testing Materi:dc. 1916
ilar:? St., Philadelphia. Pa. (1952).
25. T a ~ l u iForge Cdnlogs S u . ,184 and 423, Tnylm Forge and Pipe \!-arks,
Uiicago 80. Illinois.
26. Tube 7'xrn Calrilog S o . 211, Tube Turns, Inc., Louisville 1, Kentucky.
2:. U. 5. Dept. of Commerce, U. S. Commercial Standards and Simplified P r a c t i c ~ s
Her:onimmriations. Sop't. of Dorurn~nts,Washington 25, D. C.
THERMAL
28. U. S. S a r . .
v Soeidivalions. C . S. Saxv. Dr.1,1.. . . am1 .Icrountv,
. , Bureau of Sun~rlies
Kashington 25, D. C.
29. 1.ogt Cnrnpiwy Cnfoloy S o . F9. Hen1.y Vagt Mschine Company, 1,onisrillc 10.
Iient,,rl.\.
~-~~~...... .
INSULATION
30. Vogrin, C. M., Frank C. G . Williams, and Julm S. Worth, . Z l ~ d e m S t d
Ilnlli,~g for Piping nnd Pressure Vessels ASME Paper 52-PET-7, 7th Annual Mcct-
in& liansns City, Xlo. (Septcmhrr 22-24. 1952).
31. 1Volwor.lh Catalog So. 52, Walworth Company, 60 E . 42nd St., New York Thernial insulation, propcrly applied, aswrcs effective operation of
17, s.Y. process eqniprnent and conserves valuable heat. There is always a vide
~ n r i e t yof insulating materials for a given situation and careful considera-
tion niust he giwn to each type so that an intelligent dccision may bc
~narle. I t is not possible to rlescrihe e r w y typc of in;rilnting material.
but several of tlie more frequently used typcs for process plants ~villbc
clcscribed.
INSULATION MATERIALS
Insulation materials can he classified into lour types: (1) fibrous
(2) granular, (3) cellul;~r,and (4) reflective. I n a practical sense, sucli
classifications, ho\vercr. often liare limited m l u r sinre sonle romnicrcial
products consist of a enrubination of several of thwe insulating materials.
Asbestos
Asbestos is a natural-occurring mineral of tlie composition 31\Zg0.
2SiO2.2H,O, a hydrated magnesium silicate. It is rock-like in its natural
state but can he crushed and changed into soft, silky fibcrs. I n this state
it has a texture of ~ o o and
l has, thcrcfore, amazed people d o a n tl~rougli
the agcs, since it does not support combustion. .Me.stos is used in many
forms t o manufacture insulating matwials, rither hy itself or in combina-
tion with otlier substances. By the addition of binders it can be fashioned
473
474 Project Engineering of Process Plants Thermal lnsulotion 475
into paper-like structures, either single flat layers ~ ~ i tthin
l i air spares molded into hloikq by adding suitable binding ulatcrials. When a watcr-
het~veenlayers, or as corrugated nshestos paper built up into lnyers. T h r proding hinder is used, an effective lov-temperature insulation can be
relatively dead air q,aces $ewe tu decrease the cunrlucti~-ityof the fin- proilueed, n-l~icliis highly moistlire-resistiir~tand rot-proof. I n this fom,
isbcd insulation. These nibcstr~spaper insulations arc efi'rctive Up t o it is generally called rnincral or rock cork. IIineral wool is also used for
aruurrd 300" F'; almve t h i ~temperaturt~the hiniiing n~aterialdecolu~~oses. insulating hon~esand buildings.
Asbestos can be given ;I felt-like structure t ~ ycou~hininpit ~l-itlismall
uarticles of some spongy, cellular material. This fclted ashcstos resists Vegetable Cork
vibration and witlistandr rough handling and temperatures up to al.uunil Saturn1 eurk contains r n m y thousands of ~ c a l r ddenil-air spares. I t
900" F. .ksbestns fibers are used t o strengthen higll-ten~peraturediato- is light. yet strong: it ilws not aiworll vapors nor is it adversely afTectecl
maceous earth insulation and 8570 magncsia insulation. hy r~wtting. These propertics inake curk good for luv-temperature
insulation.
Diatomaceous Earth
Diato~naccousearth is an unusual form of silica, having a high mclting Expanded Polystyrene
point. 2930" F , and unique properties. It is composed of minute silica Styrene: polymerized and molded to occlude many bubbles of air, forms
skeletons of diatoms, which were microscopic plants t h a t lived millions a light and serviceable low-te~npcratureinsulation. It has replaced cork
of years ago. Large deposits occur in Califnrnia. A mixture of ashedos in illany applications.
and diatu~naccousearth forms an escellcnt high-teml~eraturcinsulation
1600 t o 1900F) and is mannfactured under various trade nanies. Glass Insulation
hlinrral cork Formed piir insubtion Moderatooompessive Good Moderate llincral swl fibers with
for law temp. snd block and tensib strength asphslt hindea
Polmsrane B i d m d nine
iusula- bloderate compressive EIEIIIC~~~ ~xcellent Polyatjrene w t h air
icxpandedi tim strength: fair tmsilr eella
rtrength
Vegctahlc cork \folded pipp insulation. compres.iblo under ~vod Pair (iranulalcd vegetable
blocks. lrgglng and tit- light load, but dops cork honded with
tin$ rovers sunport heavy loads natural pork rosin
2. C'li~micnlproprrties per sq ft of sliell arcn :mil lirad m a . I f ciic11 v d o r quotes on tlre .-alnc
a. annl!-sii. hasis, the lump-sum prices can then be used with impunity in determining
b. corrr~sirenntore. the lowest hid.
c. cfect of chemic:rlr in pipe or yesel being considered,
3. In-tallation chnrncteristies ERECTION OF INSULATION
a . toxicity.
b. action on akin (does it ~cmtch,etc.). Tkspitr thc wide ~-:wit,tyof i n d a l i r ~ it g~ r r s , most ins111:rtion is man-
c. orer:dI n-or!ability (cutting, xhaping, ete.). ufactured in one or 1rrol.r of tllree i'or~us;i.e!., blocks, blank&, or inolded
sectional pipe coverings. The ~iretliod*of installing these t h e e forms of
INSULATION INQUIRIES AND QUOTATIONS
insulation arc siniilar, reg:irdless of the kind of insulation heing employed
Tlie crcctim uf insulation is usually subcontracted to a, fir111specializing 'T\\-o general rules apply tn all insulation erection. One is that surfares
in such ~ v o r k . T h e subcontractor luust bc clloscn carly in tllc dc\-clol~- sl~ouldbe cleaned th(~rongtrlyhcforr insulating begins. Thc, ot11t.r i~ tlrnt,
mcnt of the prllject FO tdiat his plans m:1y bc dcvclol~ctlin eunjllnctiou if i~lsulationis installed in rc,veral layers. ;ill joints sliould 1,s stiiggcrr(l.
wit11 the priuie contractor. Fig. 9 Tlie staggering of t'he joints minimizes the possibility of heat
At the tinic t h a t inquiries ar? made to tlic inrulntiou contractor the ac- leakage a t the joints.
tual detailcd design of the process plant has not been developed. ITsually
only tlic engineering f l o ~diagram, a plot plan, and perlial~ssereral prc-
liminary elcvation studies have been made. It is necessary, thercfore; Golvonized Lacing
Wire Fastened Between P l a t e Clips Spaced
t h a t the insulation contmcti~rhe supplicd 75-ith a very complcte description at 2'-0" on Centers
of the insdation requirenients on d ~ i c l rlie is to quote. Because of tlir
limited amount of drawings available a t tlic time of inquiry, close cu-
operat,ion betneen the insulating contractor and prime contractor is Vessel H e o d (ToD)
essential.
An insulation inquiry should include a dcacription of the work with Galvanized Steel Bands
reference t o appropriate drawings. Complete insulation sperifications
Block insulation
must a l w be furnished. These shuuld include not only tlrc insulation t o
be used, but also thc n~ethodsof insulation perfcrred. A cleal. description 9; Layer of Finishing
of cost figures desired should be given so t h a t all q u ~ t a t i o n scan be fairly C e m e n t Mixed W i t h
judged. Portland Cement
Fimshlng Cement
A complete list of all lines t o bc insulated should be included mith the Vessel Heod ( B o t t o m )
inquiry. This list sliould s h o ~ vtlre operating temperatures so t h a t the 2'' Thick Gunite
proper insulation thickness, based on thc specifications, can he selected. ( 1 Port Cement 81 3 Paris
Sand I
All otlrcr cquipmcnt, such as vesscls and exchangers, must be adequately
de-rribed, or suitable drawings furnisllcd so t h a t quantity and type id Fig. 19-1. Typical vcssrl insulation.
insulation m a y bc selected. Portions of vessels which arc not to bc in-
snlatecl. sucll RF skirts and ~nanholecovers, s h ~ ~ u be k l clcarly indicatrd. Block and Blanket Insulation
In addition to l u m ~YUUI ~ prices, unit prices' should be requested fur all Insulation furnished in thc form of blocks is extensirely used on vessels.
sizes of pipe. fittings, valves, and vessels anticipated. Close cooperation h a t exchangers, and other similar equipment (Fig. 19-13. One-half i n
\r-it11 the vendor will uiaterially reducc the anlount of w ~ r kinv<~lveilin by 0.020 in. galvanized bands are used fur securing insulation on towcrr,
such :L ~ ~ r o c r ( l u r cT. h e 111lit prires for vesrcl* should be given in priw and heat exchangers. Insulation is held on the top and bottom heads
* L ( e w o s r of the incomplete derclopmmt 01 tlrc plant desigu at tire time of with bands which are secured to studs or nuts welded t o the heads. T o
inquiry it is necessary to pcrlnit t h c insulation runtractor to apply for additional aid in the support of the blocks, steel angles are welded around vertical
fees ii it is agreed by both pmtics llmt thc scope "1 thr project has cllangrd dwing vessels and spaced a t 8- or 12-ft centers. These supports are onc-
n t . . nmit prices tire: oi o s ~in rvali~olingt l w :idd~liwal
llie h i g u , l r i v l o l ~ ~ ~ ~ a The
costa incuwed.
lialf in. Icss than the thickness of the insulation. By terminating the
482 Project Engineering of Process Plants Thermal Insulation 483
block a t both en& of tile angle and filling the space with loose mineral pasted on the pipe covering. Outdoor insulation is covered with a
~vool,an expansion joint is faihirmed (Fig. 19.2~. weather-proof jacket such as roofing paper or galvanized steel or alumi-
The r x p a n s i ~ ~joint
n is corrred 1vit11 20-gage galvanizeil iron or I ~ a n l - num sheeting.
1v:irc rlotll an11IIICSI~ wire and then finisl~edweather-tight n-it11 insul;~ting Valrcs and fittings are insulated \\.it11 segments of blocks or p ~ p cin-
cement. Aiter the blucks hare been wired in place, wire 111esh (I-in.) is sulation of the same imterial used on the straight runs of pipe. These
segments are wired in place and finished n i t h a coating of insulating
Outslde of Vessel Shell
lnsulat8ng Black Steel Bcnds Diatomaceous Eorth
Support Angle
Hordwore Cloth ( 8"Wjdth)
Loose Mlnerol Wool FIII (I' Width)
Note Staggerlnq
k lnsulotlog Block
Weatherproofing Plastic
Fig. 19-3. Multiple-layer sectional pipe insulabion
1. HI:-sical properties
four iuain g ~ ~ o u ~ ~ ~ - a l ~ ~ m i n u - . ~ i l i c n , 'S:lm C o r h d e ' o f f %:ole
silica, basic, aud insulating refrae- 36 105 0 1200PF
a. Specific ~.rariry. I08 @ 2 8 0 0 F
b. Poroiiry; ini1ic:ition of resist:ince to penetmtion by dn:e and gases. 1oric.s. I n Table 19-2 there is rc-
c. Cold strength; indicates ability to stand 1111 under adverse shipping
conditions.
produced a comparison of some of -
the more important of these rcfrne- \
rl. Soitening temprrature: determined by use of thr 131-rometdc wne equira-
torics. T h e so-called basic refrac-
lent method rhich consists of comparing tlic test c:mple in the forln oi n
small cone ~ i t standard
h cones of horr.n softening p i n t s . tories include magnesite, chrome, 2 24
e. Load test; measures the sl~txistancervhich occ1lrr dnring thr sust:iincd and forstcritr. I n addition, ccr- 6
:~pl~licntion of a 25 lb per aq in. load unrirr conditions of operating trn~pcr:~lnri,. tnin special rcfractories such as
Bricks, xuch as silica brick, fail abrnptly at a specific iempernturt!, ~!-l~rr~,a.? ziliron carbide and zircmia :Ira :.
fire day bricks show a gradual failure. listrtl n.11ich prove cconon~icalun-
l6
/. Dimension changes a t high temperatures; ASTM.Ij i n o d e s a method
of determining the changes in dimensions that occur over prolonged hearing der certain rcverc conrlitions.
periods a t operating temperatures. This information is useful in tire design I n Fig. 19-4, t l ~ e r m a lconduc- -6
of f,rrnacri7,. tivitica of various refractories a r r 8
y. T11errn:tl expansion; important in the ultimate planning of f ~ ~ r n adesign.
cr c m ~ p n r e d .It is interesting t o note +
h. Spalling; drfined ns the breaking off of iragments from thr, snrfnce of the striking diffcrcnce between
the rrfractory is an import;int property whirh most he r r m - i h r d in thr
proper design of rrfr:~ctory ~ ~ n l l sThree
. types oi s11:illing or1111r. rl'brrn~:il tl~crnialcondnctirities of insnlat-
spalling is caused by thermal changes produr:rd when beating or ronling. ing Ixick and otlier rcfractorics. o o o o o o o
0
r - F) have the Ion-est reriitmw
Nagnr?ite, ehromc, nnd silica hricks ( b ~ l o ~1200" Insulating brick is produced from , Z ~ ~ Z" z
% " "
to thermal spalling of the common refractories. Mcchanieal spalling is rail-rd r h v s (Table 19-31 \vhic11 a r c Meon Temoernture. "F
hy str%insplaced on the brick by mechanical means such as wcessire espansirn~.
Structural spalling is caused by ch;rnges in the p11yaic:tl properties of one side
of the brick compared to the other, vhich may produce q~ullingdue to unequal
expansion. The ASTMS has outlined tests for determining spalling cbaracter- . .
istics of refractories. ble nlaterials are burned leaving L ' q . w, Xu. 6, 216 (1U53).1
i. Thermal conductivity; this is an important property since it deteriuines n porous structure. Insulating
the thickness of brick required for a given refractory wall. hricks are extremely light in weight and linve a low thcrmal conductivity.
j . Permesbility: the permeability of brick to liquids ;iud giws ib itnllortmt
since :i ~ ~ m b i n : ~oft ii~,~er~~al-ext(~r~lill
~n :ittack by i u ~ u eslag or during the l t ~ ~ ! ndiscuvcries
t n u k e it p o s i \ ~ l et u i,ro<(occ i n d : l t i l \ g bl'icks x\-llirli
use of the refrnctory will produce cxtrtmnely rapid fnilure. witlistand temprratures up to 30003F. It is p o s i b l c thcrcforc, t o ecnll-
.ur,l! '.,"I
a,,)
OOOP
OOEP
DOPE
OOPE
OOZE-008Z
OOOE
001E-OOGZ
OOZE-omz
Lull&-0062
OOOP-om
Eo=lvSL-ZL
OSEE-CZEE W!SZ.'OZWE
089-009
SLI1
O9Z
CEZ
ooz
a a
488
9' straight
Project Engineering o f Process Plants
QJ
2' split brick
9"
Thermal Insulation
a 0%
9 " end skew 9" rotary kiln
Q
block
QJ k*
aa
9' soap
9' arch
?r
a n d the outaidc of the plate. T h e radiation coefficient c a n he determined Outsirle area - 8.375 = 2.2 sq ft
12
from the eouation:
INSULATION EFFICIENCY
Insulation efficiency is a term frequently appearing in the literature
:mil in mannfacturers' catalogs. I t is ricfined 11s the difference b e t n w n
the 1ie:lt l w s rllrouglr b n r ~pipe and tliat tliri~nglitlie same pipe when
insulated, diridcd by tile heat lost through tire uninsulated pipe. Tables
of thcsc ctliciencics are reported 11y nlanufacturcrs for v a r i m s sizes and
thicknesses of insulation.
T h e values are misleading, honcver, t o the casual user since they are all
high and w l ~ n tappears t o be a small difference in efficiency of only 27% PROCESS
196 and 911 can rcprcsent :In increase in heat loss of (96 - 94/100 -- 96)
(100) = 5070. H e a t lops tables are n~nclimore useful in comparing vari-
ous thicknesses and kinds of insulation. INSTRUMENTS
REFERENCES
1. A S T M Standards, Part 111, 298, Am. Soc. Testing M~terials.New York, 1950.
2. Grllrr, R. F., Firc-Cloy Brick, T h e i r .IInnufacturc, P m p e ~ . l i e s , ULPS,and Process industries could not exist m-ithout instruments vhich indicate.
S/?rr.ij?crrtioris, Tlnrrnu of Stnud~riisCil.eular No. 282, Washington, D.C., 1926. record, control, and in solnc cases anticil~iitetllc many clmnges tliat occur
3. Jnkoh, Max, nnd G. A. Hawkins, E l e m e l ~ t sof ZZcat Ti.nn.sfer and Znsi~lation,
2nd Ed., John \Tiley and Sons, Inr., New Yurk, 1950.
in a process. Even in processes wliich require nianual control, instru-
4. Kern, D. Q.,Process Hent Transfer, hlcGrawHill Baok Ca.: New Yark, 1950. ments tcll thc operator ~vlienlic should tnrn a r a k e or press a button.
5. ilmitol o i .4STM Stnndnrrl,~on R e f i - n c t o q .lfntrr.inls, Am. Sor. Testing Matc- The adranccmmts in instnumcnt technology l i n w been phmo~nen:il.
rials. 1-cu' l'oli. 1948. I n the late 1930's instrmicnts and control devices w r c relatively simple
6. M d d a n ~ s .TI'. I?.. Heat l'ransmisaion. 3rd Ed., h.leGr.aw-Hill Baok Co., New and a few standard types were used. Any engineer coulil understand
Y o k 1953.
i. hlrhlillnn. L. 8.. Neat T ~ n n s f e rthroztgh Ins~ilolionin t h Modcrate
~ nnd High
and apply tlicn~for most conditions. During and since World JVar I1
l'ciiiji,'mture Fieliia, . h c v Sac. Mech. Engt.s' :mnu:d meeting, Dcc. 6 to 9, 1926. change has bccn rapid and continues a t a n :wceleratcd rate, l'he greatest
8. M o d e m Refrtietuiu Piactice, Harbison-Wnlkr Refractories Company, Pitts- strider were made in the u8c of electronic equipment. The complexitie.~
burph, 1950. of such systems and tlic rapid changes produced by the frcslily stimulated
9. Kol.ion. C. L., Jr., C h e m Eng. 60, 30. 6 , 216 (1953). instrumcnt industry. has r q u i r c d tile creatilm of another group of si~ecial-
10. Karton. F. H., Rc/irictolzes, 31.11Ed., MrGrawHill Book Ca., New York, 1950.
11. Thmuns, R. :and TV. C. T,wner, Ch<.,n. E n R , fill, S o . 6, 221 (1953).
ists. Some physicists, chemical engineers, n~eclianicalmginccrs. and eler-
12. \Tilkeal G. B., Heat Insalatiun, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Xew York, 1950. trical engineers Iraw 11rwlllr instru~lientengintws tllrough self-education
and training by the instrumcnt companies. l'lresc men arc c ~ u p l o p l
not only by instrument companies but also by r,onstruction rind operating
companies. M a n y rcl~ools of chtmirnl mgincering &er courscs in
process instrumentation n.l~icl~ n-ill aid ill trniniug :i(lditio~~:ilclier11ic:il
cngineers for this type of work and nil1 make others aware of the prob-
lems and techniques of instrument engineering.
A11 instrument selection, npplication. and purchniing shonl~lbe dircctcri
hy ;In i n * t r u n ~ m tenginecr. It is inlpussible fur :I ~ ~ r o r c sor
h prujeci,
497
498 Project Engineering of Process Plants Process Instruments 499
engineer t o keep up with tlie latest instrument developments unless his 2. Temperature; (2.01I d i d expnnsii~n;(2.021 fluid expansion; (2.03)
entire attention is devoted to this field. tliernio-elwtric.
To provide propcr instrrmientation thc instrument engineer must be 3. Pressure; (3.01 I in~lllY~oll-t~'~,c;
(3.02) I1ellon.i; ~ n d(3.031 electrical
thoroughly familiar ~vitliall phases of the proccss, its key characteristics, and diaphragn~electronic.
and the application or iunction of all the llrorers e q u i p ~ n m t . Conversely 4. 1,iqnid lcvel; (4.01I iliffermtinl; 14.021 Hont; (4.031 niiarcllaneous
a general knowledge of instrumentation is helpful to the process engineer types; (4.04) risual or ninnl~al.
and project enginecr in initial development of the proccss. 5. Motion; (5.01) tnclromrtric; (5.021 limit; (5.03) counting.
The purpose of the discussion that iollow is to sl~pplygeneral knowl- 6. Chemical and physical ~ileasurements.
edge of instrumentation. Complete ~vorks on the subject are avail-
ablel,".F.s,g.'O and should be nsed for specific problems requiring more Control Systems
detailed understanding. Because of the rapid changes taking place, how- (a1 Manual, ( b ) mccliauicnl, (cj pneumatic, ( d ) hydraulic, (ej elec-
ever, tlle serreral popular instrument periodicals should also be consulted. trical and electronic.
GENERAL PRINCIPLES
Flow Measurement
In order to indicate or control a proccss variahle, an instrument must
be rapahle of sensing the change in the variahle. Tlie sensing part of tlle Mechanical Flow Measurement
instrument may be called the primary clcnient. The instrument translates Tlie most, elementary form of ri~lumctric measurement consists of
this primary inipulsr by electrical, ~ ~ n e m n n t i Ic ,I mcriianical
~ means into filling and emptying a cb;rmher of k n o w ~rolunie. This type of mcasure-
a visiblc indication or record. I t may : h o actuate other devices t o change ment is used in the proccss industries f i r taking inventory of fluids in
proccss conditions so that the sensed variable may he returned t o some storage tanks or vessels. Certain proccsses rrquire manual or instrument
pre-determined point,. An instrument, tlierefore, is composed of some tank gaging a t regular intervals, as a cllcck on other flmv determinations.
type of pr.imary sensing dcvicc in contart nitli the fluid or substance; an The ordinary ~lisplacenientnictcr measures liquids by alternately filling
amplification unit, and finally tlie physical unit which indicates or and emptying chan~berscontained vitliin its 1111ily (Fig. 20-1). The
records and translates tlic primary sensing ilnl~ulseinto some kind of velocities and pressnre-drqx through the device are utilized to move
poiyer or motion. the chambers or diaphragms and the connrcteil vitlring. Each cycle is
Automation or iristrurnentation is, of course, not limited t o these basic counted by a series of numherrd gears ~ i h i r hare visiblc. Tliese mcters
characteristics, hut has been developed t o sense and indicate nearly all are relatirely inexpensirc and give long and accurate service ir-hen nsed
known physical or cllciiiical cliarnrteristics. Tliese include pressure, tem- within their capacity rangrs. us illustrated hy tlie residential water and
perature, density, fluidity, riscosity, color, pH, or coniposition. It is gas meter. Thc undesirable pulsating effect of the simplest type of dis-
usually unneecssary, iro\vevcr, to cuntrd precisely cacll process variable placcnicnt meter is eliniinatcii in those drsigns utilizing a rocking and
simultanconsly. Orilinwily only several key variables need be controlled rotatory motion. The displacement rncter is used more frequently fnr
to givc the desircd cnd-produet cliariteteristics. nieasurement of total production tlian for recurding instantaneuus flow
rates sincc it is essentially a totalizing device. Most displacement meters
INSTRUMENT TYPES cannot operate a t lliglr pressures and temperatures.
Classification Uisplacenient mcters arc used extcnsirely in hlending and filling opera-
tions when precise volumetric measurements are r e ~ p i r c d . hIcclianieally
The follo\ving list of instrumentation or control phases is convenient
linked displacement meters are used in the blending of costly products
for discussion purposes.
sueh a s lubricating oils. hutumatic shut-off meters are used in barrel
Primory Sensing Phoses filling or container filling operations.
( 1 ) Flu\\.: (2) tenlpel.at11re: (31 presrnrc; ( 4 ) liquid level; ( 5 ) motion.
Differential Pressure Instruments
Primory Elements, Types Differential pressure flow meters convert a portion of the pressure
1. Flow; (1.01) meclianical; (1 021 d~ffcrcntial;(1 0 3 ) area. energy of a fluid t o kinetic energy. This is accomplished by placing irb
I
500 Proled Engmeering of Process Plants Process lnrtrurnentr 501
I-- -
- -
- - 15~1.2 a n I,,: eq,r(wcil ill tt!rnis ul' 11, ol' fluid fion-iugpcr second as follows:
ORIFICEMETER
Tllc orifice platr is tlie simplest, clicapcst, and most popular rcstriction
for measuring flow. Orifice meters cornpriae well above 90% of inort Section Through
process plant metering installatii~ns. Values of tlic disrhargc coefficient Pipe Diameters Orifice Plote
range from 0.59 t o 0.62 (see published data for tabulationsj.8
Orifice flanges with flange taps are obtainable from numerous manu- (b)
facturers (Fig. 18-3). The orifice plate is held betn-een these flanges
and the pressure connections are tapped into tlic flange body by the manu- STREAM TAP
facturer. The taps are located so that when tlie flanges and plate are
assclnblcd there is 1 in. between each t a p and the plate.
Other locations of pressure taps include vena contractn and pipe taps.
The tlena contractn, downstream t a p location is a t the point of minimum
fluid stream cross secbion (Fig. 20-2b). This location varics with the !
ratio D J D , and n ~ u s tbe rnoved if the orifice size is changed. The up-
stream t a p is placed one pipe diameter from the orifice plate. Venn con-
trnctn taps are used on special installations for which manufactured
orifice flanges are unohtainable or tou costly.
Pipe taps are located so that the upstream t a p is 2.5 pipe diameters
from the plate and the downstream tap, eight diameters. Because of Fig. 20-2. Differential prpssure primary e l m ~ e n t s . ( a ) Vmtori meter. (courtes>r oi
Minncnpolis-Hanc.~v~llR r g d n l o r Carnp;my) ; f h ) wificr rnetcr in-lall:~tion s h m ~ i n g
the great downstream distance, a large portion of the pressure drop across presauw varinlian fnd:tptril frurn Pti,irlornrrilnlr 01 Intr.,i~,,c,il,ilir,t, f o i thi. Procew
1
the orifice has been recovered. This low pressure differential may be an Inti,usIries, b y pfnnissiun, h1innr;ipolis-Honcyrri.ll Rrgolitto~.Compzny); ( c ) flow
advantage for high flow rates. nozzle (courtesy oi Minneapolis-Hunrywell klegulatot. Company).
$
The diffcrential measured by pipe taps represcnts, in addition to a
portion of tlie original diffcrential across the orifice, frictional losses in Flange taps arc hy far the most popular type of pressure tap. Thcy
the length of pipe hetween taps. Pipe taps should not be uscd, therefore, are easily installed and require less space. They are satisfactory for most,
for viscous fluids or fluids with solids in suspension since these produce types of fluids including viscous materials.
large frictiunal losses. Flashing fluids, however, are often successfully The industrially important orifice platc is the sqnare-ccigc~lor sliarp-
measured with pipe taps since the vapors have opportunity t o redissolve edged orifice as shown in Fig. 20-2h. The rli~ilensiunalcl~arartcristirs1 1 4
before reaching the downstream tap. this design have been very cat.efnlly stand:~~~dizcd and cspcri~lient:~laud
504 Project Engineering o f Process Plants ! Process Instruments 505
operating data on numerous installations provide reliablc predictiou data. 111ougl1thr lotal differcntial is reprer~ntedhy tlir ~ ~ ~ o v e l n in
c n lxttl~
t leg-.
Any radical change in the orifice during w e such ns rounding of thc movement in the leg x i t h the float is a function of the total differential.
edge hy corrosion or erosion r i l l introduce serious error. For this reason The range of the instrument is increased by decreasing the diameter of
urifice plates should be constructed of the best material availahlc for the range tube. This causes more movement in the range tube than in the
resisting attack by the flowing fluid. float tube for a given differential.
Orifice installations must be designed with care. Excessive turbulence
a t points close t o the orifice will cause erroncous readings. The published Pressure inlet.
discharge coefficients are based on flow which is rouglily parallel to the
pipe axis.
A definite am~iuntof straight unobstructed piping on either sick of tlic Range tube
W
~ r h e r eTi7 = flow, Ib,/sec
= C,A2
G- P I PIT',
~ ~ C P (-
(5)
Solid Expansion Thermometers
As is well known, all materials change dimension with teinprature. I i
two strips of iiietal are ~vclrlrdtugether, onc having ;I low coefficient of
(!, = rot,amet,er coefficient of dincharge
508 Project Engineering of Process Plants Process Instruments 509
to time of tlw h i m ~ ~ t a l ldi:il
i c tllcrmolnetcr described above. T h e instru-
TABLE 20-1. Usual Industrial Ronge of Temperature Measuring Instruments
rnent is made rugged by enclosing the thermometer in a metal case.
(Based on manufacturer's data) Fittings make it powible t o scrcv the thern~omctcrinto a pipe or vessrl
Type nmzle. The glass covered scale can he obtained tilted a t convenient
1. Hiti~etallir angles.
2. llrrcor>-ill glass Otlrer t y l i c ~of f l ~ ~ rxlinnsion
i,l instruments utilize a rlorcrl s y ~ t c m . Tlrr.
3. Fluid expansion expanding fluid r.zert5 a p r w w r e on a spiral pressnrc clrmcnt i s p r i n g ~
(a) Mercury
( h ) Organic liquid c;iusing it to uncoil. Tlii; movcll~cntis trnnamittcd to a p ~ nor p11ii1t1.r
(c) Organic rapor-liquid
( d ) Gas
4. The~.n~ocnnple
(a) Copper.-constantan - 300 to ti00 Pointer
(b) Iron-ronstarrtnn 0 to 1400
(oxidizing atm) or Scale
1800 (redurinx :rtm)
(c) (:t11.o111el-:iI11111e1* 600 to 2100
(11) Plrttitiu~li-plnti~ium-rhodium 1300 to 3000
5. I(esid;~~irc
(a) Copper
(b) iYiokel
( c ) Platinum
6. Optical pyrometer
7. Radiation pyrometer
'Registered trademark of the Hoskins Corporation.
~vliirhmox-e across a c:~lil~ratctlscale in direct relationship x ~ i t htem-
expansion (Invar, nliich is iron-nickel alloy I and the other a high coeffi- perature (Fig. 20-5). T h e flnids used arc inert gases (usually nitrogen).
cient of expansion (brass or nickel), the combined strip will deflect i~nclel. liquids (mercury or organic liquids), and vapors (propane, metliyl ether,
the influence of temperature. B y making the strips thin a large deflec- et,lier, or clilorobcnzene).
tion can be obtained which can be used to inovc a pointer and ind'icatc Pressure thermometerr filled \vith liquid or gas must he compensated
tlie tenq~erature. f o r ambient temperature changes. If the temperature along tlie capillary
A very popular dial thermonieter consists of n bimetallic strip ivound end a t the pressure spring is radically different from that a t the calibra-
into a helix. One end is fastened to the casing and the other end t o :I tion point, t h e teml~eraturerradillgs d l be in error since voluinctrir
rod connected t o a pointer. .4s the teinpcraturc changes the movement expansion in these arcae d l be cli:~nge(l. Tu overwme t l ~ i seffect a bi-
of tlie helix causes the rod and attached puinter to move. The dials are metallic strip or a second prcssure spring. witli a capillary (witliout hul111
built in sizes from 1% in. to 5 in. rruming. adinrent to the mens~iringrxpillury can 11c installrd in opposition
These dial thermometers arc lugged and reasunnllly accurate (within to the l~reesure-measuring spring. This arrmgelncnt will cancel tlic
1% of scale) alien properly r l i ~ ~ s c n .The industrial-type rncrcury-in- ambient temperature effcct~.
glass tlierniometers are the mo.!t cconuniical and convenient mrans for Vapor-fillcd s y s t e n ~ srequire O I I such compensation if tlir: liquid lcwl
nonrecording temperature measurement of accessible prneess points. remains in the bulb. T h e pressure in tlic ~ y s t e n imust rorrrspond to tlic
The bimetallic strip instrur~ientis uscd extensively for on-off control vapor pressure of the liquid a t tlie bulb regardless of ambient conditions.
of simple devices such as air-conditioning systems. T h e use of fluid-expansion, pressure tliermometrre in process plants is
very extenairc, l~:wticularly in temperature ranges b e t w e n 0 und 500" F.
Fluid Expansion Thermometers I n order t o keep tlie length of capillary to a minimum, a transmitter-type
T h e most familiar temperature measuring instruuient, the mercury-in- instrument may be used. This instrument is located near tlic primary
glass tl~er~iiumeter,
is designed iur l o i d l y 111ou11tt:d;~j~plirations
siluilar element, and converts the expansion pressure impulse into an electrical or
510 Project Engineering of Procerr Plants I Process Instruments 51 1
pneumatic signal w1iic.h m a y be conducted to a rentral control house. 2. -4 third conductor may be introduced into one side of the circuit as in Fig.
Since tlie primary sensing device is fundamentally a pressure instrument. 20-6a d h o u t changing the emf produced, provided the temperature along
pressure-type instrnment elements such a s bellows and Rourdon elemmtr the conductor remains constant
(helix or spiral) m a y he used a s secondary elcmcnts for indicating, recurd- 3. A third conductor may he introih~ccdon both sides of the circuit as in Fig.
20-Gb without changing thr rmf produrcd if the intermediate j~inctionsare at
ing. and controlling. the mme temperature. IThr :~lgphmicsums of the voltages generated by a
T h e pressure-thennonieter instruments are relatively inexpensive c o n - number of dissimilar conductors joined together in a circuit is a function of
pared to thermo-electric instruments. T h e vapor-filled instrument is tlle temperature only.)
most popular of t h e three types. It is lowest in coat, requires no compen-
sation, and has rapid res1)onse. T h e scale, hinvever, is nonlinear. Of tlie
three, tlie mercury-filled thermometer is the most stable a n d sensitive.
accuracy ior precise work such as research can bc ohtaiued at a l~iglicrcod. mnl of the tl~crtnoc~rul~le ir l~alancedagainst a known emf produced by a
TIIER\IOCOUPLE If-ELLS ASII ISSTRUJIEXTS. Industrial-ty11e t l ~ c r ~ n o - Ilattery across a calibrated slide mire. The battery is periodically and
couples are made in several r a y s depending on tllc type. Chrmuel-alumel auton~aticallystandardized against a standard cell.
and iron-constantan wires are usually tristed v i t h t ~ v oturns and m l d e d A number of methods are used for halancing the thermocouple emf and
a t the ends wit11 a d-c carbon arc' using a flux sue11 as borax. The ends thus indicating and recording the temperature hy movement of the con-
of copper-constantan and platinum arc not twisted but usually just fused tact on t h r ~lirlc77-irr. The iimple potentiomctcr circuit can hr i ~ ~ a l l c
into a round head. For platinum a carbon arc is used and for coppcr- t to perform all operations nutomatically. Cnbalance in a galvanometer
constantan, a soldering proccdurc. The rotnniunly used \\-ires vary in may be detected by a continuous system 11-hich rnomcntarily clamps the
size from 0.032 to 0.1285 in. in diameter. Platinun~is usually 0.02 in. in g:~lranomett~r pointer in position and thcn moves the slide wire hy means
diameter. of :I mutor until lx~lanccis r e a c h ~ d . This type was for years the standnrrl
provess instrlni~ent. Norc recently, h o w v e r , high speed instruments
p" COVERHEAD SSTD, IRON PIPE SIZE
Y R O U G H T IRON NIPPLE -STD. PIPE T H R E A D
hnsetl on electronic circuits maintain an almost instantnncous or contin-
uous balance. I n several of thcse the galvanometer has been rcplaecd by
a devicc n-l~ichconverts the d-c thermocouple current t o a-c. This is
follo~vedby voltage amplification and the voltage is applicd t o the motor.
These instruments are rapid, rugged, and extremely accurate. T l ~ c
Icngth of a 12 in. chart can be trarerscd in one second. It has, there-
fore: hren posiilile to offer m r h instrunimts for measuring and recording
a nu11111cr of different te~nperaturcpoints on one cl~art.
L E N G T H OF IMMERSION
The cold junction oi the therniocouple circuit is a t the instrument.
R a t l m than attempt to maintain it a t a constant temperature, an autu-
Fig. 20-7. Tl~r~nocouple
assrmbly. (Courtesy of Minneapolis-Honey\~ellRegulator matic cold junction compensator is provided. This compensator is n
Compnny.) resistor in the potentiometer connected in parallel with the slidemire. T h e
So niany processes involve corrosi~efluids and fluids under pre.& -we resistor is made of a material whnse resistance is sensitive to temperature
that bare tl~ermoci~uples are scldom used. Instead the tlrermocouple is d ~ a n g e s . The change in resistance causes a niovenient of the slidewire
inserted into a nlanufactured x~ellwhich is provided \$-it11 fittings for balance pwition so as to compcnsatc for cold junction tcnipernture
mounting on a pille or pressurc vessel (Fig 20-7). Instruri~entmanufac- cl~anges.
turers offer these assenlblies conlplete with tl~crn~ocouple, two-holed LEADWIRES. Lead mires must be used properly if thcrmocouple mcas-
veramir insulators ior the wires. ~vell,and ter~ninalilea11 x i t h cover. The urements are to he accurate. Llsually it is impractical t o use the thcrmo-
most eoninlon veil materials are cnrhon steel, stainless steels, and chro- couple xire n i a conductor from the junction all the way t o a remote
nliutn steels. recorder. I.eatl vircs which are cheaper and easier to handle are gener-
The speed of response of a tliern~oconpleasse~nbly (well and thcrmo- ally cunnectcd to the heavicr thernlocouple wircs a t the head of the
cuuple) can bc increasd and thennocouple errms decreased by using t~l~ern~ocouplc well, and conducted to the instrument. If the temperature
s n ~ a l ldiameter, thin wells, and couples of lo\\- mass. The enor for tcm- a t the head and the cold junction a t the instrument are the same, any
perature n~eitsuren~ent uf gascs can be further reduced by increasing the suitable conductors can he used. Since these two tclnpcratures arc not
fl[~wrate around t l ~ cassembly and by interposing a radiation screen be- usually thc same in process installations, lend wires of similar thermo-
tween the co~lduitwalls and thc tl~ertnocoupleassembly. I n all cases the electric properties t o the tl~crn~ocouple must he employed as lead wires.
thcrmoconple well nlust make gaud contact wit11 the ~vellhudy t o insure Iron-constantan anti copper-constantan of snialler dianicter than thermo-
rapid response. couple wire are used as lead wires for their respective tl~cnnocouples. The
MEASUREMENT OF EMF. The irrstrulncnts used for rccording tl~ermo- lead wire material can often he made of rejected thennocouple material
couple emf's in terms of tc~npcratureand controlling processes based on sincc it must only he similar to the thern~ocouplenletal in the temperature
the nieasrlrcd tculpcrature arc usually ~ ~ o t m i i n ~ ~ i ~ r e rcircuit.;.
- t y . ~ , e Tire range oi the instrument. Iron and copper-nickel alloy are used for con-
514 Project Engineering of Process Plants Process Instruments 515
nection respectively to Cltromcl slid Alumel; arlrl copper and copper-nickel the total radiant energy coming from a hot ohject by focusing the energy
alloy, to platirium and platinum-rllo(li11111. with a lens on a thermopile ( a numher of thermocouples connected in
Lead wires can be insulattd in many r w y ? riqimding (in the atrnos- srriesi. The thermopile generates an emf proportional to the radiant
phere. Insulation such as enamel, rubher, ashest.os, glass fiber, and eotton energy. If an object being measured approximates black body conditions
are on the market. mcli as a furnace flame, tlic energy transmitted is proportional to the
fourth power of the ahsolute temperature of thc object.
The familiar manually operated optical pyrorneter compares the inten-
The resistance thermotncter, long a standard means for precise laho- sity of monocliroinatie radiation roming from an ohject to an adjustable
ratory temperature measurement, is also becoming more important as standard source. The radiation from the ohject and from a tungsten
an industrial instrument. I t is competitive xvith the thermocouple in the lamp are compared through red filters. The current to the lamp can be
temperature range of -300" F to 950" F. Although more costly and varicd by changing a resistance until thc two images match. The meter
hulky, and slower to respond, it has greatcr sensitivity and requires no is calibrated for temperature in terms of the resistanec variations.
cold junction compensati~in. One type of automatic optical pyronleter utilizes t ~ photoelectric
o cells
to compare the energy from the hot ohject and a carbon filament lamp.
B R A l D E O F l B R E GLASS T U B I N G - Tlie lamp currcnt is autonlatically varied to bring the two photocells into
OUTER B R I I l o E O C ~ B R EGLLISS T U B I N G - VARNISH IYPREGNATEO
VARNISH I M P R E G N A T E D equilibrium. This current is then proportional to the temperature and can
,MING&HIN YlNDlNG
he used t o actuate a recorder. Tlie instrument is instantaneous and can
rcqiond to a 200' F change in less than :& of a sccond. I t is thus valuable
for measuring temperatures of moving ohjects.
Tlicse high temperature pyron~etersare more familiar in stccl mills,
hut they are used in chemical plants particularly for controlling rutary
kilns and furnaces.
~ 5 8 E S T O SINSULATED
COPPER W I R E
Pressure Measuring Instruments
Fig. 20-8. Resistance thermometer assembly. (Caurtcsy of Minneal~olis-Honeynell
R ~ g u l a t o rComlxmy.)
Bourdon-Type Gage
Resistance thermometry utilizes thc increasc of resistance of metals The simple Bourdon tube and it,? modifications are the most commonly
with temperature. A typical thermometer hulh as shown in Fig. 20-8 used pressure measuring devices in the process plant. The Bourdon tube
consists of a wire-wound resistor 1% in. in length. The Manganin coil as shown in Fig, 20-9 consists of a closed hollow metal tube elliptical in
connected in series is used to adjust the temperature-resistance charac- cross section. It is bent in a semi-circular shape, fixed a t one end and
teristics. These bulbs are installed in wells similar to those for therrno- connected at that end to the pressure source. Application of a pressure
couples. Nickel is the most popular resistance element material since it higher than atmospheric causes the tube to unwind while a vacuum causes
is inexpensive and has a high change of resistance with temperature. rontraction. By means of a connecting linkage and a gear and pinion, a
Platinum is more accurate and can be used for higher temperatures. pointer is made to move over a calihratcd scale. An approximate linear
The resistance element is made a portion of some bridge circuit such rclationsliip between pressure and scale movement exists over ranges of
as a Wheatstone bridge. A direct current is supplied by a battery. The moderate size.
change in resistance of the bulb unbalances the bridgc, and the unbalance The most familiar Bourdon gages are the indicating dial gagcs which
is detected and corrected in a similar mallner to that described fur poten- are cheap, rugged, and acrurate (?I$ of 1% of scale range for industrial-
tiometer circuits for t~hermocouples. type and '/2 of 1% of reading for laboratory models). They are cotnmoil
in all parts of process plants, and are available in a number of ranges
OPTICALA N D RADIATION
PYRDMETERS from 30 in. of mercury vacuum to 10,000 psi prcssnre. Laboratory test
Radiation or optical pyrometers are used for measuring temperature gages rapahle of measuring q i to 100,000 psi are also produced.
above the ranges of other mstruments. Rad~ationpyrometers measure Althuugh the simple Bourdon-tube element may be used for moving a
516 Project Engineering of Process Plants Process Instruments 517
pen linkagc of a recordcr in higher prcssure ranges (300 psi to 20,000 psi), measurements. JIetnl Lcllm!-s and diaphragms operate ~ v i t nmch l~ greater
spirally 11r helically ~vrappcdBourdon elements arc niorc comn~onlyused smn-itivity in t h ~ s eranges.
in recording instruiilcnts particularly for the loxver pressure ranges (0 psi Several 11rlIon.s ~ l e ~ n c narc
t s shown in Fig. 20-10. The higl>crpressnre
ti1 4000 psii. The flat spiral or a helically \\.rapped eie~iicntd l produce acting U I I tlic outside of tile lolv prer$ure i ~ e l l o ~tends
\ - ~ to compress it
largcr ~leflcctionsa t t h t ~irec em1 for a given pressure differential than t l ~ c causing a liointcr tu m > r e l'hc range of the i n ~ t r u n ~ c nist dctcrmincd
aililple Hourdun tubc. Thc NOT-ementis in effect the con~binedaction of I,? tlie stitl'ness of the spring n-hicli is located in tlic scaling 1iellon.s on
the right. IIerc as in othrr iustrumiwts the pen nioven~entcan be linked
CASE
MOVEMENT HOLDING SCREWS
BOURDONTUBE "TO POINTER
POINTER
TIP
CONNECTING LlNK SCREWS
MOVEMENT
CONNECTING LlNK
MOVEMENT SLIDE SCREWS
HAIR SPRING
SOCKET SCREWS
iyz- 12 SOCKET
1 3 PIPE CONNECTION
14 DIAL PIN
Fig. 20-9. Buurrlon tnhc pt.rsan.e gage. (Cuurtes,v uf .Lshcroft Gage Division uf
N a m i n g Mnxn-cll and Muow, In<:.)
a number of sinqile Bourdon elenlcnts cun~icctcdin scries. This greater t o pticu~naticur clcctrical systems to affect control of a pri~cebs. Belloiw
movemcnt is necessary for operating t h r ~ u g lauitahle
i mcchanicnl linkages, elenlents arc used in ranges from 100 in. of n-atcr t o 30 or 40 psig and a t
electrical contacts, pneumatic systems, and recording pens on contrdlcrs 10 to 30 in. of mercury vacuum.
and rccorders. For the l o m r ranges of piisitivc prcssure coum~unly et~counterctlin
Bourdon tube materials used are carbon stcel, stilinlcis stcel. vnriuu: ~r~casuring furnace draft,s (0 t o 40 in. of water) a diaphragm clemcnt of
cliro~iiiunisteels, bronzc, and beryllium copper. The choicc of mnteri:%l lrntlier or lilastic material is used. It ~ u o r c sxvitli changes in diflere~~tial
depends on tlic pressure range and fluid being measured. Bronzc tu11es arc pressure across it and thc ~i~iivcment can he tr:ln.;fcrrt!d to :L pointer.
sclccted iiiust frequently for prcssurcs bclo~v1000 psig. High prcsburcs Fur higllcr pressures up t o 5 p i g nlctallic diaphragms ( b r a s or bronze)
and corrosive liquids rcquire alloy steels. arc used.
For certain highly corrosive conditions it is prcferal~leto isolate ?.IE
fluid from the tuhe. This is accomplished by providing a flexible dia- Manometers
pl~ragni~ i t iiicasurcd
h fluid on one side and a realing or transmission fluid I n addition to the familiar laboratory type manomctcr: cliffcrcntial-
(oil) on tlic other side in contact with thc Bourdon clcnient. pressure :iier~ury ~iiano~nctcrsand the ~i~ercurylessmano~iietcrs or
Stcam prersurc gages can be protected from high tcn~pcraturesby inter- force-balance instruments discussed under " F l o i ~Mcters" provide relinhle
posing tuhing having m e or t ~ v ocoils between the pressure t a p :~ndtlrc measurcmcnt of prcssurc difYcrentials up to 600 in. of ~vntcr. For l o ~ v
gage. S t c a ~ nconrlenses in this crude atmospheric cooler and is trapped in pressures one of the sex-era1 bell differential prcssure elenients is often
the coils. The temperature in the gage is thereby liept bclow that of tlie used. T11csc cle~iicntsconsist of a bucket or bell invcrtcd in a n oil bath.
steam. One pressure t a p terminates inside the bell and the other terminates
uutsiile. TIw bell tllen moves up or don-n d e p n d i u g uu chc ilifle~.ei~tial.
Bellows a n d Diaphragm lnstrumenls This n~ovement is transferred t o a pen. Many other i ~ ~ a n u m e t eor r
I n the lower pressurc ranges, below 30 psig, and for vacuum, more sen- niaiiometer-like instruments are arailable, particularly for the low
sitive elements than the Bourdon type are require0 to 11rot111crri:li:~l~lr pressure range.
518 Project Engineering of Process Plants
Process Instruments
2 25"
DlAMCTL9 ~~'wATCR
1A"LONG LlVEL
FILTER-
DRIPWELL
LEVEL
Miscellaneous Types
There are Inany other typcs of level ~neasuriugdevices. A diaphrugm
phced in the bottom of an open tank ran IK urul tu indicntc Ievcl. T h c
~ n ( ~ v e u i e noft the diaphmgni can he balanced by LI force-l~alancepucu-
Fig. 20-11. Float-type level eontrollcr and r:tlvc. (Cowl.trsy oi Mason-Trilnn niatic system and the resulting air pressure used as a measure of the
Rrgnl:itor Company.) liquid height. T h e ~ eunits are very sensitirc nnd particularly valuable
for viscous liquids whicl~ dl1 not function well in the float-tgpc
basic principles by a simple demonstration. T h e variat,ion in forre on instruments.
a spring scale and the moverneut of the float is illustrated for threr
levels of liquid. If instead of a spring scale a torque tube as in Fig.
. Scvcral clcctronic, cl~.ctric:~l,
,Ll~esccnq,li,y ~ ~ l ~ i ~ t o e l c t .ccll
and r;idiuli~~ri derircs are also available.
t r i c units, gan11n:i radiation, and high frr-
20-13 is used, the twisting of the tube is proportional t o the level of quency alternating current. The transfer of pl~otoelectricenergy, high
liquid. This movement is made t o operate a pneumatic system which frequencies, and ganima mtlietion are all afft~rte(l11y intcrvcuing liquids.
transmits a proportional air pressure to a recorder, alarm, or controller. Suitahle scnsing tlcvice~can, t l ~ r ~ . e f n r he e , usrd t o dctcrt tlic position
0 1 a Icvcl :it d l tiuws.
The moment acting on the torque tube is equal t o the dorrnward force
Project Engineering of Process Plants Process Instruments 523
Measurement of Motion
Tachometric Devices
Tachometers of various kinds m a y be obtained for prnctirally any
speed. Those for high-speed ( 7 to 10,000 rlnnl ~ n a c l i i ~ ~such
c a a s certain
turbine generators and centriiugal compressors are usually of the vihrat-
ing reed type. This t y p e instrument is used for indicating prin~arily
because its indicating mcchanism has little or no force output. Other
instruments utilize stroboscopic principles or a driven generating device
which in turn has its emf sensed by a translating instrument t o indicate,
record, or control.
Nearly all high-speed machines such a s turhines are cquippcd x i t h
speed-gorerning devices actuated by centrifugal force. T h e primary
524 Project Engineering of Process Plants Process Instruments 525
<lc\-icc rotute? at ~ 1 1 1 1 1 ,ilirwt *pee11 ratio wit11 ~ I I Cn l i t ~ l ~ i n c .:b S ~ I W I I a rarcf111 ccono~nicstudy. It n-oi~ldhc un\visc, for instance, to employ
incrcascs w i g h t s nctilatc<li ~ ycentrifugal i o r w q ~ c r a t ca valvc admitting a n infra-red analyzes ~ ~ d l c%: n ~lrocc-s temperature at a critical point
oil into :I iiyrlrai~lir syFtr111: t l i ~hydralilir .ystwn in tiirn xttuates 1% I W I I I ~ he stati>tically (,orrelated with pr,~iluctquality.
~ l i : ~ l i l ~ ~ - or
: t g pisto11-ty111~
n~ v ; ~ l v <rontrolli~lg
~ .steal11 flanv l o thr mar11inc. A list such as that in Tahlc 20-2 i-. subj'ct to rapid change. Eacli
On certain units the primary devirr miry be linke0 directly t o t l ~ econtrol ~ i timproved,
year existing i n s t r u ~ ~ ~ rare s a ~ l dncw ones are introduced.
v a l r r , but the h y ~ l r a ~ ~.systrm
lir p m n i t s greater flcxihility. T l ~ coil 11.w1
is taken directly irum thc turbine hlbricating systcni. Such gowrnors PROCESS CONTROL
are safety devices l ~ r i n ~ a r i l sinw y ~ i t ha sudden load decrcasc the
machine could easily r c a c l ~crilical slice~ls. General
S e a r l y all process-control apl~licationsfor the process plant inrolve
Limit Controls an adjr~stmentin rate or cllangr in dirwtion of fluid f l o ~T h e elcments
The limit-typc dcvire is usu;~lly an elrrtrical contact ~rhicli opens ui control consist of a prilnary or sensing d r r i w , a eccondary clemmt
or closes a t preset lilnits. Tlic no\r cilnimon electric eye as used t o or translation device, gcncrally lcrroivn :is the instnnnent, and a tliird
open doors by intcrr~iptionof a heinn of light is a Y ~ I I I ~ Iillustration C of elenlent 1rhic11 effects thc cl~angcin strttam l~ropcrtirs. N o s t control
$1 limit ( l e ~ i c e . Thc i ~ ~ t ~ , r r ~ i l l of
t i ( the
i n light I m n i chnngei the out-put systems utilize pneumatic systcms for operation of the third eleluent.
of a photoelectsir cell: w11icli chnngc can hc risc11 to o11er:itc micro-
s\vitchee and in turn relays. Batch Systems
Bi1tc11 s y s t m control usually involvc? a simple control 1rhich \\-ill
Counting Instruments allow n certain desircd cunditim to I J ~reucl~eclin a nonflow system and
Thc simplest type of totalizing or colmting device is t l ~ ctrip countcr. continue to maintain that condition until completion of the process.
A rntcl~ctrotates a nl~mhrrcdclisk onc tooth ur int~,gcra t car11 cyrlr,. Tlie .ibatch system may bc illustmtccl 11y ;I stram-jacketed kcttle filled
n m t r o n s e c ~ ~ t i vdisk
e iv in turn niovrcl one integer for each revolution with a fluid t o be 11r:itetl. Thc controller opens a valvc admitting steam
of t l ~ cfirst. to the kcttle jackct rdlerc i t is condenser1 giving up heat to the walls of
t l ~ ckettle. T h e con(1cnsate is c~~ntinuously TI-ithdra~vnby means of a
Physical a n d Chemical Measurements steam trap. \Vllcn the intcrnal fluid re;rches the clesircil temperature tlrc
I n modern process p1;lnts many control laboratory functions h a r e been controller maint:lins thc t e m p e r a t u r ~11y o l i e n i ~ ~or
g closing the steam
displaced by automatic instronients cleeigne~l to measure continuously inlet ralvc.
the properties of a flii~vingprocess stream. The development of instru- Such systems are oftcn used in t l ~ cfood industry when a cooking
mental analytical tcclmiques for thc labomtory v a s iollorvcd closely process niuet continue for a n cstcn(lcd leugtl! of t i n ~ c . Tlic operator
by modifications o i 1nhor;rtory instrnn~entsior use a s stream analyzers fills the kettlc and 11uts thc instrument into iq~eratiun. By the use of a
\vhieh could be installed in t11c plant. timing dcvire the system can bc made to shut-off a t tlrc end of a certain
Processes requiring a physical n~easurenrent or a clieniical analysis of period.
the psiduct arc burdened \vitb a n excessirc time lag \\-l~cnoperators nmst If ten~pcratureis not, critical the same type heating can be accom-
~ r y changing conditions. Even
axvait results from a control l a l ~ o r a t ~ bciore plisl~ed by a jacket pressure control which r.ontrols the steam into thc
though the initial cost limy be high the use of stream analyzers r n c l ~ jacket. Thc ronclensatc trap will ~,imtinuounly\\-itlldraw condensate,
a s infrarcd spectroplioto~~~ctcrs have prured profitable in poccsscs rc- - and thc jacket \rill be held a t t l ~ csame t c l q ~ c r a t a r ea s long as the prcs-
quiring rigid quality control. T h e continuous record eliminates time lag sure is constant.
and prevents llroductiun ui large quantities of pru,luct ~v1:ich do not Location of the primary element in n stirred kcttle is relatively
nlcct specification. unimportant since all the fluid must ultinrately reach the same tempera-
A list o i some of thc instruments used to rncasure clrcmical and ture, a t xliich time the control will close the stcam valve until a
physical properties is given in Table 20-2. These instruments have temperature drop is sensed.
been adapted for continuous stream analysis. Some of these instruments Fluid-expansion type temperature controllers are most irequcnt:ly nscd
arc costly and in such cases tlic decision to usc tlmn most be base11 on in such batrll-type proccsees. T h e instrument may or may not 11c
sq'""la>[ daslnaay azuoll UO!?"![dd" 1 3 a p puinaeaJy XIiL
!
U!ql!.,' "ill-r.Ll<i Ja/,UII *.1UDIII
.W,,W~,,#,, pl,,, W " ! ~ " ~ < , ~ , , S , 'iun!lS.,.,la
' m q u m [ " r o y sl#o~#~>!lao.,mluarayrp ~ a l r a J l o l l i i [ ~~# -( J I J s1,m~~,d,8!~1 13,,!l,>,: p,
4 ~ ~ Y I ! I ~ ' , '"I='
v IU~PUO,I' l i u i l ~ u o f l * . m n oar18r 18 I~Z-8.0 uurl reus*., ae!asanold "! .,J
.,IS r ~ q q n qi!u om2 m ~ l a q 28,: ~ m ~ a ~ c f i 2" qc~u
1- IPWW~"1 ~ 1 , " J ! Y ~- m a J H .u! I1'1 1.0 -U.W~IS I"m m a i-ncl~l ro m m p p!nb![ amraoly ulnrrala rosy u! soa.,14g?y!(l o!<l<lzxcla!>utrilhss.j
.-
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L
0
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C
Y
* p"'J72"r
-
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Y
.-u I,,,, ,z,,,,>r Jl,",.d ?Idl,!,\, \ .,l l d i j ,(n!il .<J4,\
3,,J E!<!,I& .pl!UI!p,l I"r).Bd*"Y,I JD ,U.,IIIw,,*L.,Jy q J , 9 , ~-
y OO!IB!.,ap IIIIIIII!U!J%J
. ~ ~- pp - - ~-
~ ~ - ~ ~ ~~ ~~
~
throttling
bellows
hmospheric
pressur
ff
, Jeedle valve liqua 11 1
pi lot
reloy
control
valve
restriction/
Control Centers
Pncunintic m i l clectrmic iransmission per~nitstllc ccntralization of all
instruu~cnts. I\Inltimillion rloll:~rIlrocrss nniti p r ~ d n c i n glarge quantities
of high q ~ l a l i t yl~rt~rluctc m n o ~ vbe ~ p c r a l d11y n f c c~x p c r i e ~ m dnle~i
~vlio~ c l d o mneed IIIOVE from tl~il~~01nfi1rtah1e surronnilings of a modern
air-conditioned control room. TIIC emtrol 11ou.o IIU hecc~mcnot only
the nerve renter of the process unit but also the show place. Attenti011
is given to the CII~I-cnience :is n.t!ll as alq~enr:mce of hut11 inside and out-
side nf the contri~lIhiiusc :is well as the panel board itwli. Instruurent
~nanniacturivshave rcsl~on~lcd to t i i s trenll m i l arc providing shapes and
stylcr of inilriunmts that produce not only nrcurntc control but also an
:~ttmctivccontrol parlcl. Tyllicnl conlrol 11:11ids ; ~ r cslro~vnin Fig. 20-17.
or inow is illffil~il~tlt.T l ~ cs:lnie intensity slnk11~Ihe provi~lc-~ll ) c l ~ i ~the
i~l
The size : ~ n d:Irrangemuit of eontrd piu~vl-11:~sI I C ~ I I ( ~ I ~ a n g cconsider-
d h 111e:laing control room :Ipllenrnncc ?:In Ile
llallel f<lr ~nnintenancc.
ably \vitll tllc advcnt of gr:lllllic panels (see Fig. 20-17). Tlic graphic
obtaincd with a dropped criling slightly highcr than tlrc c o n t r ~ dp~lncltop.
pancl provides n simplified f k ~ wdiagram of the process. I t s utility,
Space is thus provided for troffered lighting: and heating :~ndventi1:iting
Irowcvsr, is more l~cnefici:rl to uninitiated than ti, cspcricnced process
ducts.
operators, ~ l must ~ uIcnm Lo h n u ~ vall procrss l ~ l ~ a s regardless
rs of cmtrill C,~li,rscliclncs an11 ~nntcrinlsvary with coml1:111y preference. Ceilings
board an.ange!nents. Tlrc rnii..t important cllangi: caused by graphic
for control renters :rrc often constnlctcd of noninilnnnnal~le :tcoustical
panels has heen tlre rcductio11 in instrument size, permitting subsequent
~rrntcri:lls wllicll are usunlly uf :I light color 11ut may he 11:lintrd :IS ~ l e s i r f d
rcductims in control p ~ i e Icugth l and thus control roolns. Tlic trend to
Varions s l ~ : r d ~ofs green or gray hnve l ~ c mused for the ci~ntrolpanrl.
aniallcr sizcs is :llm evident in instromenls not intcndcd for grapliic panel
I n i,rd~.r to 11roviilc n clcan appe:lr:lnce cer:nnii, tilc can he wrrl for
laynuts.
e i l v : I s Flours nrc gmcr:llly concrctc slab n.itl~trrr:lzzo. a q h n l t
I n arranging the contrd center for the process plant there should he
tile. or rublwr tile finisl~. 1t11hhcr tile pri~vi~ics the n~ilst c i ~ l n f o r t ~ l ~ ~ k
xdcquatc apace hel~indthe pancl for instrument maintcnance. h m i n i ~ n u n ~
vxlking surf;~cc, l3utli rulll~crand ; i ~ p l ~ atilc
l t are mucll lcrs expen>irc
of six f t betrwen building wall and instrument is desirable.
thnn terrazzo.
If tlrc proress is l ~ n z a r ~ l or ~ ~subject
ui to fire, lnrge vindow openings
I t is c(nnmon pmeticc for the control building to have a n office for tlre
should I J installrd
~ 011 thc s l ~ t ~ l t c rsi~lc.
c ~ l S111:111 n.in,lons may be provided
chief or shift operator, toilet facilities, a pantry equipped ~vit11a n electric
on tlic side nearcst the prure>s unit. All window glass al~ouldhe shatter-
refrigerator, a sink, and a hot-plate where tlic operators can Tvarm their
11ruof or wire ~ 1 : ~ s-it. least three access opcningr or esits should h r
food (shift ol~rratorsare not urnally permitted to leave the unit I . An
provided in the control ruuni. Door 1lardr~-aresliould bc anti-panic type
anto~nnticallyrliillril KAtrr ~irinkingfountain is aslinlly pro\-iflc~l. A
542
I Process Instruments 543
Project Engineering of Process Plontr
locker-room is sometimes included wit11 slio\ver fncilities so that ~iperatora engineer, and process engineer. The project and proress cngineers must
ran change rlothing a t the proress unit. describe the process, explain the customer's thinking on instrumentation,
Snmnier and ~vinter, air-ronditioned control rooms are hrco~ning and indirate the hudget.
ronimon, particularly in the warmer climates. If air-conditioning is I Kno\dcdgc of instrumentation is very helpful to the process and project
provided, heating is included in the same system. Ventilation may be engineer in such discussions. V'ith the inforniation obtained from these
arcon~plishedby duct work i ~ byr fans located in tlie huiliiing wall.;. Duct talks and subsequent discussions i l f critical control points, the instrument
~ o r dues
k not greatly increase costs and eliminatcs fan noise. For some engineer is able t o determine all the variables for each process unit and
processes the control rooul is maintainrd under a positive liressure, decide which must be controllrd, nicasurcd, or indicnted. Based on his
Intake air is rcceived from an elevated stack and noxious funics near the knowledge of the latest and best instrumentation he can detrrrninc all the
ground level cannot enter the room. instruments required for the pr(1cess unit.
I n general the cost of the control room is a very small part of the cost All of these instruments are then shown schematically on thc engi-
of proress equipment. Attractive control rooms are good morale builders. neering flow diagram by means of synlbols (ecc Table 5-3'1. I*:aclr
The slight additinnal cost of a clean and pleasant working space is indeed instrument is assigncd a numhcr ~vhiehis used for identification in design.
nell spent. purchasing, and construrtion. Instruments are then selected on the hasis
of competitive bids from manufacturers.
INSTRUMENTATION ENGINEERING hlanufacturers' instrument drawings are used in erection as well as a
Instrumentation developments are continuing a t a bewildering rate. limited numbcr of installation dranings madc by thc instrument depart-
Progressive operating companies and instrument manufacturers rnaintain ment. These installatim ilrawings usudly include typical installation
research divisions conccntrating on thc development of nelv trchniques, sketches for orifice meters, thermocouple assemblies and others. Such
and thc instrument engineer who is responsible for the selection and drawings can be used for a number of differrnt types of jubs. Henrc
pri~peroperation of instruments in a process plant must keep up with these instrument drafting is not a very Iargc task for most projects. Dra\~-ings
nev developments hy attending technical meetings and reading journals. of tlic pancl board layout must also he made since these are designed fur
I n addition, discussions of new instrumcnt developments n i t h man- cacli job using standard pancls which havc been arranged t o suit the
ufacturer's representatives is a necessity. particular conditions.
A process plant design and construction project needs the services of Items such as orifice plates are lncatcd on piping dra~vings,but in
a rapable and well-informed instrurncnt engineering group. At present general fcw detailcd instructions in the form of drawings arc required.
instrumcnt engineers have various backgr~~unds such as chemical mgi- Instrument installation niust he done 11y liighly skilled nien supervir;rd
ncering, physics, electrical engincering, mechanical engineering. and hy an instrument engineer. Thc dccisii~nson the various details can bc
diemistry. All havc in common a n interest in precise ruachinery and made nioet ceiinouiically during construrtiun hy the instrummt enginecr-
electronic equipment. in-charge. I n this way a c o n d e r a h l c nniount of ci~stlydrafting time is
The organization of a n instrument cngincering group for plant design a~oidcd.
project varies in cach company. I n general, howevcr, one engineer is Successful and economical instrumentatinn of a proces. plant rlemands
:issigned rcsponsihility for the instrumentation of a section of a plant or cooperation hetwcen the process, project, and instrunlent enginccrs It
an cntire plant. This engineer begins his work early in the development also requires a mutual understanding of tlic otlicr cngineers' field so that
of the plant design. During the process design stage the priiccss cngincer discussions ran proceed beyond the realm of generalities and so that
\ d l seek his advice on phascs iif design which would he greatly influenced cmcrete decisions can be reached. Thc projert engineer can maintain
by instrument sclection. Often the design of a chemical reactor, for I n spraking knowledge with nr\v instrument ~ l e ~ c l o p n ~ r nbyt s reading
instanre, can he greatly simplified by clever application of control the hrief accounts dcsigned for such purposer: in journals of rhemistry
instruments. and clic~nical engineering. F i ~ l l u ~ i ntheg nlure iirtailrd arrourits in
TTlicn process design is complete and the engineering flow diagram is q~ecializedir~strurncntatiun journals usually proves too nlucl~nf a task
heing developed, all instrumentation including indicating instruments since tlie 11rqject engineer also ruust rrnd thr eurrcnt literature I ~ I
niust bc deterniincd. This is hest accomplislied by first hrginning n i t h [ ~ r o e e s s ~ cheiuical
s, engineering thcurctical dcvelu~lnlents, and pruccsb
several work conferences between the instrument engineer, project cquilxiient.
21
54s Project Engineering of Process Plants
REFERENCES CHAPTER
1. Brhar. M. F.. "Handbook oi Meacoremmt and Control.'' Part I1 oi 1mti.w
m m t s ond datonioiion. 9:; S o . 12 (1954).
2 . Boyd D. 11.. Oil arrrl Gas Jui~,nril,63, S o . 2 i , 139 (1954).
. S. and D . 1'. Camphell, Principlrs of Serr;o,nechrrnirmr, John IYilry
3. R ~ . o n n G.
8 Sons. I n e . S e x IYolk.1948.
4. Dike, Paul H.. Thcrmoelectrie Thei-murnet~y,Leeds and Sortlmip Co.. Plr~le-
delphia, Pa., 1954.
5. Eekman, Don:il<i P.. Irtdrrstriul Z~islramrntutinn,John ITiley 6 Sons. Inc..
S e w York, 1950.
6 . Eckman. Dormld P.. P I - i n c i ~ d r sof Indii.diln1 Process C o n l w l , J u l i n Xllry h
Sons. Inr.. S c w I-ork.1945.
7. Farrington, G. II., F~~~idrr,ircnlol.sof A i ~ l u m n t i c Control, Clrnlinlnn and Hall,
P R I M A R Y UTILITIES
ITtilities nhirh are vital to the operation of a plant are called primary
utilities.
545
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..'<[
.'"'At 10 '3llr,vr(r
a.\!aorioa -.mamu! poe ?ua~uous p ! p o l sppy
2. Hot process +
Calcium and magnesium ions p1,ecipitated 1. 3Ca(HCOl)r GNaOH = 3CaC03 3NnzCOs GH?O + + m
phosphate by phosphate and hydroxyl ions as 2. 3CaCOi 2Na3POn= Cn3(l'01)I+ 3Nu&Ox + 2.
+
Cas(P04)1 and Mg(OH)z. C a 3 ( P O ~ ) 23. Mg(HCOJ)2 4NaOH = Mg(OH)2 2Na2C03 2Hz0 + + m
is more insoluble than CaC03. aB
3. Zeolite Objectionable ions removed h r replace- 1. Ca+++ N:r?Ze* = CaZe + 2Nn- 2
0
softening ment with other ions in the zeolite bed. (sudlurn
ae,,lltel
zw
2. Ca(HCO3)%+ HtZe = CaZe + 2H2C03 (cation exrhange)
(Ily'lrogen
.e,~,,t-i
'Ze = Zeolite
quantities of surface active agents to the rvater. These, in effect, increase Sanitary r a t e r muit bc potable and free from disease-causing bacteria.
t,he solubility of salts in the n-ater by prevcnting precipitation even when In n~etropolitanareas city n-attx is usually purrlrnsed for tliis purpose.
thc salts arc .;upcrsetur:itrd. Corrosion inhibitors such as chromatcs or In remote Iocatior~sor in snu~lltowns a purtion of the treated ~ v a t e rf r o ~ n
m-face actirc pl~osphate?may he addcd to prewnt rorrosion by dissolved t l ~ cplant softening unit may be diverted for hanitary ~vatcr. Tile treated
oxygen. Thesr meth& are usunlly adequate f i r <]me-tl~roughci~oling ~r-atermust be chlorinatcd to destroy bacteria and then pumped in an
rvnter systmm. independent system.
I n circulating cooling systcms build-up of salt concentration is incri-
table as ivatcr is cvnporatcd in tlic cooling tower. Makc-up ~ a t c re- r
I Periodic bacteriological tests establisl~the residual chlorine that must
remain in the treated rvatcr after ten minutes to insure destruction of
quired t o replarc these and other losses i4'jr including leakage and ~vinii bacteria. The residual clil(~rincis the11 cl~eckeddaily by a simple test.
losses) is small. The boiler water is, therefore, oftcn not diluted s u a - Sanitary xvater system': are operated at 20 ttt 30 p i g since higher
cicntly to prevent scaling even ~vhcnsurfacc activc agents are used. Khen prcesures damage standard plumbing fixtures. An elevated ~vaterstorage
this occurs: a portion of the water may be removed for further softening tank is usually installed t o insure uninterrupted v a t e r supply.
or for sulfuric acid treatment I\-hich converts calcium carbonate t o t l ~ c
more soluble calcium sulfate. This treated water is then returned t o FIREKATER
the systcm. The rei~uireu~enta for fire water are intermittent, and it may bc assumed
Many operators h a r e found it advantageous to use lime-soda or that otlicr senices will he s l ~ n tdown if necessary to proridc sufficient
zeolite for circulating cooling water zystcms. Treated water is tlrc initial ivnter capacity. 21 coolirig tower basin car1 be used as a reservoir t o
charge to t l ~ ccooling water system and all make-up x e t e r is also treated. llrovide a rclatircly large capacity surge basin, but thc most carnuion
Corrosion i~~hibitors are injected and inhibitor concentration checked storage for etncrgency water is the standard elevated water tank.
daily. IJnderrvritcrs-approvcd centrifugal fire pumps are uscd t o boost the
Demineralized water or condensate must hc used for engine jacket rvater prcssure to 150 psig so that the prcssure a t the fire hose nozzle will
water cooling systems. The jacket v a t e r is cooled by air-cooled or be 100 to 123 psig. TKOpumps wit11 a t lcast 1000 gpm capacity each are
water-cooled exchangers and re-circulated to the enginc. Corrosim installed. Each has a different source of power, e.g., one, electric motor
inhibitors such as chromates'are used in thc closcd system. and the otlrcr, gasolinc enginc. The pump should be self-priming if a
Cooling t o w r v a t e r pumping cquipmcnt should be dcsigned v i t h a suction lift is rcquirecl.
10 to 15 per cent safety factor on capacity. The pump head uiust bc Firc r a t e r headcrs must not he uscd for other purports. P r o ~ i s i o n s
mfficicnt t o circulate water through equipment and return it to cooling should he made for emergency connection of the fire w-ater s y s t m ~into
t o m r inlcts vl~iclr:ire usually from 30 t o 40 ft above grade. All piping the largest reservoir of n-atcr. Usually this is the ran. n-atcr supply sir~oe
must he carefully checked for pressure drop in any type of closcd circul;~. fire rr-ater rcquircs no treatment,. Sen ~ v a t c ror brackish v a t e r is oftcn
tion system. used as fire water by plants located along coastal areas.
Electric n ~ o t o ror turbine-driven centrifugal pumps are used. Alternate CTILITY1 v . k ~ ~ ~
polver sources and/or spare pumping equipment are installed because
cooling ~vateris essential even during cmergcncy shut-down of the plant. Utility n a t c r is used for miscellaneous ~vashingopcmtims such as
Sea n-wter has been ~ l s e dsuccessfully as coding rvatcr especially in clcaning a n operating arcx. I t should hc free from scdimpnt 11ut d w i r ~ ~ t
those coastal areas with fresh water shortages. Cathodic protection require any otlicr treatment. Notices sliould bc posted to n-ar11 ilersonnel
not to drink tliis n-atcr.
systems employing magnesium anodes located in the floating head and
channel of exchangers prevent excessive corrosion, Deposits are mini-
i
1
I Fuel
mized hy restricting cooling water temperature inrrcase b c h the point ! Fuels arc used in process plants for open-fired heaters and renetore,
where tile calcium salts begin to precipitate. I)epo& wliicl~do accumu- !
late can he removed by inhibited acid treatment. r ~ l ~ ~ n - f ievaporators,
rcd kilns, stcaw gencraturs. g:w turbint~s.:ltl,l i u t i ~ r ~ ~ i ~ l
i twu~huiticin eugit~es. Tilt. wmimnly u.wl fu?l* ::I.Y [ W ~ I . O I N I U I lirluicls.
i,
I
s d,,,
I I > ~ I U ~ : L I g w solid [II,&M',II : W ~ : d :III,I : t t ~ ~~v::>tt,
l ~,~,,,IIIV~S.
554 Project Engineering of Process Plants
Plont Utilities
Natural Gas
Natural gas is the most ideal fuel for the process plant. It requires no
0
W I l l
handling <IT storagc facilitics other than piping and pressure controls.
Gas flames are clean and propagate rapidly, burning satisfactorily at very
low fuel rater.
Petroleum refineries and pctrochemical plants have large quantities of
natural gases availahlp for use as a fuel. Ethane and heavier hydro-
carbons are strippcd from raw natural gas or from gases evolved in
cracking operations. Gas, in addition to its use as a primary fuel, is
commonly used for initiating comburtion in industrial furnaces that burn
other types of fucl. Liquid fuel sprays arc ignited hy gas burning pilots,
and combustion chambers for pulverized coal are heated to the ignition
temperature by gas burners.
Waste Products
Co~nbustihleby-products of process units may be valuable as fuels.
In some cases, honever, they p r o ~ cmore costly than conventional fuels.
I f , for instance, thc aaste material is a highly viscous liquid, special
pumping systems will he r~quired. In othcr cases, the hy-product may
contain water and corrosive materials. Finally, extensive alterations to
Plant Utilities 557
556 Project Engineering of Process Plants
to the utility company and purrlrasc a large portion of the powcr and
the hurner xyctem itself niay tre necessary tu supply the correct air-iuel process steam generated hy the utility.
ratio for 1,rupcr eonlhustion of the waste fuel. I f c11;rngr~sm r h n s these I n most rases, hoxverer, proccs; steam is genelatcd hy the process plant.
:Ire nrrr.ssary. it may be cheaprr to R-aste the h y - p r ~ ~ d u cint a flare or If tl~cseprocess stcarn rcquiretnents are high (75.000 to 100,000 lb of
hurni~igpit. stcam per h r j , :111 economic study may indicate that paver should also
I f rpanti1ic.s of waste products Witable for w r hccomc al.xilahir he gcncratcil using liigli-11res.ure tl1rbine.s. Exliaust steam removed from
l~criotlically,it is best ~ I use
I them hy mixing wit11 the regular fuel so that various stagcs of the turbine*: is then used as proress steani.
I l ~ cfuel to tlic furnace d l he const:~ntin quality. If electric power needs are r e r y great, such as in electrocliemica1 plants,
Tlic riiost common vaste or by-product fuels are gases frotn c r x k i n g p o m r 111ust be generated a t the plant or 11urchaseil fro111 sotr~c1:1rp
furnaces, susar canr waste (bagcssc) and \wad ~vaste. h nutnber of hyrlroelectric project. Electrochemical plants limy consume more clert1.i~
interesting uses of xastc products as fuels have been made. One refiner, pu\\-cr than entire municipalities, and utility companies arc often unn-ill-
for instance, uses the products of combustion from ;i regenerator of n ing to increase their po~veroutput so greatly for just one user. Further-
catalytic cracking unit. These gases are high in carbon nionoxidc and more, a plant-c~xned power gcncrnting facility rd-llen designed for large
are t~urnedin a special furnace. p o w r requiren~entscan be operated as efficiently and cl~caplyas a put~lic
utility. I n arcaa 11al-ing Ion. cost natural gas, generators driven by in-
Coal o n d Coke ternal conibustion cngiucs operating on natural gar luay p m r c lcsr costly
Coal ;in11 coke \\-ere standard fuels for tlic early process industries. Imt than opcration of stenni-drivcn generators. This is cspeciallg truc ~ v l m
;is oil and natural gas her:uile clicnl~crirnd 11ilx. line5 11-crc cotlstrurtcd direct current is required since I~M-speed,gas-ilri~cn engines cnn 11c
tlie use of tlicse solid fucls 11:~sdecline<l. directly connected to d-c generators, A s gas turl~inesarc ilnproved r w n
The use id coal or lignite continues to prove ildr:lnlagcuus in p1:urrs greater economics niay he possible.
located near large deposits. I t is rxl,cctc~l t11:it coal consu~u]~tiim \\-ill An cconomic study is necessary to select clcetric generating equip-
incrcaac as oil and gas deposits are depleted. ment-internal-combustion engine, steam-turhinc, or gas-turbinc.' Each
n111st be studied and compnrcd with the cost uf purcl~asedpower.
Power a n d Process Steam
Electric Power Any elect,ric system niust he designed by technically qualified and
Electricity is the primary source of power in the process plant. I t is expcrienccd persons. I n addition t o tlie funda~nentalprinciples involved,
used for driving pumps, compressors, and other mechanical equipn~eut; :I wurliing knowledge of tlie Natural Electric Codel and cornplete famili-
for clcctrolytic processes, beating, instrument power, and lighting. arity ~ i t ~nanufacture<l
h equipment is imperative.
Electric power may be purchased from a utility company or generated Tlic hasic clcctric system is co~nposedof the poner source, \dlich lnay
a t the plant by steam-turbine driven or internal-coiiibustion-wine bc generated or purchased polver, transformation cquipment, s ~ ~ i t c h i n g
driven generators. Unless a process plant is located in an isolated area. and protective devices, distribution xiring, and the ultimate users.
purchased porl-er is usually cheaper than that generated hy the process Fig. 21-1 is a n abbreviated single-line drawing of an clectricsl systeln
plant. Progressive utility companies serving industrial colnll~unities illustrating tlic diagraniniatic type of representation used on electrical
provide excellent service a t Imv rates. I n order to maintain constmt luad drawings. References arc also given to the article in tlic Kational
they also offer off-peak* power a t attractire rates. Under such conditions Elcctric Coilel applicable t o racli piece of equipment rl~onm.
it is often difficult to justify the construction of a complete polim plant DISTRIBUTIUX VOLTAGES.Purchased power is distributed a t very high
particularly when the same capital can be invested in n~lditionalproctw roltngcs and must he reduced to some lower voltage for use in tlrc lilnnt.
facilities that yield higher returns. P o w r generated b y tlie plant liiust also bc reduced. I n modern l ~ l a n t s
Onc interesting case of niutual benefit is an agreement h e t w e n s large *Internal combustion plants require 24 manhows per 24-iir day. S t m m plank
wc5t coast public utilit,y and several oil refiners." Tlie utility has ron- require 72 manhours per 24-hr day. The rapid development of clcctric power
structed p o w r plants adjacent t o the refineries. The refineries sell fucl h i r e d from llrat gencmtrd in atomic piles mny clmnge the cntivr erouonriv
n or 20 yr.
iucture ~ ~ i t l i i15
*Paver used dwing periods of low residential consumption
Project Engineering of Process Plants
Plant Utilities 559
t l ~ cprcsent practice is to distribute por5-er a t high voltages (4,160 t o
13,800 v ) , and then transform it to lower voltages 1120, 120/208Y, 240,
480, 600, and 2400)' near the area in which it is to 11e used. High voltage
.systems have lower p o w r losses. smaller conduit and rircuit breakers,
and lower installatioll t,ostr,
---
Instrument transformers. current
and potential Article450
Power tranrtormcrr. hrgh voltage. on1 Illled A ~ t ~ c 4l e5 0
Heavy-duty svitcllgcar hest mitcd for illant didrihution systems has
I
been standardized a t 4160 v. I t is, tl~erefore,niorc rconomical to select
P a w r t r a n r f o r m e m hich ~ o l t a g elmed
~ 8 t hno" -
Meter and inrtrumentr
burning ihqusd Article 4 5 0
Article 2 3 0 . 3 8 4
4160 v for primary feeders than 2400 r Systems having capacities up
to 20,000 kvaY may use 4160 v. Above this capacity 13,800 r is used.
SCrvlce entcanre conductors Article 100. 2 3 0
Regardless of voltage levels all distribution systems should have a
Service entrance egulpment - - --
.I ..t.i.r .b -7 2 0
6 circuits or less Par. 2 3 5 1 A grounded neutral to insure snfc operation and ease i l f maintenance.
Oven 6cirru8tr Par. 2 3 5 1
Grounding Alticle 2 5 0 E Q C I P ~ ~ EOPERATING
ST VOLTAGES.The operating voltage ree~~mmended
Furnaces Article 2 5 0 . 4 5 0 by manufacturers of motors and other electrical equipment is given on
Air circuit breakers Article 2 4 0 the nameplate or in operating instructions. The ratings are sliglitly
Article 3 8 4
Switchboards below the nominal distribution v~lltagrrin order to allou- for line losses.
Switches Article 3 8 0
Fuse6 Article 2 4 0 Typical motor ratings are given in Table 16-2 of Chapter 16. Typical
C.p.tit0r~ I CO~~C~~C
III Article 4 6 0 voltages for lnmps are 120 for i n c a n h c e n t nnd 118. 208, 236, mid 26St
Generators Article 4 4 5 for fluorescent.
Batteries Article 4 8 0 C o r n u l ~ . Power may be distributed through the plant by ( a ) open
Feeders Article 220
Lightning arrerte,r Article 280
wiring attached to poles or strurturre, ( b l cable run in metal conduit
Outside wiring between buildings Article 730 above ground, ( c ) cable run in metal or otller types of conduit buried
Tranrformerr, low voltage Article 450
Grounding Article 250 under ground, ( d ) cable buried directly in the soil. M e t l ~ o ~ lIn)
s and ( d )
Salefy switches Article 3 8 0 are avoided in modern plants since they are unsafe and pure a constant
hazard during maintenance operations. Method ( b ) is used for cable run
Panelboards Altice 384
inside buildings and structures.
Lighting b,anch r,rcv\,r Article210
Lighting tixtvrer Aitirle 4 1 0
Cable run underground is laid in light-wall galvanized steel or
Busways Azticle 3 6 4 concrete-asbestos conduits. The conduit is encased in a red-colored
1 concrete enrelope (red pigment added during mixingi t o insure ready
Heavy duty receptacles Article 2 1 0 . 4 2 2
Article 4 0 0
identification of the condnit during m y future excavations.
Conduit runs are located belolr. tlic frost line and spaced far enough
Por>abieaDc4hnCes Articie 4 2 2
apart to allow dissipation of heat, hIaniloles are located a t regular
-
intervals (200 i t maximum for straight runs and 100 ft for runs n i t h
~ a c h i n elighting tranrlormcr.
machine 10011 Arlitic 450. 6 7 0 bends) so that cable may be pulled through the conduit with ease. The
& Motor disconnect
Adele 4 3 0 shorter the run between pulling points the simpler the pulling operation
Article 4 3 0 becomes.
- Bends in conduit should be long radius bends and no more than one
Article 4 3 0 90' bend sbould be permitted l ~ e t w e nmanholes.
MAKHOLES. Manholes must he large enough to enable t ~ v omen ~ ~ 4 t h
ArlicIe 6 1 0 the necessary tools t o make connections and pull callle. They are con-
* 6W rolls is less frequently used than the 0t1m v o l t a g ~ sgiven. 1201208Y is R
three-phnsc four-wire systmm with the fourtll wire gruund~dn ~ u t r a l .
T Line to neutral on 480 v systems. .I scp:unte lighting system is not needed
when lamps of thls voltage are specified.
Plant Utilities 561
560 Project Engineering of Process Plants
distribution piping costs. .icareful economic stud? sl~ouldbe niade tu
itructed uf reinforced concrete, and are rectangular or ],ulygonal in shape
ilett~ruiinethe type and number of l~oilersrequired and the must advan-
x i t h cast-iron pre-cast concrete slab covers. The bottom may he soil or
tageous arrangement of tlie dirtribution system
concrete, hut if the water table is near ground surface. the manhole
I n the initial stages of stcam generation, 17-ater is evaporated and is in
Iiottom should be made ~vaterproof.
equilibrium ~ ~ - i tthe
l i boiling n-ater a t the pressure of generation. Thi:
Ladder rungs are set in the concrete sides of the manhole for access and
11~11iron-. are located opposite conduit mtrauccs for use in cahle pulling. mltcr vapor is called saturated steam and any lowering of tcmperatnrc
or incrcasc of pressure n-ill cause runilcnsation to begin. lloisturc in
(':lble racks are also provided.
steam is undesisablc for most use:: and is liarnlful tu equipriient sucli as
SI-STEMPROTECTIOS.The plant circuits and equipment must he pro-
turbinrs: thc blades of wl~icharc eroded acrerely by ~ e steam. t
t d e d by ilerires u~hiclr open thc circuits under over-load or faulty
I n most steam boilers, therefore, tlic saturated stcam passes through a
conditions so that current will not flow. Tlie power feeders or high
voltage services entering a plant are protected by m a u u ~ l l yor power- heat exchanger called a superhcatcr which is located in a hot zone of the
furnacc. The steam is heated above its saturation temperature so that,
operated switchgear and ilisronnccting (isolating) snitches (sce Fig.
it will he sufficiently dry to provide moisture-frec steam a t all users.
21-11, Reduced voltages froin transformers feed plant circuits each of
n.liich has its separate disconnect (isolating) switch and circuit-breaker. STEAXGI:SISRATORS
The disconnect ST!-itch is used to open a circuit so that it can he com-
.4 steam generator is composed of a furnace section d ~ i c hsupplies tlie
pletely isolated for rel~airs. They are not oprrating .sn.itel~esdesigned
for opening or closing under load. heat and a boiler section in which the lieat is transferred t o circulating
~ ~ - a tto
e rforni stcam.
Circuit breakers are designed to open a circuit when it becomes ovcr-
luailed due to faulty operation or short circuit. I n this \vay all Flrmnce. Fuel is l~nrncdunder or adjacent to the boiler aurl t l ~ cheat
of con~buetionis transferred to the druux and tubes by radiation and
equipment in the circuit is constantly protected.
conrection. Thc design of the furnace depends on tlic fuel to be used.
ELECTRICAL EQCIPMESTFOR H A Z A R D OAREAS.
~S Electrical ecluipn~ent,
Solid fuels such as coal are all fed to the furnace by n~echnnicnlmeans.
transformers, and switchgear must be explosion-proof when located in
These include the folloving:
l~azardousareas. Large switching cquipmcnt and t,ransformers, however,
may often he located outside hazardous areas or in specially ventilated ( a ) Retort stoker; introduces fuel l~eneathburning b ~ d .
enrli~suresso that thc expense of explosion-proof construction may be ( b ) Spreader stoker; distributes coal above burning bed.
avoided. (c I Traveling grate.
Explosion-proof equipment is designed t o withstand an internal rx- ( d l Pulverizer; pulrerizcd coal is m i s e ~ l i t air and distributed
plosion and prcvent propagation of flame through its openings. Any vertically, horizontally, or tangentially into tlie cmnhustion zone.
flanie generated internally niust travcl through restrictions which cause l a ) Cyclone; crushed c o d in high 7-elocity stream of hot air i-.iucs
extinguishing of the flame. All types of electrical equipment including tangentially fro111burner and flows in spiral llatli. Particles form nlolten
telephones and drinking fountains may be obtained in explosion-proof slag un wall xliich burns readily.
construction. Vapor-tight equipment r ~ h i c his merely sealed t o prevent
\\'ails of large coal furnaces arc usually xatcr cooled t o mininiiz~
vapor penetration should never be used in place of explosion-proof equip-
undesirable clinker foruiation and decrease railiatiuu f r m l the r\-alls.
ment in hazardous areas.
1,iquid fuels must be atomized so that the drops of fuel r ~ d lburn as
Steam Power a n d Process Steam con~pletelyas possil~le. A numbcr of different typcs of burncrs can be
obtained using cithcr steam or mechanical atumization. I n the first t y l ~ e .
Steam is not only a source of direct power for operat,ion of pumps and
stem1 flon.s througl~the nozzle with the oil, i.su::ing a t o n ~ i z a t i ~ ~Inn. tlie
turbines 11ut is also tlic most useful heating medium in a process plant.
second type, i~toniization is produced by forcing oil at high lir(~ssurc
Although some plants may purchase electric power, most process plants
usually produce process steam. through a spray type nozzle.
Gas burners operate a t 2 t o 25 psi and are made in a number of styles.
A central boiler house can supply steam for tlie entire plant or smaller
They are usually designed for altern;~tcfucls ipulverizr0 mill or oil1
(packaged) boilers may he located near tlie area of use. It may prove
.\ir- us \v:~trr-wohdSurnnw iv:illa :n.v :11.0 i~~.qtnlltd
i n &is- :LIICI ibil-lirwl
economical to provide several boiler houses in large plants t o reduce
Project Engineering of Process Plants
Plant Utilities 563
Fire-tube Boilers. I n fire-tube boilers (Fig. 21-2) water circulation,
steam formation, and separation all take place in a large horizmtal drum
( 3 to 7 f t in diameter) situated above the furnace floors so that it will
receive both radiant and convective heat. Hot gases pass over the drum
and then tlirougli a nuinher of tubes 12 to 4 in. in diameter) extending
through the dvunr. Feed\\-ater is inaintained n h o ~ ethe top ro\\- of tubes.
Fire-tube boilers are lun. in first cost and because uf tlic large capacity
Railroad Facilities
SECONDARY UTILITIES
I Railroad facilities are necessary for shipping and receiving materialn.
Maintenance Facilities Generally local railroails will provide without cost all the required spccifi-
Every process plant must have a machine shop cquippctl v i t h standard cations and a certain amount of the ncccssary equipn~ent,such as turn-
tools such as lathes, grinders, and drill presses. Large plants usually have outs from their system, and in some cases: t l i ~ ymay install sidings or spur
complete shops for macliine and boiler work, pipe fabricating, inatruinent tracks. Before preparing specifications or designing railroad trackage
r q ~ a i relectrical
, equiplnent repair, and carpentry. Since a large inct,ll:~n- local railroad operators sliould 11e ciinsulted. There are limitations set
II,III I : h r r u r w t i w I N , ~ w ~ i n t : ~ i tfor
l ~ ~r(g11:ir
i! sl~u-~low
:ind
~ l relmir of liy local statutes or railriiad operdtors on rail size (xeight per yard), gra-
dients, curve radii, s\r-itch design aud type, and clearances.
Plant Utilities 579
576 Project Engineering of Process Plants
Manholes are constructed of common brirk, acid-rpsisting brirk, ron-
Spur tracks (sidings) and switching equipment must conform t o t h c crete ~ i t hbrick lining, or plain concrdc. Manhole covers, gratings, and
requirements of the serving carriers. If a spur track must cross a public other appurtenances are usually cast iron.
highway either the railroad opcratur or the plant owner must ohtain n Catch basins are used to collect surface or process d r ~ i n a g e . Water
formal permit, and foliorv the requirements for s u c l ~crossings. makes a 180' turn to leave the catch
Railroad trackage is usually laid on ~vuodenties. Tie plates are located basin and t o enter the branch scwer Cover
under each rail a t each tie, and splice bars arc uscd t o ronnect rail ends.
line. I n so doing sediments are trapped
Standard gage for C.S. railrontls is 4 ft 8% in. b c t ~ e e ninner edge of rail- in the hottoin of the basin. Catch
heads. Rails, splice-bars and tie-plates for plant spur tracks can be ob- basins are ronstrurted of concrete and
tained second-hand and should be used since no high speed traffic is have east iron slotted covers. c
anticipated. Rcinforced concrete pipe is the ulost
The rail weight for plant trackage may be 60-100 lhlyd. Rail lengths widely used sewer pipe. Cast iron is pre-
vary from 25 to 30 ft. Tie sizes are approximately 8 in. X 8 in. X 8 ft
0 in. long.
fcrrcd under pared road~\-ays and Smel.,nan ,,c,lp seal
foundations or other structures. Vitri- fol. i.;ol;,tingrrplosions
ficd tile is used extensively for areas in
Plant Sewer Systems and Waste Disposal ,\.hich corrosive wastc materials may enter the drainage system and lead
The primary sources of sewage and waste in a process plant are sanitary pipe is used for strong acid wastcs. Soil pipc is used for sanitary sewers.
waste, prucess drains, and surface drainage. The plant sewer system
no st he designed to conduct tliesc wastes to the disposal system with- Surface Drains
out becoming clogged ~ v i t hsolids or filled with dangerous concentrations Rainfall intensity and rnn-off arc the basic data required for designing
of explosive gases. surface drainage systems. Intensity is measured in in, of water pru 11s.
and may he obtained from local weather bureaus and the U.S. lkpartn~cnt
General Considerations of Agriculture. Rainfall intensity varies over the continental U. S.from
0.25 in. in some parts of the northvest, t o 1.50 in. in tlie mid-continent
Drainage systems for process plants may consist of one or more main
sewer lines with branch lines from each area t o be drained. The elevation areas, 1.00 in. in some parts of the cast, and 2.25 in. d o n g the Gnlf coast.
of the main sewer must be of sufficient depth to receive drainage from I n the same arcas in t,he northwest annual rainfall may be 40 in., while
any area or from contemplated extensions t o tlie plant. some of the arid areas of the soutlin~esthave annual rainfalls of 8 in. with
intensit,ies of 0.75 in. Sincc maximum intensities are more important
Sewer lincs are sloped t o provide sufficient head t o produce velocities
than averages, local weather data should he searched for the infrequent
of 2% to 3 ft per sec (5 ft/sec maximum). Tliese velocities are necessary
but extremely hcavy rainfalls.
to prevent settling of solids. Contour maps of the plant area are helpful
in planning the location of the main sewer so tlmt slopes can be obtained Run-off is the per cent of rainfall which is not absorbed by tlie soil and
thus is the quantity a h i c h determines conduit size. The ~ a l n may
r vary
for branch lines from all areas.
from 10070 for paved areas or roofs to zero for dry perrious soils, hIoet
T o prevent clogging and to facilitate cleaning, sewer lines are run with-
out change in direction between manboles and between a catch basin and of the published data is based on city drainage systmms and ranges from
10 to 7576. Tliese values are used for extremely large acreagcs and are
manhole. Clean-out connections should be provided for branch lines not
originating a t a catch basin. not of much use as criteria for process plants where high percentages of
total area may he paved or roofed structures. It i8 p~eferahle,therefore,
Manholes (Fig. 21-5) are located in main sewer lines a t each change
t o assume 100% run-off for the comparatively small areas served by a
of direction and a t points shout every 200 ft apart in straight lengths of
single sewer since often these areas are paved and are adjacent to roofed
pipe. Branch lines (laterals) should connect t o mains a t a manhole when
buildings.
possible. Manholes in hazardous areas have sealed covers with vents
The run-off in paved process areas enclosed by fir pa all^ may he gov-
discharging in a nonhazardous area. Manholes through wbieh flammable
e r n d hy fire hose capacity in t h a t area rather than rainfall. Both should
materials pass should be trapped by means of a water seal t o prevent
spreading of fires or explosions (Fig. 21-5). be checked.
580 Project Engineering of Process Plonts Plant Utilities 58 1
Process Waster I n some cases solids can bc disintegrated liy clie~niraltreatment, dip-
polred in rvater, and, after careful neutralization discharged in the plant
Disposal of process ~vastesis often a difficult problem. State and local
air and streain pollution regulations are l~ciwu~ini: morc strict ;IS poj~nla- selver.
t i m gron-i in indu.;trial areas. Plant operator? are becoming more awarc
Plant Air
of colninuuity responsibilities and usually institute nlorlern ~ ~ a s dispo.sl
te
wetliocls even if regulations do not apply t r ~thcm. The ~".uwssplant's uec of colupressed air as a p o w r source for purtahle
Somc n-astes can be burned provided products of combustion do not e i l u i ~ ~ ~ l continues
rnt to incrcasc. .iir-driven tmls arc designed for all
pollute the snrrounding atrniisplicre. Others such as acid and alkaline t y p w of \\-ark. They are si~nplcto control and may bc used in hazardous
11-a>tecan Ile diluted and neutralized, and then discliarged into a flowing areas.
atream. All rue11 w;i;tcs tnwt lie treated and riiscllarged in a lnanncr that A rcrr-ice air systenl, therefore, is usually installed in the modern plant.
\!-ill be harn~lcssto strcnm lifc. l'rogrr.?ai~-cplant operators niai~rtaina Piping is run above graclc along with process piping, and ilutlets are
careful check of strc;un llealtli. located in all lrroccss areas. Cuwprcsrctl air m a r he rlistrihutcd ovrr
Inert ~vastesor ~vastcsinsolubls or it~lniiseiblcin v a t u can he dis- the entirc plant in a singlc system or may he sul~pliedliy scparatc com-
charged into the surface drainagp system and rcrnoiml in settling barins prrssnrs in each area.
along ~ v i t lother
~ similar cuntaniinants prcscnt in the drainage xvater. P l a l ~ terrvice air and instrument air (Chtrpter 20) are run in scparatc
Strong acid stren~nsor extl.enlely riangerous niuti.rial. arc l~refernl~ly dis- systems. 3r.rvicc air prcaturc is ii~aintainedat lo(-125 pxig, rdiile instm-
charged into special server s y s t e m for disposal in a separate trcating plant. mcnt air pressure necd not cxcerrl 35-40 psig. Plant serricc air is soul?-
tinlea u 4 in euicrgencics aa R source for instrumcrit air, but it must first
Sanitary Wastes pass tl~rnuglr1111. instru~ncntt ~ i rdryer.
Sanitary wastes must he discharged into a separate sexer systen~and The ~ ~ 1 ausili;tries
~ 1 1 for air cou~pressorinatallations are:
treated in a sewage disposal plant or in septic tanks. Ordinarily, scptir rr. .Iil. cot~~lircsaur:vlertric n ~ o t o rrlrircn or ate;tm-ilrivcu, two-?t:~gc.
tanks are satisfactory for the modcrate sized plant. rrcil1roc;iting.
The septic tank is a retention cliamber in rvhiclr solid ~vastesare accu- b. Air inrnkc filter.
~nulatedand then disintegrated by bacteria. T h e effluent is a clear liquid c. Ci~olingv a t e r for compressor jackets, int,er-coolcr and after-coiiler.
which may be discharged in a separate sewer or in the plant surface 11. .Air rweivcr.
drainage system. Solids arc removed once a year. e . Pressure control.
Tatilc 21-6 summarizes n t c r usage for various plumbing fixtures.
This information is necessary in sizing sanitary s e w r lines. Provision niust he madc a t various points in the syatem to remuve ron-
rlensed n~oisturc. Air rcceivcrs located a t each point of liravy lice will
TABLE 21-6. Water Usage by Plumbing Fixtures increase systcin volume and provide a separatim or condensation point
Rased on 15 to 20 psig nzter pressure for moisture. hloisturc m:~ybc reutovcd manually or by t r a p Traps arc
preferable for systenls in liu~nidclimates.
Fixture Gallons per use
The air cumpressors for n r r n t r d Illant scrviw air s p t e n i arc tnost c ~ n -
Toilet 2.0-3.0
I~rinsl 0.5-075 venirntly lorntcd adjacent t o tlic powcc and stcam generating plant.
I.:~mtary bnsin:faucet 2.0-2.5 l'olver-tiouse operators can then check compressor operation periodically.
Shower 20-4.0 igprn rhen used)
Founttin 0.5-0.i5 (guljday/person) Plant Security
REFERENCES
Spread Footings
The footing, d ~ i c his the oldest typc of fo~~nilation.
is the least expen-
I sire type if soil conditions arc fayorable. In simple terms, a spread
FOUNDATIONS
Foundatione for equipment,, buildings, and steel strurtures not only
must transmit the loads to the soil or piling but also fix the sup]iortr~l
equipment in position. For practical purposes it may he said that a11
foundations arc constructcd of eoncrcte or reinfurced conrretc. This ma-
terial is relatively incxpcnsive and may hc formed to ncarly any dcri~.cil
shape while plastic.
In order to attach the equipment directly to a. foundation, nnrllor-h111ts
are cast in the concrete when it is poured (Fig. 22-9). After a curing
period, the equipment is bolted in position. Most equipment is firmly
bolted doum whether it is located on a structural stcel support whicli is in
turn bolted to a foundation, or whether t,he cquipment is holted directly
to the concrete foundation. Large-diametcr, flat-bottomed tanks. lion.-
evcr, are usually not bolted since they may be sct dirertly on ct~nrrcte
slabs or on a preparcd soil surface with no attachment.
foundation
I n some installations small pumps or machines and light conreyor sy9-
tcms are supported by plaring the equipment hase directly on the finishcrl
concrete floor! and by providing expansion bolts which are drilled and
set into the concrete. Fig. 22-1. Sprr:t&footing i u r ;L self-sipporting tower [Rcp~.inledby permission,
V. 0 . _\Iiucl~itll,Petrolci~nrKefinar, O?, Kc). 8. 101 (19431.1
FOUNDATION TYPES
footing as used in the process industries consists of a column or pedestal
The most colrunon types of foundations wcrl in process plants arc r;wt non nu lit hie ally with an enlarged hasc (the fouting) as s l ~ o ~
in nFig.
~
spread foot,ings, mats (or raftsj, massive, and pile ioundatirms. This 22-1. T l x cnlal.gcd portiorr, if properly dcsigncrl, tr;~nsmitsthe i ~ n p o w l
584
I
586 Project Engineering of Process Plants Foundations
load to the soil. The more area covered hy the base of such a foundation, turning momrnt is small or negligiblc, the design is simllle. &,"are foot-
the less will be the unit pressure on the soil. ings are used for sullporting equipn~rntand structures, esl~eciallytllose
Spread footings are usually constructed of reinforced concrete. Their with high cross-sectional area t o height ratios.
bases are ideally located a t a depth not 1eps than the normal frost line or
the maximum depth of appreciable soil shrinkage and expansion, which- Mats
ever is the greater. The shrinkage area of many clay soils, however, mav
D u e t o soil conditions some equipment and buildings may require a
be so deep that excavation for
nunher of footings that h a m a combined area approximating that of the
footings proves too costly. In
supported structure. I n surh rases it will p r o w econornical to use a flat
such cases other types of foun-
rcinforced concrete slab covering the entire area. This slab is called
dations may he indicat,ed.
a mat.
The spread footing is used
M a t foundations have been successfully used with conrpressi1)le soil
most extensively for supporting
and when so used are rillled "floating" fuundations. h a-eight of soil is
towers (Fig. 22-I), stacks, and
removed for the mat equal t o thc aeight
tall structural columns. For
of the mat plus the structure t o be sup-
such applications the circular
ported. The entire structure will, there-
footing is the idcalieed shape.
fore, "float" on the undisturbed subsoil.
Tall structures suhject the foot-
M a t foundations are oitcn used for sup-
ing t o sin~ultancousforces due
porting storage tanks. Thc sin~l~lest mat
t o w i g h t and overturning mo-
foundation for large flat-bottomed storage
ment produced by earthquake
tanks tbat do not requirc anchoring is a
F i g 22-2. Distribution oi soil pl.cssure be-
and wind. The unbalanced soil
sand pad about four in. deep. The portion
neath a footing subjcrt to h-ind l u a d oressures ~ r o d u c c dcan in some
of thc sand pad extending beyond the
cases cause areas of zero upu.ard
tank known as the berm should be about
pressure b e t ~ w e nsoil and footing (see Fig. 22-21. Therc is a strong
5 it 0 in. It is usually protected from
tendency for the footing t o crack under surh conditions. Because
weathering by an asphaltic coating. The
of tlicir corners, square and rectangular drapes mark more easily than
surrounding soil must he graded and pre- Fig.22-3. Ring-wall i:onptrrletion
circular shapcs. Since it is p ~ ~ s s i h that
l e the overturning moment can he f m sloragc tank.
pared fur good drainage.
in any d i r e h o n dcpcnding on the uind, tlic circular shape has the
Perhaps the most popular mat-type
further arirantagc of providing siinilar stress distribution for any direc-
foundation for large storagr tanks employs a concrete wall with a mini-
tion of overturning moment.
mum width of 8 in. The tank shell rests on this reinforced concretr
The forming opcration for circular shapcs and the placcmcnt of rcin-
wall which cxtends below the frost line. Four in. of sand contained
forcing steel, hoverer, have always provcd more costly than tbat for
within tbe wall provides additional support (Fig. 22-3).
straight-sided shapes. Parallel rows of reinforcing steel must he cut to
different lengths. The laying of steel of the same length thn~uglithe
renter (radial reinforcement) is possiblc but requires too nmrh space Massive Foundations
tom-ard the rentpr. Octagonal shapes, therefore, have been widely used Machinery such as reciprocating compressors, centrifuges and other
for such structures as tall self-supporting towers. T h e octagon requires similar moving equipment must be supported so that vibration and un-
little additional concrete and equal length reinforcing rods may be placed balanced inertia forces are dampened. Many clever methods have been
perpendicular to the sides. developed for accomplishing this dampening. Various vibration isolators
As new forming techniques are perfected, costs may change. It may, or dampeners employing absorbent materials or springs can be purchased.
for instance, prore more economical t o have standard sizes of circular However, wherever possible, in the process plant heavy or massive foun-
metal forms for self-supporting t,mers of various sizes. dations are used t o which thc machinery is firmly anchorcd. The massive
Because of the sitnple forming operation required for square footings, foundation balances the periodic inertia forces set up by reciprocating
they rcn~ainthe niust generally used type uf spread footing. If the urer- machines as the acceleration reaches a maximum a t the ends of the stroke.
588 Project Engineering of Process Plants Foundations 589
The viIr:~ti,m+p r < ) ~ ~ u 11y
c t ~high
I si)w11 r o t a t h g 111:1~11int~ry
:ire aIx> ~ I I - Rccauic oi strmgtli limitntions m o d pile.. are h t uied as Erii,tion
sorbed by foundations of sufficiently high m a s . ~ r i ~ t l ~than
e r txnrl-hearing p i l c ~ .
A typical mass foundation for a compressor is stmi-n in Fig. 22-4. If Kaw niatcrial for n-ilud pilrs as 10ug a- 90 it v:m hc found in the forest>
a numhcr of machines such as compressors are located topether as in of Washington, Orcgou, aud S u r t l ~ e r nCalifornia, hut is hecu111i11~1e.s
. .
I I
Fig. 22-4. Xlnss-type rornpt.eisnr iomidntion.
Pile Foundations
Proccrs plants nre often advantag~ouslylocated in coastal areas or
along rivers. Such locations, t h ~ ~ u gconvenient
h for transportation ccon-
urnies, usually have Ion- hearing capacity soils and/or soils suhjert to
excessive settlemmt under load. I n such eases thc fi~undationsdiscussed
above must he supported hy piles as shown in Fig. 22-5.
Piles support the loads on foundations by direct hearing on stable soil
strata many feet helo~vthc surface or hy means of the shearing resistaucc
availal~le. Concrete piles are, tlrerefore, being used more f r r ~ p c n t l yin
creatcd by friction hctvt,en the soil and pile surface. The first type is
proccss plants.
called a point-hcaring pilc since most of the rupport is developed a t the
Concrete is not subjcct to decay or wrrosiun* and vhen reinfurccd i.
bottom or point of thc 11ile. The second is callrtl a friction pile. Vndcr
capablc of carrying large load;. Concrctc pil~,.; are either ])rc-c,;lst or
most conditions, however, such a simple classification is i n a d e q ~ ~ a t eOften
.
cast-in-place. They arc l~roduccclIJ>- cr~lul~anics
n-hicli hut11 mauufncturc
the support is ohtained by a conibinatiun of both effects.
and drive thc pile.
Pile Types
Thc most common type of piles are pre-cast reinfurccd concrete, cast-in-
Cast-in-place piles arc made by driving a corrugated or fluted sheet-
place concrete, creosotcd rvi~od,structural steel meln1)ers such as H-beams,
steel shell us pipe into the earth to the required distance. To strengtl~cn
pipe, and composite wood-concrctc.
the thin sl~clla core us mandrel is placed insidc bcfore it is drivcn into the
Wood piles are the lowest in first cost and for this reason are widely
ground. Then the core is removed and the opening filled ~ ~ iconcretc.t l ~
used. Thc wnod must he thoroughly creosoted to prevent fungus growth.
A number of patcnted cast-in-placc pilc designs are ax-ailahle, somc nf
T o further prevent decay the top of the wood pile must be below per-
which arc tapered (Fig. 22-61. Tnpcred piles are preferred for soils mhicll
manent ground ~ v a t e rlevel.
590 Project Engineering of Process Plants
difficult such as locations under water. I n addition they are of great value
for installatims requiring immediate use of the pile as a load hearing
member. Precast and prestressed concrete pile;: are heing used for heavy
ha\-e high frirtional resistance, as s a d , since in this type of soil they industrial plants particularly if the above-grade structure is also concrete.
produce larger shearing resistances than piles 11aving parallel aides.
PIPE-COXCRETE PILES Sonietiines it is necessary t o use a pile that is strung and can easily
Pipe piles servc primarily as end-bearing piles. I n the casting of certain penetrate the most dense suil. Steel structural shal)ra, altliougl~espcn-
t,ypes the pipe is withdrawn as the eonrrete is hcing raliinied dom-n the sive, meet those requirements and are used for difficult piling operations
pipe. A bulb or pedestal may be fortncd a t the bottr1111 of the pile to requiring lung lengths and Iargc forces in driving whir11 ~ o u l dbreak
increase the load hearing area. This is accon~plishedby applying a large weaker materials.
force on the first few feet of concrete poured.
n
combines t h c chnractcristics of piling, spre:ld and contains the concrcte v.hile it is still plastic. usually is not nceessary
footings: and reinforced concrete colnmns. f i r the initial pours beloxv grade Icvel. I n atahlc soils thc sides of t h r
T h c method consi.sts of boring a holc to t h e rxravation a r c ~uffirientlyfirm t o form the l~eril~lieral sliapr reqnircd to
required dcpth, then underrcaming a conical contain tllp r o n c r e t ~ . T h e 1~1mp1etedp,mr is l ~ f ro11gl1t xvith rcinforcing
section. After boring a n d underreaming is rod extending abol-c thc concrctc so t h a t ntlditional pours require11 to
completed t h e apparatus is ivithdra~r-n,rein- conrplctc the structnre will be w x n d y bundcd.
Typicalsheet piling forcing steel is lowercd into place and the holc Tlie s u p c r i m p ~ ~ ~load
e i l on piled foundations is rlistrihnted to each pile
srctions. filled with concrete. If soils a r e sufficiently hy means of a rrinforccd mnrrete pile cap, xi-hie11is rast around the tops
stable t o prcrcnt caving, t h e method is ideal. i ~ fthe piles. This type of foundation is instnllrrl by excavating to the
T h e upper ends of t h e cylindrical sections m a y be located below gradc, required pilr-r.al1 d e p t h driving t l ~ cpilcs, cutting OH' the tolls of n-otlll
with stcel exposed for dolvelling into any reqnirrd surfacc structure. pilcs to nlakr thrni e v ~ m ~. c t t i the ~ ~ grcinforcing ?tee1 fur the pile cap: and
Economically, this method has advantages over both spread footings ~iouringn c m r r c t c niasi n-llicli i~ the ililc c;~l>.
and piling, if the soil is stable. hlctal casings can he uscd in nnstable
soils but a t greater expense. Scheduling of Foundation Work
Another t y p e of pile valuable in construction, although not used a s a I n the irlcwi construrtion p ~ ~ ~ ~ g rall i u ui n, d c q y ~ n n doperations should
structural membcr, is t h e shcct pile. As illustrated in Fig, 22-7, these stcel hc con~pletedhefore a n y above-grudc work is starteil. T h r continuation
shapes a r e designed to slide vertically and t o interlock. T h e y arc used of undrrgrt~unrl v o r k after t h rrrctioo ~ i ~ fa t ~ ~ l ~ - c - g requipu~eut
a~le has
a s s t n ~ n g~ v a l l sto hold hack water and shifting soils during construction. Ilegun is cxtrcmcly cwtly. Opening :I t r c n c l ~ .firr i n i t a n r r . :rcrni.: ;L
ronstruotio~i a r w ~ ~ r o ~ l n cI c ssafety Iiuarcl :in0 s ~ ~ i o u s l Iyi : m d i ~ , o l ~ ~
SELECTING THE FOUNDATION TYPE i c r : ~ t i n . I , ; ~ t rcsr;~vntioli. in ;I rr~ngcstril;IW;I 11exrly aln-n>->1n11it h r
It is not possiblc to state conclusively t h e particular t y p e of foundation ~ l u n et ~ yIi;i~iiland the, surfaw ~ o r is k d ~ i \ v c dt ~ ythe intwferen~,e.
? 3
~vhicllshould be used for a each type of project. This decision can h r l h c rcleasc of founrlatiori rlra~\-ingsto the i:rertinn forces sllc~ulcl llc
made only after careful analysis of data accumulated by explr~ration coordinated n-it11 the rrlr:rsc i l f all other undrrground x o r k srleli :IS piping.
of subsurfacc soil. If piling is required, cconomic studies must bc made clcctrical grounding s y r t r n i ~ :mrl
, electrical conduit work.
to iietcrmine the most desirable type.
Subsurface Soil Investigations
Arrrangernent oi equipment over a given area t o meet process conditions
is often a determining factor in selecting the type of foundation. Rough Tlit. hmtl 1~c:iring ~ ~ l i ; ~ r : ~ r t ~ r Oi Fs ttllr
i r s mil 011 n l ~ i c ha plant i~ to he
estirnates of the required spread of the footings, if the soil load hearing erccted shuuld be explored and d c t c n ~ l i n r da t sonie early st:~gc of tlw
characteristic is known, can he determined early in t h c project, b y ~ w o j w t . I n f:lct, s u r l ~ch:~~artvrirtic*. sl~oulcl 11:lvc bccn k ~ w n ~1~t~lul.e
l
594 Proiect Engineering of Process Plonts Foundations 595
purchase of the site. It is impossible to judge subsurfacc conditions by
visual inspection, and competent investigation is usually most economi-
cally acconiplislicd by firms specializing in soil analysis or subsurfacc
explorations. Reliable data permit foundation design and selection to
proceed on a realistic basis.
I n addition to the general characteristics of the underground stratum
more extensive studies should be made a t the specific locations for each
footing.
Borings
The most reliable method for determining the characteristics of the
subsurface soil is from samples of each stratum obtained from borings.
Soil borings can be divided into major or decp borings, which locate the
governing strata, and secondary or shallow borings, which should be made
under each footing. It is sometimes possible t o utilize drilling logs from
deep water wells t o determine the practical depth for the major borings.
Water u-ell logs usually yield detailed data since all n a t e r bearing sands
must be identified.
XIajr~rhorings are made by portable truck-mounted machines. They
may be drivcn onc to t ~ hundred
o fcct deep or deeper if necessary. One
lnetliod in a i d e use employs a fish-tail bit which moves in long vertical
strokes. Wash water removes the loosencd material as in most drilling
operations. As each change of soil is encountered, the bit is removed and
a samplcr driven into the soil nut yet penetrated. The dry samples thus
obtained are preserved in hermetically sealed jars carefully identified for
laboratory investigation. B y noting the numhcr of blows a t uniform
force required to drive the sampler into cacli section of strata, the com-
pactness of the soil is ascertained. Fig. 22-8 shows a typical boring repurt.
The boring oprration must bc disrontinued when rock is reached (nobed
as "refusal" in Fig. 22-8). The extent and character of this rock or berl-
rock can bc determined from core bmings. These are obtained using
rotating coring dcvices similar to those employed in the oil industry.
Extensive subsurface borings are usually mandatory in areas which
lmve been subject t o water encroachment, such as coastal areas, stream
valleyr, and tidal flats. If the area is located in a known st,able region, I
Fig. 22-8. Test boring report. (Courtesy of Raymond Concrete Pile Company.)
not coastal or strcatri-bed, and one or two deep borings show that the
section is composd of stable sedimentary formations or formations over- stratum. The topsoil, or humus layer is never sat,isfactmy for load
lying rock, only a minimum amount of deep boring is necessary. Shallow bearing and must all be completely removed from any area which is t o be
cores t o locate uppermost firm stratum should be taken, however, under used for foundations or is t o be covered with concrete slabs.
each major footing. These shallow cores which can he hand-driven Borings also indicate the location of subsurface m-ater. This infor-
indicate the depth of topsoil or humus, and the depth of excavation mation is of value throughout construction in enabling the erector to
necessary to locate the bottom of the footing on the uppermost frini foresee and t o make provisions for removing water from excavations.
596 Project Engineering of Process Plants Foundations 597
Soil Analysis
I 1 1 l . Tlir ~ w c type l of 11ili11gto br w c ~ ld r p m l . ~~ I I X J I I the depth
ti1 firm btratn, n.l:ether or not the pile d l support its load by skin
Certain soils, particularly clays, require further laboratory tests in friction or point bearing, the t y p ~of soil through n.11ich pile is to be
order to more conipletely define their characteristics. Such tests include driven, and the possibility of failure caused by soil or ground r a t e r
those n.11irIi determine density, moisture content,, shearing strength, conditions.
particle size, plastic and liquid limit ilrloisturc content range t h a t defines If the soil chamctcristics arc extremely poor necessitating sheet piling,
the plastic state of the soil permitting identificatim of clays and silts), load bearing piling, an11 n.ater rcmovnl equil~mcnt.it i . 11~11allymore
cocfficicnt of internal frirtion. consolidation (n~casureof the settlement wonomical to mbcontrart all foundation n-ork, invlu~ling>ubsurface in-
of a n "unilist~~rhcil"soil sample under specified loail) pcrtue:ihility, re<tig:~ti,~n.TIKW~ q ~ c r a t i ~require~ n . q~rciwliaeii*kill :IS ivell :is rpeci:~l
clrcmicnl propertics (pH. roll~~irlwl nature. c t r l , colirsion iresistance t o ? q u i p ~ i r n n-hirh
t is costly t c rcnt.
particlc displacc~nent),and shrinkage (volunre 111ss due to derrease in F i ~ u n d a t i mprol~lemsare usually diffcwnt for cach locality: varying
moisture r m t e n t ) . These and other tests ~ v l ~ cinterpreted
n by a com- n-it11 tlit: type of pl:int, geology of the area, and loild roncmtrations in the
petent soil ~ncchanicsexpert proridr accurate predictions of subsurface plant. Complete studies and analysis of the subsurface stratigraphy
conditions for design purposes. must be nlnde hy rompetent specialists in the field. For this ~ ~ o r k
It is possible to draw ssllbsurfacc soil profiles based on these data and experienced loral firms are preferred sinre loi.nl cspcricnce is a n important
the data oht:~incil f r i m till, boring opcr:~tion Sinre an infinite number factor in ilerclopin~r ~ , l i n l ~rlxta
l r and conrlnsions.
ui' Imrings e:iririot be made n consideral~le;mount of jtdgment is required
in l~rwlir+ingt h r cxtvnt oi ixch f o r ~ ~ ~ : ~am1
t i t mstratum hetween l~orinps. Location of Boundary Lines
.\I1 engineers 11.5ing tlrese profilrs should rrme11111crthe limitations of sur!~ T l ~ cfirst field ill~c,rationin 1il:int 1:iyout is thc e m c t lo~.atiunof pro)~i>rty
interpretation. K o l~rofiloe m be guar:il~tccd. i ~ rboun~lnry lines, reference;, and cierations. The-c may IIC located
FVOIII monunrents on : ~ ~ l j a c e nproyrties,
t li~cnlhigh\vays. railroads, and
Soil Bearing Copacily
other pcrmancnt ~~icasoralilc lan~bi~:irks,identifial~lt?in the field. and
Perhaps the most i m p ~ ~ r t a quantitative
nt data rrsulting from the sub- legally rerordt:il. The p r i n ~ ecurrtv;~ctormay be requested to [~erfornlthis
surfare inrestigatiun is the allowable bearing cspai,ity or press11re of t11e xvork for the o\vnrrr or the o<rnerm a y retain a local civil mginerring firm
soil in pounds per square foot. This value is uscd in design ralculxtions to c l ~ e r krecords, and identify thc l~ounclarics. A t the salile tirue that this
as the carrying capacity of the soil. Although the value finally recorn- work is being 1111ne.ground elevations should be determined and contour
~ n e ~ i d c by
d soil experts is based partially un speculation, i t is used maps prepared.
religiously hy the designers. I t is i~uperativc,therefore, that the ~ u o s t Construction x o r k being pcrformcil in a n existing plnnt will not reqnirc
reliahle vnlnc lx,ssiI~lcbc obtained. such extensirc checking. but reference points for clerations null definite
1.aboratory shear and colnpression tests often eombincd .r~ithfie111tests 11o1111dariwfor tl!e areu ill ~vlrichtllr ~ o r ib k to be ~ I C ~ ~ ~ I shollkl
~ I I ~ CbeY ~
(see wrtion on Drsignj on critical portion? US the site are ncccssary t o ?hon-n on dm\\-ings i u m d l y a plot 11la11) and rcci~riled in field hooks.
obtain the most reliable bearing rapacitirs. I n r o n e cases it is f a r more The 11ound:trics of n.i1rkl or artla limits in nn operating p l m t m ~ s tbe
flwirahle and econoluical to estat~li:l~v:~luesnut only f u r diffwcnt ,srctions rli,:lrly dcfinrvl, since u n d ~wrt;rin ~ conditions labor j ~ ~ r i s ~ l i c t i mdis-
al
of the plot but also for different types of equipment and buildings. In- ~ ~ u t inay
r s arise l ~ c t ~ vthe
c i ~union r c l ~ r c s c ~ ~ ttlw
i n g o\vner's !~crsonnel and
ztallntions subject to uccasional heavy lunds can be designed for a lower that rel~rcscntingthc contractor's personnrl.
bearing value than those upon which a c m t i n u i ~ u sheavy load is impi~sed. I n imlcr to lucate t l ~ cvarious facilities in the plnnt, the lnaster plot
Flexibility in establishing load rcquiremei:ts is more advantageous than plnn (see Chaptrr 6, Fig. 6 - 1 ) slioving all tlir nrcns is usually cross-
establishing a single safe value for a!! conditions. sectioned by imaginary liorizontal and vertical lines. n u n ~ h r r t ~from l
some arbitrary zero point and located a t regular intervals suclr as loo-,
D a t a for Piling ZOO-, or 500-it renters depmding u11o1i the size of the project. These lines
Soil analysis data rltiy indicate the necessity for piling. When piling nlay be iilentified as Range and Station or Sort11 and Xact. 1Iajor points
is necessary decisions hasrd un mil analysis data can bc used to indicate such as a. huilding curner or n corner of a particillar area arc tliw easily
the type of pile, rnaxin~umload per pile, n ~ i n i m u npiling
~ spacing, and identified by sho\ving tllc p i n t by ~ w ~ i r i l i n ; for ~ t r instance,
~~ 5 plus 58.33
598 Proiect Engineering of Process Plonts
1Sart 2nd 5 p111s 25.00 iYorth would indicate a point 558.33' r w t of, and necessary for surface drainage. Aftcr the nominal area grade has been
.525.00' north of the Zero corner. Sorilr ron~istentsy*trm mc11 ;is this determined, liciglit of equipment above grade can be set and foundation
.~1111uld
he wrrl for a project since it specifically ties certain points to the design can bc completed.
original datum. The cleration of equipn~entabove grade depends on process require-
At least two permanent markers must be installed so that dimen- ments, niaintenancc considerations, and possible operating hazards. As
sioning may be checkcd easily. Such markers or monuments sliould he a typical illustration, resscls carrying fluids a t temperatures and pressures
located out of the work area and should be constructed in rue11 a x a y that near vaporization must be elevated ahuvc pumping equipment t o give
they cannot be easily dislocated. One siinple marker consists of a sectiun sufficient liquid head to maintain the fluid in a liquid state. Thus the
of six in. steel pipe four to six ft in length, art vrrtically in a concrete type fluid, its process state and the characteristics of the pump, all nlust
envelope, 18 in. t o 24 in. square, a i t h the upper portion projecting 6 in. tu he considered in determining the proper elevation. All process pumps or
12 in. above grade. The pipe lnnrkcr is located so that the reference point other me,,l~anicalequipment sl~ouldbe located sufficiently abore grade to
d l fall within the diameter. A picce of 2-in. diameter brass shafting perniit operation, normal inspection, and niaintcnance from a standing
approxirnatcly 18 in. long is then located as ncnr as po.;.;il~le to renter of position.
the point, with the top prujccting scveral in. ahove the top of the pipe. Area grades or cquiprncnt elevations cannot be determined arbitrarily,
The pipe is then filled with conercte. Aftcr the concrete has set the exact hut must he planned ivith carc. Wliile the cleration of foundations
point can be punch markcd on thc brass rod with the w e of n pli~nihhoh above grade is usually set for process or n~nintrnancereasons, tlip mini-
and transit. To make the marker even more permanent, the upper portion mum depth helow gradc of a foundation dcpends upon tlie deptli of frost
of the bar ran be tl~readcdand :i 11rasi cap provirlcd to covcr tlir tq,. penrtration or thc <lvptlr ti, firm s t r a t u u ~whi~:l~evcr
is the largcr.
The cap is very desirable n - l ~ mtlic marker is n l x to be used as :in
elevation reference. N e e d for Accuracy i n Dimensioning
Tlie arbitrary setting of a plant north, is cqually as important as Tlie largc aniount of interconnccting prefabricaterl piping requires more
elevation and dimensional references. Once the plant north has hccn set. precise ficld engirieering and equiprnrnt locatim for process plant projects
right-angled arrangements can be used on drawings much more simply than for otl~crtypes of construction. The draftsman's accuracy in show-
than if a true north location is used. ing correct dimmsions on drawings is wasted if the field engineer n~isaligns
or fails to use the same dirncnsions when locating fonndations. S h o p
Elevutions fabricated pipe is i~suallylirld to close tolerances (l/l in. for some work).
Bfter dimensional references are located, plant elevation planes mrwt Prefabricated piping niay require lieat treatment, or may consist of
he set. T h e civil engineering survey report should include s referencr materials which eannut be reworked in the field, thus an crror in equip-
tc~the nearest U. S. Gcodetic (or other reliablc) survey datum. Thi. mcmt location of as little as y2 in. can IIC serious. Errors in anchor-bolt
daturn can then bc used in establishing tlie elevation of the perluannt locations on integral foundations for major equipnlent can he even niurc
markers ~vithreferenee t o sea level. For convenience: the plant datum. serious or costly. Usually anclior-bolts for large equipment arc firmly
however, should be estahlislied with reference t o a low point or t o tlic fixed and held in place by metal or wooden templates, wl~iclireduce the
lowest point on the project, arbitrarily called 100.00. Thus all elrva- l~ossil~ilitiyof crror during the pouring of concrete.
tions used in engineering the project will be 100.00 or above. The mark- Nanufacturers eonwtimes make errors in their preliminary dimensional
ers set for dimensional rcfcrcnce can then have an arbitrary plant eleva- dratving or h a r e to make cl~angcsas fabrication proceeds. For this
tion, which will he plus 100.00 and a t some later time may be chccked reason the innnufacturcr nus st furnish his final prints v i t h dimensions
back to the local datum. certified t o be wrrect. Experienced erectors will not release foundation
Large projects are usually separated into areas. A normal area grade drawings for constrnction l~cforcthe manufacturer's final certified prints
or ground elevation above thc plant datum must hc set for each area as are received on all equipment involved.
early as possible so that foundation design and field xvork such as rough
grading and other preliminary construction operations can proceed. Excavation
Area elevations, or area grades as they are marc conimonly known, are After the site has heen cleared and graded, and locations of rquipnlcnt
best developed from project contour maps. The area grade generally fuundations crtahlisl~ed,excavation can begin.
refers to a highpoint in the area since a certain amount of sloping is Exca\.ntioii may be done by machine or by hand. hlachine excavation
600 Project Engineering of Process Plants Foundations 601
is perfornwd I)? a n u l n l ~ r rof types of cquil~nrt~nt the choice of wl~ieh bar.kfilling, inrluding t l ~ ct y j v of pt~r~riissil~lc l~ackfillinaterial, should 11c
depends 111,ontlic soil and 1lc11tliof the ~ ~ x c i ~ v a t Ti ~r cm~ ~ r I for ~ e sc x t m s i r e prepared a t the beginning ui thr! 11roject and specifically followed.
straight run1 of un~lergroundpipilig or conduit a r c often esravated n-itli Backfilling also rcfers to the filling in of excarations with soil after the
trenching machines. T h e drag-line, ~vlii1.11is a .self-propelled crane foundation has been poured. L o n cost grades of sand and gravel are often
iquippetl rvitl~n l n ~ c k c tis . the iiio-t pupnlar iliachine m e t l i ~ ~ofd c s e a v a t i m uscd for this levelling of excarations If Llackfilling materiais are subject
for Ileal-y c o n ~ t r u c t i ~sinre
m the crane m a y also br u r c ~ lfor lifting q u i p - to movernent by ground water, precautions must be taken t o see t h a t they
merit during erection. Bulldozers, rrhich are simply tractors with a l~laclc are contained. either b y the concrete work itself, by sheet piling, or by
i~ttaehedto the front, are extensivt~lyw e d for Ilackfilling and fur c m - s o u ~ eimpervious soil.
['acting I I nirans ~ of othrr :rttaelinient~. Sizes and t y l w of c r r a r n t i n g It is lmor ]".actice to attempt a saving in concrete by placing a footing
end backfilling cqnil~nicntxi;.? ~\-itlitach l ~ r , l j ( ~ . t . on backfilled material or on ilisturtml soil. Drnwings ~ ~ r c p a r efor t l the
.\larliinc ~ w a v n t i n n .I~cing1w.s co-tly tlian h:rn{l c x c a w t i ~ ~ nis, 11w1 i l ~ s t a l l ; ~ t iof
~ ~f n~ ~ u t ~ d a t i sliould
i ~ n ; note t h a t "All footings iliall be carried
e r e p o s i T h c Ilrocess 1)l:rlit usu;~lly consist- uf a nulrrl~cr of t o firm and unili.;turbed s ~ ~ i l ,:rn~l " no ~ l c r i a t i o nshould be permitted
scpuraterl hut conge-ted arcns. It i: ord~naril?-~ i ~ u (11111rc ~ l i econumi~~irl to without sornc import,ant justification.
machine excavate 11 tr1t:rl area to the firm stratum. \vhm a numbcr of Grcat care must be cxcrciscd in making excavations near major footings,
separate small frrotiugs are t o he p o u r c d than to liaurl exr:rvste raclr thougli proper scheduling of the work will eliminate the need for sue11
footing. .Iltliougl~ tliis may require wrtnin arlditional forming. tlir eurarationr.
adrantage of a lwtter r~wrkingspare fur u n f t s m e n r e d u ~ e sfnrm building
titiit, and cost of ~.eii~iorring s t w l pl:weme~it costs. Other i ~ n ~ l ~ ~ r g r o u n c l Form Building
facilities such :is piping :ind piping tlirnst nuchurs. clertricnl rt~nduit;in11 T h e various shapes \vhirh retain t h r cmcrete vhile it is in the plastic
grounding systems can be iustalled s i m u l t a n c ~ ~ u r l thus y , eli~ninatingprac- state a r e called forms. T h e building of thcsc formi is the most rostly
tically ell hand excavation. operation in concrete 1%-ork.
V a t e r seepage caused by penetration 11f the vatcr-table or I I opcning ~ Forms m a y be ronstructed of wood or metal. Metal f ~ ~ r n require ia less
of xater-bearing strata in cxramtiun 1 1 1 1 t x h n sis a cmnnon prohleni in labor than n-ood forms! but foundation shapes must he designcd in
sul~surfacropcratims. If th17 grnrral area 1i:1> d i i ~ . i c n tslopc, rvntcr iuay accordance with metal form lengths and shapes. Metal fonna are sturdy
sonietimer be sealcrl off I I sheet ~ piling on the up~tre:im side of tire a n d last for many years xvit11 rcasonsl)lc care. Wooden fornis m a y be
C T I , : I ~ : I ~ion. used several times, but cleaning concretc from \voo~lforms is costly.'
IIC uu~cleto punqt out s c q -
I n a n y 11i:i.inr ~ ~ s r : r r : ? t il~~~r iui~ - i s i m.~Iior~ld
> Finishing r e ~ i ~ e to
n t a smooth a p p m r a n r c is n costly hand treatment and
:igr water or rnin v a t c r . Onc or In-(1 Ion 11oints \\.it11 ~ I I I I :rre ~ ~ prorirlc,l.
I ~ may be almost completely eliminated \\-it11 metal forms since the form
A thin ( 2 in. or 3 ir1.l scid eoiit of T W I ~ concri~tt~ over the hotto111 of the. surfaces are flat and smooth.
excaraterl area is often ~ f f ~ ' c t i vine stopping xvater seepage. 'l'liis method
is regu!arly used in extensivta cxwvations to imllrorc working conditions Reinforced Concrete
and to avoid cuntaminiltiou if the ci~ncrcte. r n t t a l ) l t , TI-ater-bcaring soils Since concrete is the primary material in reinforced fouildntion e x -
c~rsand soils tlii~tare s u l ~ j c r tto caving r c q u i ~ cr s t r a safcty ~ ~ r r . r : r i ~ t i m * stmction, a brief description ui its co~nl~ositiun
311d cliar:~cteristirs mnst
for tlic ~ ~ r < ~ t r cof t i ~110th
l n [ ~ c r r m n e and l cquil~iiient. Ile included in any dircussion on foundat.ions.
Errors ~ii:rrIc in esc:ix~tion 1icpt11: 11;. tlic acci~lcnt:il ;.e~iio\-:iIof ,soil
~rruundexirting fuundatiuns rcquirc careful rcfilliug. This c~perationis Cement a n d Concrete
ternird l~nckfilling. Heavy gravel or r u l h l e concretc is so~nctimcsuscd Concrete is composed of cement. water, and aggregates, such as sand
fur this 1)ilrl~oscif tllc drptli oI hackfill is not mcebsire. If suil conditiuns and crushed stone or gravel. Cemrnt, a s it,$ neuie iniiicatcs, is the agent
a r e poor and the bearing ralne is l o ~ vtxxcessive , xveights of gruvel and con- which solidifies t h e aggregates into a firm mass. Portland cement. which
mete must be avoided. Ordinarily I~ackfilling~ v i t hw a k cmcrote is the is used for most construction purposes. is composed of essentially four
simplcst and 11i11strcliahle practice. Bnckfilling :In :ire;i ~ v h c r ca floor slab tlasie compounds: tri-calcium silicatc ( 3 C a 0 6 i O 2 ) , dicalciuni silicate
or rvork slab is to he poured sl~oril~l al\vay.< Ilr ~,;irrfullydune and each *Forms rnn he oilrd before using t o incilitxtp r a n c i . r t ~ remoral. V:wious
surcc?iiv~.h y c r of soil s l i o ~ ~ lI)(. < l ~ ~ ~ n c l t~i i~nme p t ~ lSperifirations
. f ~ r silicone U ~ this ~ I I I ' P L I S B .
gwascs h a w proved highly S U C C ~ S S ~ for
602 Project Engineering of Process Plants Foundations 603
(2 C a O M I , ) , tri-calcium aluminatr ( 3 CaO.AI,O,), and ferrites similar 28 days with materials t o he used. Such crlrves nil1 indicate the best
to the aluminates. water-cement ratio and possihly thc most effective curing proccdnres.
l'l~esematerials are produccd by ralcining the propcr cumhinations uf The ~vater-cementratio, as indicated above, s1111uldbc closely controlled.
raw materials containing CaO. SiO,, AI,O,, and Fc. Lump:: or "clinkers" This ratio is cxpresscd in gal per 94 It] sack of cement and varies according
from the ceinent kiln are pulverized to f m n a dry powdery ~natcrial. to the required strength, the aggrcgatc size and type, mixing conditions.
When ceinent is mixed with the p~11wrfine and roarsc aggregates and delivery conditions, and placement conditions. The range is about
water, in correct proportions, it hardens into the solid Inass known as 4 t o 8 gal per sack. Openly storcd aggregates must be checked for water
concrete. The strength and other cl~aracteristics of cmcretc vary, content and this water deducted froni the water to be used. This value is
depending upon the type of cement used, tlie p r q ~ ~ ~ r t i oofn cthe mixture. easily checked by drying a mcasurcd quantity of aggregate a t 2003F
the kind and size of aggregates, the quantity of water used in its prepare- and weighing it. Equal quantities of undried aggregate measured and
tion, and the curing process after pouring. weighed thereafter will show the approximate 7,-atcr volume per cu ft.
While the ultimate strength of cmcretc may approncli 8,000 psi in Tircre are a number of high early-strength celnents which advance the
compression, it? strmgth in tension is approximately one-tenth of this hardening process. The design or 28-day strength r i t h certain mixes,
compressive strength. I n design, its tensile strength in tension is con- may be reached 12 and 24 l~oursafter pouring. Since thcse materials are
sidered zero. I t is for this reason that another matcrial must be added morc expcnsivc than portland cement and since the increased rate of re-
to concrete, t,o provide ~ t r r n g t hill twsion or hending. Steel ~vircsor rods artion often generates Iargc anionnts of heat ~vhich!nay require a more
are embedded in the roncrcte in definite pusitions to absorb r t r e s c s or costly curing procedure, they are not commmly used in ordinary con-
reinforce t l ~ cconcrete luass. Tlic design uf rcinf<~rrr.d r<onrrete,tl~ei.efore, struction.
is primarily determination of the requircd amounts and locations of Certain additives are arailable for increasing the density, natcr
reinforcing stee1.4.Q rcsistancc, surface charnctcristics, and resistance to wear of concrete.
The curing procedure of freshly pourcd or exposed concretc surfaccs is
Strength of Concrete also very important to the wear resistance and weathering characteristics
The p1iysici1-chemical reaction between the cement and n a t e r requires of the finished concrete.
a certain time t o initially sct, and further time t o harden to its design
strength. I n ordcr t o standardize tcst procedures, concrete compressive Specifications
strength used fur design is that stress which it will ~vithstandaftcr 28 Concrete strengths commonly used are 2000, 2500, 3000: and 3750 psi
days. The use of the 28-day time interval is the result of extensive after 28 days. Spccificatiun of strength in effect sets the water-ccment
research. Altliough concretc continues to liardcn the compressive strength ratio w.hich must be uscd since this ratio determines tlie 28-day strength.
curve flattens appreciably after 28 days for concrete cured in air without Ordinarily suppliers of ready-mix concretc are familiar with this mctliod
extraordinary curing procedurcs.5 of specification and will supply concrete t o meet or better the specifica-
Many factors influence concretc strength; water is pcrllaps the most tions.
important. Rcsults froni many contn~lledtests show that the compressive I n urdcr to cl~cckthe concretc strengtl~,samples are taken from each
strength varies from a rnaximuru of 7500 psi t o a ininimum of 2700 psi a t delivered inix by a testing laboratory in prepared cartons 6 in. diameter
28 days for water-cement ratios of 4 to 8 gal per sack, respectivcly. by 12 in. These cylinders are preserved under controlled conditions and
Curing methods alsu affect strength. Concrete continuously moist- tested in compression, until failure, after 7-, 14-, and 28-day intervals.
cured for one year shows an increase up to 160%, of 28-day strength. The For certain types of work it is desirable to spccify n~inimumsacks I I ~
increase is 140% up to 100 days. Air curing (without moisture) produces celncnt pcr cubic yard of concrete, and nmximum gallons of water pcr
a strength of ahout 75% of design a t 30 days. Apparently moist curing sack of cement. Thc slur~iptest which is described in detail in 4STX
a t any time after a dry-curing period will give a sharp increase in strcngth. Designation C 143-39 is often used as a consistency check tcst while
Curing temperature also influences strength. Seven-day strengths of concrete is being poured.
44% and 6570 of 28-day strength for curing a t 33F and 72"F, respec- Tlic American Society for Testing Materials has prepared a number of
tively, are reported. The Portland Cement Associationj recammends teats for evaluating cement, ronwete. and aggregates. Three tcsts are
that tests be run to determine cornpressivc strength curves for 7 days and tlie basis for all carefully prepared concretc specifications. The Portland
604 Project Engineering of Process Plants Foundations 605
Cenrent A~.ociation~h:is issued suggested concrctc specifications 21s ell r,nnrri,t~. T l ~ ceimcrete is poure(1 in the linckct wlricl~.in t ~ ~ r is
n .c;trricd
as 1iter:rturc on tlic proper use of 110th ]il:~in and rcinforceil concretc. hy a clan? to tlie necessary point. Chutes must be high enough to pprnrit
the concrete to flow ~ i t hease. I n certain types of n-ork a system of
Reinforcing Steel conrcying chutes or pipes may be provided.
The liasic strcngtli material used in concrete is steel in the form of roil?: Once the pouring of concrete for any massive slah is started, such as
bars, and stecl wire fal~rics.' The most conrmo~ireinforcing ~natcrinlis for a large foundation, it must not be stopped for any length of time. A
the round steel rod or has. ~ o n n n o nliar 51ircificationa arc: for billet bara. stoppage ~ o u l dpermit partial setting (solidifying). The successive ponr
-4STlI Al5-SOT; rail bars, ASTAI .416-SOT; cold drawn steel ~vire: would then not bond properly and a clt.a\-age plane might be produced.
A S T N .482-34; and ~veldcdsteel wirc fabric. .\ST31 A1 85-37. Thc *(I- \Vl~envery large pours are contenrplatcd arrangements nrnst be nrad? t o
cnlled deformcd bar 11as forged or rolled surface extrusion.i. For climcn- ininre continuity of all operations, mixing. conveying, and placing.
sions of deiormation~.see .\ST11 A30.5-SOT. At present only deformed .is the concrete is poured into the f o r m it is continuously proilileil l ~ y
bars arc used and their sizes are sliecifiecl hy nmnlier ( n i ~ size)
t a(,cording hand wit11 x ~ ~ o ~ paddles
len or poles so that it fll1~Wintu all tlrc contoul.-
to I-.5. 1)cliartment of Connnercc Sinlplificil Practice Rerolnlncn~l:itiol~
R-26. The bar number refers approximately to thc numher of
diameter incrcmcnts up to KO. 8 hnr n-hicl~is 1 in. Only three square
!,
in.
of tlie forms. Pneumatic vibrators are also used continuously during
the pour.
TTater mnet never be addcd after the concrete is poured. The degree
har sizes are listed in the recom~nendedstandard, starting a t 1 in.. d ~ i c l i nf fluidity cannot he ar11itr:rrily chnngerl by ndrling n i t e r .sinre this ill
is S o . 9; 1 5 in., S o . 10; and 1 % in., KO. 11. The smallest bur is a cllange the specified ~vatcr-ccnientratio newssary for the required con-
S o . 2, % in. round. Tlris bar is furnished plain or undcf~irnrcd:md is crete strength. There are, ho~vercr,ievixd additives sold nlrich will
sometimes called pencil rod. I t is used for miscellaneous functions sncl~ lower tlie viscosity of the concrete ~vithoutr q u i r i n g an increase in tlw
as ft~rm-ticshut is ordinarily not used for reinforcement. T\-atcr-cementratio.
Strength or stress limits for reinforcing steel vary from 14,000 psi t o
30,000 psi depending upon thc design requirements and the s t t d usc~i. Curing of Concrete Foundations
The usual sjiecifieati~inis 18,000 or 20,000 psi. The various atrcngtl~smay I n order t o derel~ipmaximum strength frcsh concrete must he protected
he found in the above named .\ST11 specifications. from loss of rvatcr by evaporation and from exccssivcly low or high
Another c~ininronrcinfurcing material is know1 as wclilerl ~viref:iIiri~,. temperatures. This is especially true in the first 7 to 10 days.
This ~naterialconsists of steel wire m l d e d together to form a scrcclr-likc Concrete can be kept moist by sprinkling, covcring x i t h water, applying
fabric. The spacing and gage nrust hc sliecificd according to connnerci:~I muisture resistant seal coats, and by using moisture-retaining covers sucl~
practice. A 6 X 6-10/lO, mesh indicates gage wire on 6 in. squares. ;re burlap or ci~ttoncloth.
Air around concrete should lie maintained a t 70F or ahore for a t least
Pouring Concrete 3 <lays. I n cold rvcatlrcr it ir sonietilnes necessary t o heat the x a t e r and
After tlrc forms arc built and the reinforcing steel is in place, the con- aggregates before mixing in order to provide a n initial temperature
crete can he poured to form tlrc foundation. Concrete lnay be nlixctl a t snfficient t o prun~otcthe hydration reaction a t a favmable rate. Tlie
the point of pour or elwvlrcrc. For :I large lirojcct :I ccntral mixing lilanr fresh concrete as poured, h o v e w r , should not be above 8 0 F sincc the
may be prnvidcrl: n.hcrc :ill c~m.rt:teis miscd, :rnd t l i e ~c ~o n v ~ y c dti1 t l ~ c heat of hydration further increases the temlierature of the concrete.
various puints of use by lrantl "buggies" or by trucks. Ready-mix Escesaircly high temlieratl~rescause undesirably fast stiffening \vlricl~
concretc is alsu extensively nscd when it is available. Tlris type concretc may produce cracks in tlrc concrete.
is sold ready-mixcd by mixing cnmpanies and is delivered by specially I n order t o maintain an atmosphere of 70F during cold xeatlrer it
designed trucks to tlrc point of pow on the project. is necwaary to co~;erthe concrete with tarpaulin. Straw or other material
The pouring of cuncrete is a relatively simple procedure. The plastic heneatlr the tarpaulin will increase the insulating harrier. During es-
mass nrust be poured or shovelled into the forms. For large pours (several treniely cold weathcr heat nlust be added in the form of live steam mitliin
hundred cubic yards) or pours covcring a l u g e area metal chutes arc a tarpaulin enclosure. This procedure is costly.
usimlly prnvi~lcd to cunvcy tlw w t nrnss to the proper plnec. Largi. Although the strength of concrete increases with curing temperature
buckcts are ~onietimcsused, holding from me-half to tiw cuhic ynrils of up to a certain point (the maximum is somcwlrerc betvccn 100 and
606 Project Engineering of Process Plontr Foundations 607
200FI, tlie cracking tenilency also increases. I t is. tlicrcfore, necessary from a distance of about 3 ft. The douhle-acting halnlner aids the force
to gu:1rd ag:rin?t rxceseively hip11 teinperdtures during hot 71-eather 11y of gravity by supplying energy on the downward stroke. Drop hammers
shading tlic concrete from the direct rays uf the sun and using cooled are often used for driving light piles. These are simple devices employing
inixing ~ v a t w . ~vincliesand hoists to lift a ram and then permit it to fall again.
The driving of piles is judged by skilled operators on the basis of the
The Finished Foundation
inches of penetration for each blox. They arc usually driven t o a pre-
After the concrete is cured, the forms are carefully removed to avoid determined resistance iueasured as the numher of bloxs required for the
injuring the surfaces. l'rojcctiune are reiiiored by rhippiiig. Holes may final inch of penetration. The last blow in turn is related empirically to
he repaired 11y chipping out to produce a t least n 1 in. deep rcct;lngular the safe load that the pile may bear.
area. The chipped area is then filled with successive layers of in. The penetration of piles thruugh denre strata can be aided greatly hy
the loosening action of a strong stream of water near the tip of the pile.
This process is called jetting.
General Practices
The layout and preliminary design of f~~undations starts with the
arrangenlent of the major process equillulcnt. Pllmps, colllpressors,
vessels, heat exchangers, or uther cquipmcnt located essentially a t grade,
are set on separate raised concrete sections. The base of the equipment
or top of concrete is always elevated a t least six inches above non~inal
area grade. I n general, all niajor equipment ~vlietherhoused in an en-
closure or located in the open, has a separate or independent foundation.
An independent foundation is one that is unattached to the floor or x o r k
area slab and extends to tlie depth required to transmit the load to a firm
Fig. 22-9. Typical nnchar bolts. LRcprintd by prrrnibrion. Gco. Stevens, Puuxr, 81. stratum when using spread founiiations, or ti) a pile-cap in the case of
S o . 2, 111 (1947).1 piled fuuntlntions. Steel colunin Imse; of structures or structural steel
>upports for equipment (Figs. 2 2 - 1 , 4 and 51 arc set on reinforced concrete
thick concrete. Compressor and pump fuundations must be left rough a t pedestals, exten(ling ahuve :irca. grade and provided with anchor 1)olts rast
the top after pouring so that grout ill adhrre to the foundation when in place. The steel structure like other equipment muit he securely fixed
the machine is installed. iu pi~sitii~n.The scparate concrete pedestals s u p p ~ ~ r t i nthe
g coluli~ns
During and after the completion of the foundation all anchor bolts extend to ii~dcpenrlent~ p r e a dfuotings or t o a pile cap.
should be carefully protected from damage and bending. For large
machinery such as compressors, removable bolts (Fig. 22-9A) are pre- Equipment Drawings
ferred. >lachines can then he skidded into position ~vllilethe bolts are Since equipment varies in dimeniiuns, and foundations cannot be
removed, and broken bolts can be replaced easily. designed until riimcnsimal data are known, tlir various ~nanufactmers
Impare drawings showing the dimensions of their equipment necessary
Piling for installation. The rnnnufncturcr also utilizes these drawings for secur-
When piles are required they are driven by a hammer supported on ing approvals from the purchaser. T1iu.s a series of transmittals takes
vertical leads bung on an ordinary crane or a machine made specifically place as descrihrd in (:hapter 9. I k p m d i n g upun the type of cquipnimt.
for pile driving. The hammer is driven by a single-acting or double- several montlis may rlapsc froni the time of onler placelncnt and receipt
acting steam or air reciprocating engine. The single-acting engine lifts of the ~ i i a n n f ; l ~ - t ~ ~d;it:i
r e r ' or
s vcrrdor prints.
the ram (3000 to 5000 lb) and allows it to fall by gravity onto tlie pile Vendor prints are the only reliable source of dilucnsional data and
608 Project Engineering of Process Plants
::ccurattt dimensions are necessary f11r tlic preparation of all inr;tallatioli to the p i n t of pollr at a fixr~lprirr. Gcncrnlly thc delivcrerl price of
drawings including foundatirln dra~vings. 3Innufacturers must. thercfor~,. rc;trt>--mirr,l concrctc !!'ill Llc fairly rlosr to the ro.st of plant-mixed eon-
certify thc correctness of tlie dimensions on the drawings thcy f w n i ~ l t . crete ~ r l ~ cthe
n requirements do not exceed 4000 or 5000 cu yd. I n coni-
These prints are known as Certified Vendor Prints and gnarantee in effret paring the two the cost of plant-mixed concrete should inrlude costs of
that the equipmcnt \rill bc furnished in accordance ~ v i t lthe
~ dimensiorl the niixing equipment on a rental basis, material handling a t the mixer,
sho5~-non the draxing. Although the lower portion of foundatinns con- and conrrete transportation over thc johsite. If concrrtr is to br mixrd
rtituting massive pads may be poured, the upper or final portions. n-hirh at, tlic site: provisions must bc made for dry storagc of ccmcnt, aggrc-
contain the anchor bolts and conform to the shape of the equiptn~~nt gate storage. and a water supply. I n cold climates provisions must be
(,annot be poured lintil this certified dimensional data is rccci\-cyl. I'll,, m::dp for heating ~ r n t c rand nsunlly aggregate. Thus if the amount of
lack of vendor print6 can delay construction as seriorlsly as the delay in concrete r c q u i r ~ dis not n c e s ~ i v c it
, is i~r'nallymore ~ ~ e ~ n o ~ l to
~ i rpur-
:%l
delivery of the cqnipment itself. clr;lse concrete mixed an11 Itarc it delivered to the forms.
lhese costs, up to tlic point of pouring, depend on: ( 1 ) quantity; The uac of metal forn1s for all flat surfaces conserves both form
(2) methorl of mixing; and (3) mix specification, in that order. Thcsc ~nnterialand labor since thcsc iorms may be erected in about 1 4 the time
are tlie costs only thrl~ughthe niixing phase. Finnl cost of concrctc n.11rk; require11 for roode en forms and may be re-used as soon as renlovccl.
however, is considerably higher, ranging from $40.00 for simple poln-s t o Furthermore, thc concrete surface nil1 require little or no finishing since
$200.00 per en y d for conlplex pours. This increase is duc to: (41 nmte- metal forms leave a snlootl~and clean surface. hl(1dular metal forms can
rial and labor for form building; ( 5 ) matcrial and labor for bending and be uscd for practically all types of concrete work, but the dimensions of
placement of rcinforcing stcel; (6) lahor for plncemcnt in the forms, the foundation must conform to the form sizes available.
including vibration; ( 7 ) labor and matcrial for curing prowdure; (81 Costs \rill he rcduced if dimensions of foundations are based iln standard
labor for form stripping; (9) labor and material for cement finishing. hnnber sizes or standard metal forms. Fractions of inches should be
I n items 4 through 9, labor is the governing factor varying from 5 0 v avoided unless required for anchor bolt dimensions.
to 809, of thc total costs. Thc labor costs of form building d l usl~ally
exceed all others. Stondardizafion
Cost of concrete foundations seldo~u exceeds $65 per cu yd based Furt11t.r economies ran bc obtained by standardizing certain types of
on 1954 labo~,rods. App~.oxi~nately 60% is for Inhor. This figure ~ l l ~ n ~ l r l f ~ ~ u n d a t i m sMost
. projects require a nunibcr of squ:~re pcdcstalu for
not, bc used intliscriniinately for all foundation vork. Tlrc ro.~tper rll yd supporting structural stccl columns used for pipe supports. B y setting
for large mats cmsisting of many hundrcds of en yd of concretc ~j-itll onc stnndard sine for these pedestals and standard anclior bolt sizcs based
little or no forming ill be much belolv $65. Otllcr factors affecting on tlic se\.erest serviec, costs of design, drafting, field cngineering, and
concrete labor costs are labor productivity in thc area, climatic conditions. iorin building are all greatly reduccd.
working conditions, and type of n-ork.
FOUNDATION DESIGN
Ready-Mixed versus Site-Mixed Concrete
Certain other basic costs, such as thc source of concretc materials, Design Basis a n d Soil Mechanics
sometimes seriously affect foundatiori and other concrete 111:lterial costs. A foundation consists of the concrete mass, the reinforcing rod, and
Illay hc mistvl ;:t the johsitc 111. m:ly
('1lllrTi~tt~ purcli:ts?d rv;r,ly-nristyl. the surrounding soil. Since tlic man-made portion of the foundation murt
I n nr7nrly all domestic industrial areas ready-mixed conercte is delivered be supported and surrounded by the subsurface soil, it is impossible t o
610 Project Engineering of Process Plants Foundations 61 1
select a foundation type and to design it for a givcn application ~ v i t l ~ o u t The following brief description of design considerations for varioo>
careful considcrntion nf soil mechanics. types of lirwess plant f o u n d a t i ~ ~ nrvill
s proviile a superficial kno\vle~lgc
Became of thc large variety of suhsurfacc conditions peculiar to earl^ n.hir.ll. ~vlienproperly w e d , n-ill aid the project engineer in understallding
m a . a designer must rely on judgment hased on experience in that area. the problems of the foundation engineer.
For this reason it llas i)r~.omecommon practice t o engagc local foundati~in
engineering consultants to aid in the soil analysis and testing program as Soils a n d Design
well as in decisions necessary for foundation selection and dcsign. As already emphasized, tlic character of the underlying soil or rock
Foundatim drsign is cnipirical in nlany respects. This is particularly must he an in1l)ortant factor in foundation design. Each type requires a
true if the fo~indationniust rest on clay, sand, or silt. Load tests made diffcrcnt basis for design. I t will usually be found. for instance, that the
a t the jol~sitcare nccessary for any such soil with questionable suliport- soil pressure permitted for maximum allowable settlement for s:md is less
ing capacity. Tliesc tests when properly made subject the subsurface than required for bearing capacity failure.' Hence, the allol\-a11lc settle-
strata to conditions similar t o thosc anticipated for thc plant equipment. ment usually governs the dcsign of foundations in sand. The rvidtll of a
Load tests are made by applying weights (sand, rock. $tee11 t o a plat- sprcad footing or a mat located in sand influ~ncesthe a l l o ~ r a l ~ hearing
le
form resting on test piles or hearing platcs, if piling is not contemplated. capacity of tlic soil (the \$-ides the footings the greater the capacity1
The bearing plates shonld rest on the soil a t the same lcvcl planned for Clays, on the other hand, do not cxliibit such incrcascs in allo~~-able
thc footings. As the load is applicd, settlc~nrntnhserretl for each load or safc capacity ~ v i t hwidth. Furtlier, it cannot he statrd definitely
increnlcnt is recorded. These tests may a t times prove rostl>,. Iiut whether settlement or bearing capacity ill control foundation design for
nevertlieless should be made wlicn reromnicndcd by ~:omjrctcntsoil ex- clays. Both must he chrckcd. After the foundation is designed for a
perts. Load test information togethcr with soil analysis &a providc tl~c! clay soil. a prediction of the settlcment bascd on laboratory cunrdidation
only sound basis for design in questionable soils. tests must bc made.
I n clays and silts, t,he only reliable method for determining the safc
Settlement a n d Foundation Failure load on pilcs is by means uf pile load tests. Empirical safe-load pile
Two important factors must bc considered in the dcsign of each founda- formulas should he used only ~vlienprcvious experience %vit,hthe sanle soil
tion. First a foundation must be designed so that the soil ur rock upon conditions has indicated reliability of the formulas.
which it is resting supports both the load imposed by the foundation and
the equipment bcing carried by it. Wind loads and other cxternal forces Design Calculations
must be considered also. The single inost important factor in this phase Onre tlrc allowable safe soil pressure or allowable bearing rapacity is
of design is thc bearing capacity of the soil or rock. I f the hearing determined by a conlbination of soil tcsts and judgment, actual design of
capacity is exceeded the soil or rock will give xvay and the foundation ill the cuncrcte portion of the foundation can proceed.
collapse into the ground. I n imlust~.ialpracticc standard computation procedure forms arc 11s11311y
It is possible, Iiowever, to construct a foundation that will not exceed preliared for specific designs. The arrangcnlent of thcse forms follo\v.; the
the bearing capacity of a certain soil, but that will settle into the ground. logical steps in the c~nnputation. Since foundations arc concerned v i -
If this scttlernent hecomes excessive it can cause cracking of the founda- mnrily ~vitli~veigllt)all 15-eights are tatiulated. The kip or 1000 11) unit is
tion, particularly if the settlement is uneven, and prnduces undue strain employed by nrod ,designers.
on structures which are supported by the foundation. Differential settle- Althougli standard forms are used by many organizations the priire~l-
ment between multiplc footings supporting a singlc structure can cause ures r a r y \\-idcly. l l a n y of these tcclmiques havc been published
difficulty since concrete columns begin to crack when the diffrrential and those common to process plant practice are included in the
settlement exceeds :!/, in. Steel and brick can withstand grcater am~)unts, 0
references,Y.4.B.i.8.'J.1
but all are adversely affected.
Spread Footings
Design Procedures h simple ralculation yields the area required for a concentrically l~inded
No attempt d l be made here to outline or recommend design tech- spread footing. when the depth of placement of the footing and thi, I X ~ C
niques because foundations, due t o the empiricism involved, must he snil pressure ior settlcment or the allowable bearing capacity i m given.
designed and selected by experts in that field, * T h c usual safety factor for bearing capacity is 3.0.
61 4 Project Engineering of Process Plants Foundations 615
that phase of the design v4l not he discussed, and the thickness will be assomed
to he 2 it. This loading is satisfactory. as the soil will safely support 2000 psf.
The wight of the foundation and tower r d l be calculated as f o l l o ~ s : Thc minimum soil loading due to dead load before internnls, ladders, piping,
and liquid are added is:
Area of 6 f t octagon = 0.828d2 = 0.828 X 6' = 29.8 sq f t 125.i00 lb
Volume of top course = 4 f t X 29.8 = 119.2 en ft = 830 psf
Area of base (octagnn) (a) = 0.828 X 13.5" 151 sq ft 151
Volume of base = 2 f t X 151 = 302 cu ft This is the dead load under the w x s t stability condition, and since it is greater
Total volume
Weight of concrete
= +
119.2 302 = 421.2 cu ft than the orerturning stress ( 8 %= 803), the soil hrlrw the foundation will
= 421.2 cn it X 150 lb/cu f t = 63,000 lb alrvays be under compression a t all points, thus indicating that the fourrilntion
Volume of earth fill is stable.*
Usually it is found that the first assumption of foundation size is not correct.
(4 f t - I St) X (151 sq St - 29.8 sq f t ) = 363 cu ft in which case another assumption is made, and the calculations repeated.
We~ghtof ealth fill = 363 cu it X 90 lh/cu ft = 32,700 ih T h e calculations shown in t h e above example d o nnt complete the
Keight [IS empty toxel = 30,000 lb
design of the foundation. Next, t h e various stresses in t h e foundation
*Kc = 30,000 + 63,000 + 32,700 = 125,700 lh must be calculated to be sure t h a t they are helox t h e allor~able. Permis-
*KOn111 be as follows: sible stresses for design a r e recorded.4.8,Q Theac stresses include diagonal
Insulation, platforms, piping. etc. = 9,000 1b tension produced by the upward action of t h e soil. This is a n eccentric
Water required to fill the tower reaction which tends to break t h e foundation along a diagonal starting
(4 f t diam) (50 it high) = 39,500 lb a t the foot of the pedestal and on the l e e ~ r a r dside. T h e foundation must
Total (TI',) = 48,500 lb also resist t h e tendency to shear along t h e bottom l e e ~ r a r ~edge
l of the
TI7 = +
125,700 48,500 = 174,200 lb pedestal. T h e shearing loud is produccd hy the dcad load and the ~ ~ - i n d
a = 151 sq ft, and from eq. 1 load and in its calculation allowance must be made for t h e load-carrying
174,200 lh capacity of the soil.
S, =
151 sq f t = 1155 psf = maximum dead load on soil Other stresses include t h e bending produccd b y the upward reaction of
the soil which must be resisted b y the reinforcing stccl, bond stress between
Allowing 3 in. for the thickness of the insulation, the effective diameter of the concrete a n d steel (must not bc excessive or steel will not act with full
tower exposed to the action of the mind is 4.5 ft. 1wind velocity of 100 mph
is equal to 25 psf of projected area [PC= 0.0025(100)2]. strength), and hearing stresses a t t h e hase of tower. These and m a n y
Therefore other considerations must he carefully analyzed before a foundation can
P, = 25 psf be completely designed. Much judgment and many assumptions are
Do = 4.5 it necessary. Only experienced designers should attempt the design of t h e
H = 54 ft more complex foundations.
P , = 25 X 4.5 X 54 = 6080 #
Height of foundation = 6 ft
Mats
Smaller Equipment
Foundations for smaller equipment such as pumps. filters, and dryers
&reoften poured in the form of rectangular solids \vith straight s i ~ l r sand
no offsets. The periphery of the support must conform to the periplrcry
of the equipment and the foundation base must he extended t o firm
stratum. Small process equipment usually has a low mass-area ratio
and thus unit soil loading is invariably below the hearing capacity
because of the large foundation area. Reinforcing stcrl is rarely rcquireil
in these installations unless it is needed to insure secure attnrhmmt of
consecutive concrete pours.
I t mould, of course, be possible to undercut the base of the foundation
since tbe large area is not needed for support. I n such cases, ho~~evel..
tension is created in the foundation and reinforcing steel is required. The
added cost of the steel and additional form work usually offsets any
saving in concrete.
Xumcrous excellent articles and lrandbuoks have been publislledl,?,"
in addition to standard texts on foundatim design which out-
e.7.".",10
I Structures and Buildings 619
usually masonry structures x i t h flat roofs which are supported by the
walls and partitions. \Vlien several floors are required, thc strurturc
framing may be either steel or rcinforccd concrete with thrx roof and
exterior walls above the first floor supportcd from this framing. The
lightest possible materials are used for csteriur ~vallsin order to w d w r
the dead load, and insulation is used t o provide weather protection instead
of many layers of brick and masonry.
I n milder climates, simple steel-framed structures are used for lrousing
mechanical equip~lent. LIetallic or corrugated asbestos-cement siding
and gabled roofs corered witli the same materials are generally satisfac-
STRUCTURES tory for single-story structures. Flat roofs are illore common for multi-
story buildings.
Some of the more common huildings in proccsr plants include huildings
AND for housing process equipment, office buildings, change houses, cnfcteria
and recreation center, medical facilities, laboratories, and shops and ware-
Iiouses.
BUILDINGS Buildings for Process Equipment
In cold climates some culnpanies h a r e found it advantageous t o locate
process units in buildings, hut the necessity for euclosuree in any climate
is rapidly diminishing. Some pieces of cquipsncnt, however, must be
The modern process plant is located almost entirely out of doors and
enclosed regardless of climatic conditions. Tlrese include: (11 certain
contrasts sharply with the totally enclosed plant of a decade ago. Now heavy mechanical apparatus such as electrical polr-er generating macliiu-
only instrument control centers, critical machinery, and operations re-
cry, (2) small hatch or kettle processes, (3) processes or lnecl~anical
quiring cmtrolled atmospheres are enclosed by buildings. Automatic equipment handling solid materials which must be protccted from the
control instruments, and weather-proof and explosion-prmf motors h a r e
xcather, (4) packaging equipment, (5) certain types of mechanical filters.
enal~ledthis striking change to take place. Today t,he most irrlposing
(61 major or master control panels; and (7) any equiprrlcnt or process
structures in a process plant are the large unenclosed structural steel
which requires constant operating at,tention.
skeletons which are used t o support equipment that is operated from the
I n warm climates buildings for some of thcsc items vill be opcn-sided
c o n h r t of an air-conditioned control room by means of automatic
a t points ~vliercwiml will not interfcrc wit11 the proccas. Those 1)uil~ling;
instrumcntation.
\vllich are completely enclosed such as control rooms will be air-
Thcre are three typcs of structures for process plants: ( a ) the totally
conditioned.
enclosed structure, the conventional industrial or commercial building;
( b ) the partially enclosed structure which is a simple t,ype of roofed Office Buildings
shelter; and ( c ) the unenclosed structure which is a n unshcltered struc-
I n designing officc buildings the most effective studies can be made hy
tural support.
making cut-outs of desks, chairs, file cahinets, and office uiachines. Tari-
nus arrangenlcnts of these cut-outs can be made on a plan view of tire
TOTALLY ENCLOSED STRUCTURES -BUILDINGS
The types uf huildings usually found in process plants are relatively
simple ones, similar to thc mill huildings used in heavy industrial plants,
-
proposed office space. Heat and ventilation, lighting, traffic, and office
equipment requirements can also he studied in thi: manner.
Good office equipment arranged in such a way that it causes inefficiency
with the exception that process plant buildings arc generally of rnuch or constant annoyance t o the staff is of little value. If, for cxamplc, sev-
liglrtcr cunstruction. eral persons must work together in a room, the seating arrangement
Single-story structures in the colder climates of the United States are should provide as much privacy as possible. Two persons sllould never
61 8
Structures and Buildings 62 1
620 Project Engineering of Process Plants
Iw wntwl so t11ey 1lnl.t f;rw enell irthcr. Rrg:rriIlr~s( i f pcr~rmnlity.s11rl1 Cafeteria a n d Recreation Center
arrangements lead to problems. I n general, separation of each indi- (:aietcrias for industrial plants may be rquipl~ciln-ith r,o~npletekitr111.11
vidual even if only by glass semi-partitions is better than group arrange- facilitirs or may be dcsignril for -1iort-oril~~r~vmking n-it11 cmril~lt~tr
ments. dinner. fur~~islred by eatcring scrricc.. IIotrl crluipment cul>l~lylrr~uses
The proper floor upon ~vhichto locate a given group must be given arc lrelpful in the planning of complite kilclien facilities and r i l l usually
~ a l . e f u lronsidrration. Assumc t h a t a n mginewing department and a prepare a list of rc~cilmlllcndedcqili~llnent.
purchasing i l q ~ a r t m r n tare to bc housed in a tvo-storied structurt,. Lora- Adequate storage ellace sl~ouldbe l~rovi~lril fur rnnned goods. 1111lk
tion of these t ~ departments
o in the same building is functional since in goods: and regetables: and refrigcratio~li n ;hlli-in l i;r~,ilitil:~ nlllst Ill, i n l i l t
any organization n-here engineering anil purchasing is p e r f ~ ~ r m ead con- for meat storage. Tllc cafeteria counter 1s 11:u;ill!- rlcsigncil as :I uuit
sirlcrablc anlount of rollal~orwtionr i l l bc n r c r s a r y . T h e next question to suit tlrc specific lr~cationand service. Tr:iffic must he studied ti] aroiil
is I ~ h i c hdepartn~cntshoul~lbe located on t l ~ rg r o ~ ~ nflr~or.
d Purrhasing mngcstion. T h e total space requirrd for t:il]les can 11c ~ ~ s t i m a t chy d TITO-
department personnel are usually more active in ilmling with outside viding irmn 10 to 1,; q f t pcr prr.iin; I~or~--rwr, tlic best proccdu~cis to
firnis than any other department except sale.-, and n steady flov of repre- lay out foul.-person tables. If largcr t:il~lcs arc crcr .;uhstituteii, nrorc
sentatives from other firms r a n always Ile rinticipated. I t folluas then persons I I I : ~IIC
~ :i:co~~l~~l~~il:itcil.
that the purchasing department sl~ouldbe on the ground floor to facilitate Cozts for rccreation f:rr,ilities may 1,c rrcliicc~li1>- coml~iningthe recrca-
the reception of salrsmen and visitors. tion arca ~ i t l tl l ~ rplant r:lictcria. Thib nrr:ingrnimt ofirrs ni:lny 11o.ssi-
bilities. I t pro;.ides morc spare if large g r i ~ u l ) s o fpcrs~~nncl ur visiti~~':
Change Houses are to he entertained ; ~ n di t enal~lesbetter sen-i1.e if food is to be ~ ~ r o v i i l e ~ l
Tire design of employee change l~ouseeis rrlativcly simple. A count for these occasions. .\Io~-:~ble partitionh n-hirh fold into thc 1\.nll ran bc
must be made of employees undcr various ~ v o r k cla~sifications,and used fur isolation of ccrtaitl areas. One part ( l f the cOlll~lin:itil~llToolll
personnel in clean types of jobs separated from heavy maintcmnnce can bcromc R l i l ~ r i ~ rury ri,a~ling~ I I I I I I Irquipl~edn-it11 ~11elv1.s iin11 lil~rnry
workers. Foremen and supervisors are also often provided with sepilratc tal)lcr. Wnll spncc i l l ~ n o t l ~ 11:irt
e r may he nrr;~nge(lfor milring ] ~ i r l t ~ ~ ~ , l ,
space. projection. Fol~lingchairs can Ile l~ru\-i,le(li ~ n dstored il\vay 1\-11rn not
Generally each employee is provided v i t h two lockers, one for work In use.
clothes and one for ordinary clothing; ho\~-ever,many different arrange- 1,avatory farilitics ~cl~ould 11e ~ ) r ~ \ - i i l:irljaccnt
c~I to tllc kil<:11~11fur ci~fc-
ments are made depending upon company policies. tcria help and h g r r f:iditics ( 3 to 10 ~II".>IJII.~ each IIINI(::mil ~ I ' I I I : ~ I L . I
The problenl of ventilation is hest solved by using single rather than located conveniently for pewonnel being served.
back-to-back arrangement of lockers. This permits the lockers t o air The design of heating. ventilating. and air-conilitii:ming servircs ivill
from but11 back and front altl~oughrequiring more floor space. rlel~endupon the company's policies. If an ;air-con~litimingsyitcnr i-
Ceiling lieiglits for change houses should not be less than 12 ft t o permit properly dcsignctl and the structure has h e m adequately insul;~tcilt l ~ v
better natural air circulation. Slmver r o o m .slrould he provided with operating costs will llc rcl:rti;,cly lo\,-. \Tit11 ln'oper zone control rvlif~l~,
d o m and completely partitioncd from other parts of the building t o areas may be isol;ited, tlierehy reducing the load. I n 11-arm and l~inniil
reduce l ~ u n ~ i d i tas
y niuch as possible. cliuiates air-conditioning is a neccsiity.
Lighting nray be kept to 25 foot-candles for extreme economy. Careful The ro~nl~in:iti<,n cafeteria and rrcrcation cmtt:r rcyrcsrnts t l ~ cmini-
design of circuits, horever, can provide better lighting a t little addition:d nlunl in facilities i i ~ ~vorkcr
r cimvenicnce ill the proccss industries. I\lan!-
cost. plants provide country-club style recreation buil~ling;, slvimniing 11o11l>.
I n larger plants there are free laundry facilities for outer clotl~ing libraries, and sports equiln~lent. Each coulpany n~ust,decide the extent
(coveralls etc.), and these are operated hy the locker room attendant. of recreation facilities necessary for its particular situation. Plants
T h e existence of such facilities removes any excuse for continued unelean- located in large inetrupolitan areas do not requirc as nlucli as plants
liness. located in remote areas.
Heating may be by forced hot-air circulation in the colder cliniates
Medical Facilities
or by ceiling and wall radiators or unit heaters. Generally it is desirable
to provide sonle means of forced air c i r c u l a t i ~ ~for
n year-round ventilation Pl:~nt size and 1111,:1tioriarc the l~rin~;ir!. con;ider;~timx in ilrt~wnininp
in all climates. tho type of medic:il f:icilities n1wl171l. Pl:~nt.- 1,wxtcml I I W ~ ~,itic>~vit11
622 Project Engineering of Process Plants
Structures and Buildings 623
liospital facilities can use ambulance service, and provisibn need only be arrangement could he reciroulation in tllc offire area and v m t i r ~ gor 100C :
n u d e for tempurary bed patients. Kaiting rooms, examination rooms. make-u11 in the analytical a w a . T l l i ~of
, I Y I I I ~ S C\v;~stes
~ c11n1~(1 air. The
and uffiees for tlie physician and nurse are required, ho~verer. A comhi-
aniount of air circulation can l,e rcducerl if opernti~~ns e v ~ ~ l r i nnosio~ls
g
nation examination and surgery roo111 is sometimes provided if tbe nearest or disagreeable iurnen arc. crmd~~ctcd in hoods.
hospital is one or two hours a v a y . 1,ighting for the analytical arcas of the 1abor;rtnr~-sholllll be of higli
Operating roilins require anesthesia facilities, special lighting, liospital- foot-candle intensity (75 t o 1001. Fixture selection dcpmds on tlie typrs
t,ype lavatories, sterile containers, and sterilizers. All e q u i p e n t must be of laboratory m-ark. I n more hazardous areas all lighting may have t o
grounded to prevent cxplusii~ns. Grounded types of floor tile are available be vapor- or explosion-proof.
for this purpose.
An analytical medical laboratory is necessary if extensive pliysical
Research Laboratories
examinations are contemplated. Xedical supply firms will reconimend
tbe equipment necessary for routine cxaminatii~ns. Process plant research laboratories must be flcxible in design and layout
since the operations performed in any one area may change. Research it:
Process Plant Laboratories often conveniently divided into bench scale and pilot plant research. The
1.aborati1ries for tlie process plant may be designed as Control Labora- bench scale operations are best conducted in two-man laboratories eom-
tories, General Plant Laboratories, and Researcli Laboratories. plete with hoods and all utilities. Special racks for assembling tall glass-
ware such as laboratory distillation colurnns are required, and convmicnt
Control Loboralories desks and files in the laboratory are necessary for each rcscirrclrer.
I n niany plants simple control tests may be 1)erfornied in the operating Pilot plant facilities may bc located outdoors or inside light prefabri-
area. Usually n sink with water, air. and other liquid connecti~~ns d l cated buildings. Buildings and structures shuuld be ennstructed with the
suffice. The extent of apllaratus provided varier with the function. knowledge that change in such facilities is inevitable. Safety precautions
should not be neglected, holverer, just because the existing equipment is
General Plan1 Loboratories known t o be temporary.
I n addition to the actual lahoratory work rooms required for General I n designing researcb facilities, every attempt sliould be made t o pro-
Plant I.aboratories, space may bc provided for a chief cl~einist,assistant, vide working conditions conducive to creative thinking. This implies
cl~cn~ists, shift chemists, library, file room, supply and store rooms, and comfortable, quiet, and pleasing surroundings. Conference rooms and
locker and slimvcr roonis. Isolated and air-conditioned space is some- adequate library facilities are essential.
times necessary for analytical equipnient such as rpectropl~oto~~~eters. In
roille cases lead shielding limy he needed fur floors, walls, doors, and Shops a n d Warehouses
ceilings of rooms housing m11io:xtive materials.
Sbops and varchouses are no longer ugly, dark, and dirty places in
Arrangenicnts for tlie gcncral analytical laboratory equipment follow
which t o work. Modern mcchanieal shops and ~varel~nnsc~s in a process
conventional patterns. A number of firms specialize in custom-built
plant arc designed t o provide the maximum in wnrkcr comfort and thus
Iallorntory bcnches and related equipment,, and it is more economical t o
worker efficiency.
purchase equipment from theni. The furniture, though standard in design,
hIaeliines are usually painted pastel shades which are easy on the eyes
is unitized and can be arranged to suit almost any situation. and enable more rapid location of knohs and pusl?-1)nttons. Better illunii-
Propcr ventilation for the lahoratory is usually a problem which
nation together with well-designed painting scl~cmesassure a minimum
requires eoneiderable study. All office, technical, and clerical personnel
of eyestrain.
and facilities not related to actual analytical work sliould be located
Kew shops in w m n climates are being furnished v i t h crmplcte air-
togcther in one end of the building or on a separate floor. If a choice of conditioning even in the areas used fur \velding. Tlit: increased costs are
floors is pmsible all such personnel and facilities should he located on
apparently offset by greater worker efficiency.
the ground flour.
Anyone involved in the design of s l ~ i ~ or
p s ~i-arehoust'sshould thoroughly
If the Iaburatory is air-con~liti~~ned the two gericriil areas, office and study the needs for the particular plant. If pos.sible, the slinp or I n r e -
analytical, should be on separate recirculation systeins. An alternate
house foreman sliould aid in all the planning stages.
624 Project Engineering of Process Plants Structures and Buildings 625
Types of Equipment Supports considerable time on the opc~,;itilrgfloor. Stct.1 plat? or ,nratin: floo1.s arc
Unenclosed equipment d i i c h mnst he elevated above gradc may be used for arcas requiring only occasicnial attenti~ln. Grating is preferred
supported hy either structurill steel or reinforced concrete. Structural to steel plate in areas in which snow orcurr. since sno~r-arcun~ulateson
steel is less expensive p:rrticularly for multi-story structures, but rcin- steel plate and crcatcs a hazard. Grating also requires a minin~unlof
forccd concrete columns have thc advantage of requiring little or no cleaning and reduces the w i g h t of thc structurc, an importnnt factor for
maintenance since they are unaffected by many of the corrosive vapors tall structurcs subject to high wind loads.
common to process plants. I n addition, concrete n-ill not fail when sub-
jected t o fire Thilc steel must be protected by the application of a con- Attachments
crete coating. When "fireproofing" is necessary, therefore, reinforced All equipment must bc securcly holtcd t o the supporting members.
concretc structures may prove the more desirable, especially for single Horizontal cyli~~drical vessels, drums, and hcat-exchangers arc usually
lerel structures (10 ft t o 15 ft ahove grade). supported a t two points only. These suppiirts arc ta-o tramverse s11oe.i
welded t o the equipment. Equipment ~~-11ich changes dimension under
General Considerations in Planning Equipment Structures operating conditions is arranged so that une end is frcc to movc in a
guided direction. Largc vertical toiwrs located in a structure ur uhove
Arrangement gradc arc usually supported a t the lower end. Lugs welded to thc pcrip11-
ery are used for sn~allercquipmmt. Since lieat rx(~11:mger~ h a ~ ~VIIIOY-
e
I n addition to supporting elcvatcd equipment, space and access must
be provided a t the elevated level for operating inspection and for mainte- able heads a t both cuds, they must a l r ~ a y sbe supported along thc length
nancc. Heat-exchangc~sand other equipment subjcct t o dismantling will of the rquil~nicntso that the lieads may be rcniovcd.
Intcrconnecting piping for hot equi1xnent must he restrained und,/or
require more space than simple chambers or vessels. Any equipment
d-hich must bc opened or disconnected periodically must be arranged for guided so that strcsses caused hy changes in ter~~pcrature, either in the
disassembly in placc or for ren~ovaland lowering t o grade, and equipmcnt piping or the cquipment, are controlled or al~sorbedhy the supporting
structure rather than t l ~ cequipment. Since many of thcsc streases cannot
a t lower levcls must be arranged t o avoid a n y interference during this
operation. The structurc nus st also be dcsigned for the forces encountered be calculated beforc all piping dcsign is completed, it is common practice
n71icn lowering of equiprncnt is in progress. to overdesign structures for process cquipmcnt rather than delay thc
final dcsign of structural steel. -4nd further) since ncnrly all processes are
Wherever heavy equipmcnt or its parts are dismantled or lifted, hoisting
apparatus is providcd. Gantry-type cranes are sometimes installed if subject t o modification, it is usually more economical to design major
many pieces of heavy equipment subject to dismantling are grouped to- mernbcrs slightly heavier than rcquirml rattier than design ior the ahsdute
gethcr. A monorail with trolley is provided for isolated pieces of equip- minimum as in commercial building practice.
ment. A portable air, electric, or manual hoist can then be attached t o
BASIS FOR DESIGN OF STEEL STRUCTURES
the trolley when required for lifting.
Modular or fixed spacing of columns, as used for office or other multi- The detailed design of stccl structures must follow the practices out-
story building structurcr, is seldom practical for structures designed for lined by the American Institute of Steel Construction.8 and reinforced
the process plant. Instead, tbe w i g h t and the desircd arrangement of concrete structures those of the .4mcrican Concrctc Institute.',7 Either
equipment should govcm the column arrangement. Main structure col- of these codes may be amended according to the requircmcnts for the
umns, of course, must be locatcd on common centerlines t o simplify design particular type of plant,.
and improve stability. When a number of floors are planned, floor spacing Specifications vhich must be dcvcloped as a basis for design include
should hc made cqual if possible to simplify general design and stair the following:
arrangements, and t o improve stability. I. Structures thirty it in height or above
1. Weight of equipment.
Floors (a) Empty; ( b ) operating or filled with prorejs fluid; (c) testing (fillrd
Concrete slab fl~iorsare installed when maintcnancc operations for ele- nith m t e r or other trcting Huid).
vated equipment arc extensive, or when operating personnel must spend 2. Wind loads; use niasinium ;\ntiripted vind and calc~dnttlui~dfor each
of the three conditions above under itern 1.
Structures and Buildings 629
Iwnly-1~vo( 2 2 ) it high, ihr wnivrline of n-hie11 i; the r,cnlerline t l ~ ~
r:iilroad tmck, and the h ~ i g h tof which rectangle is measurrd from the top
of the railroad rails. (Sote: Alan? states hare statutes rr-hich fis railroad
clearaners. The-e dimensions conform to most requirements.)
h. Eleetriral p o m r line clearances. The minimmn overhead clearance for
olwn wiring carried on str11ct11ra1supports or entering buildings, or run
~djncrntto structnres above rondxays or milmy track rails ?hall he t~rpnty-
eight (28j ft. The minimum horizontd elearanec f r o ~ n~tnlrtnresshall be
ten 110) f t . TViring entering bi~ilrlingsor nm inside the :~horelimits ih:~ll
he corlosed in conduit.
r . Pipine rle:~r.~nrcs.Piping run or~rhendon strnctuml supports or other-
wi-r -1i:dl clo:~rro:ld\\-nys or railronrl rails by not less th:m twenty-five 1%)
f t froor highest point of road crown or t o p of r:~ilrun<lr d . Harizmt:d
clearmce for railmads shall bc a minimum of 8% f t from the renterline of
the r:tilroail tmrks. Horizontal c!cnr:ince for road~vnyiihnll be : ~ tleajt
rquxl to thi. eleatances for r:~ilroatts; hovevrr, piping wpport s t r r ~ t u r r s
shall not be locatrd closer than Sorw ft to thc edge of paving. If roatlr~ays
:,re run n-it11 graded shoulders or ditches, inpporting strnctnrrs shall be
locntid at 1r:l.t foru it Iwyond the far slope of mwh n gr;lded :xrc.n.
Thr minimmn rrrtic:il clraranee nhove gmdc for piping rim in grnernl
p r u c t ~ i3 r e x i , P S W ~ Ifor
~ lmirlers :t{lj:lr.cnt t o erl~~ipmcutzholl be 1.' f t . TIii.
minirmnn rertied clrarance in oprr;itio: arms ? h l l bc iLt2 It : i h ~gr:ule.
,~
d. Strr~cturalclmr:rnccs. Secrindnry or hr:leing strurturnl inenhers shnll
be arrnneal to clenr ilroce,ss rouir~ment . . I)\- : ~ Iemt
t 18 in.
3. ~ahri&tion.
n. .ill shop connections illall be riveted
b. All field connections s11nlI be rirrtrd.
~ ~
c. .ill erection bolt.<and rivets sbnll hr furnished to I:% of requirnnents.
fonmda d. All steel shall br, cleaned frer of r n t and scnle and one coat uf
20 p?f for red-lvad and oil primer hcforr shipn~ent.
Type 11
6. S t r i ~ c t ~steel
~~rl ..\reording to AISC These a r c only partial spccifications for the design and f a l ~ r i r ; ~ t i oof
n
7. Kcini'orwd steel ironcrcte) According to .\CI structural steel. T h c Manual of thc American Institute of Stecl Con-
structionVncludes the stai~rlardspccificntions used throughnut tlrc steel
111ailditim to tlicsc, specifications for the particular installation must, fabricating industry. Standard practices arc also included ~ v h i c ldcrcril,~,
~
include n unnibcr of qwcific r ~ i l ~ ~ i r e m esni t~sn i l a rt o those illustrated in thc usual policies f o l l ~ ~ w ebdy the fabricators if specific instructions are
tlic folloxvi~igq~ecificationb, All li:rrngrnl~llsrliould be numbered fur later riot given in the spccifications,
i~lmtifirntiunor rcvisiun. Inl-olvrd general statcnient:: in spccifications
oftcn lead to misunderstan~ling.which usually rcsult in aclditional costs. STRUCTURAL SHAPES
Any statcnlcnt sh,xiId 1 1 ~ .cra~uineilti1 lie sure thc exnct meaning is under- T h e use of stcel a s a supporting framework for clcvatpd structures is
stood by both i ' a l ~ r i o i t ~and
i r customer. probably faniiliar t o ewryone. N a n y decades ago certain shapes v e r c
developed which would give maximmn strength with minimum weight.
IV. Misrcllaneous rrqi~irenlents
1. If locd building codes require increased design rqnirements such incrmsnl Design formulas were proposed based on these shapes, and tabulations
\.:dues shall form thr b : ~ kfor h i g n . T h e n local code requiren~mtsare less of properties w r e made so that the structural steel designers' task is much
than the req~~irrments hrrein or rvonlil permit lighter designs, the requirenrenti simplified. I n general, the common "rolled" structural steel shapes, such
herein ?hall govern
- its beams, coluii~ns,channels. and angles, sutlice for nearly all types of
2 . Clearances.
heavy structural design.
n . Railroad clearances. S o structure, nor equipment of any kind shall
be permanently located rithin a rectangle seventeen (17) f t wide b>- \Vith the advent of electrical arc ~veldingand its general acceptance in
630 Project Engineering of Process Plants Structures and Buildings 63 1
industry, other special and light shapes are built, such as the well-known bearing alloys. In most cases either these materials are more costly than
bar joist, (Fig. 23-2) used as a supporting member. Many other types of carbon steel or the required fabrication processes arc inore costly.
r\.cidc~ilplate or builtul~sl~apcsarc used in the manufacture of prefabri- Alloy and nonferrous materials have been used economirally, however,
cated, rigid frame steel structures. when corrosion or weight problems exist. Aluminum and its alloys have
been used to good advantage for exterior panels and window frames, and
stainless steel structures are often used in particularly corrosiw atmos-
pheres because of the rapid disintegration of other less expensive materials.
Stainless steels also have greater strength than carbon steel, and some
reduction in weight for a given design is possible.
REFERENCES
"W"BEAM "I"BEAM
'Wide Flonge' 1. Building Code Requirements for Reinforced Concrete (ACI-51), American
O e i i g n a t o n : 14 W 3 0 Designation: 15145 Concrete Institute, D ~ t r o i t Mieh.,
, 1951.
( 14";30;) 05":45$1 2. Carrier, W. H., R. E . Cherre, and W. A. Grant, Modern Air Conditioning,
Heat and Ventilating, 2nd Ed., Pitmsn Publishing Corp, Keti York, 1950.
3. Dunham. C. W.. Plannina Industrial Structures. 1st Ed.. MeGrati-HIII Book
Ca., S e w Yark, 1948.
.. C. M.. and H. Parker. Materials and Methods of Architecti~inl Con-
4. Gay.
stmetion, 2nd Ed., John W i k y & Sons. Ten York, 1943.
5. Ketchurn, hl. S., T h e Design 01 Steel Mill Buildir~gs,5th Ed., McGr;irr.-Hill
Book Co., Kew York, 1932.
ANGLE CHANNEL 6 . Procedure Handbook of Are A'elding, Design and Pmctice, 9th Ed., Lincoln
oe3ignotion:L 4 " 4 DeSignotion: I0 U 20 Electric Co., Cleveland, Ohio, 1950.
110": 2 0 +I 7. Reese, R . C., C R S I Handbook, Conwetc Reinforcing Steel Instihtte, 1st Ed.,
Chicago, Ill., 1952.
8. Steel Construction Manual, 5th Ed., American Institute of &el Construet,ion.
t in Mo nr
New York, 1952.
9. Stoddard, R. P., Brick St~mctures, 11th Ed., MrGraw-Hill Rook Co., S e w
York, 1946.
10. Suthcrland, H., and H. L. Bowman, Structural Theory, 4th Ed., John Wilry &
Sons. New York, 1950.
B A R JOIST
SAFETY toxicology ~ v h i c hcan be used as guides: all hut the most cornlnon chemicals
sliould be referred to a trained industrial toxicologist for study hefore
liandling techniques are devised.
Mechanical hazards include all the hazards created b y inoving equip-
mcnt and arrangement of equil~nientand structures.
Thcsc classifications are s i ~ m e ~ v l i aarbitrary
t and overlap, but they
2. National Board of Fire Undervriters, 85 John Street, Ncrv York 7, New Corp., N.Y. (1951); gives hazardous properties, treatment, and antidotes;
York: an educational, factual and engineering organization supported by the also sueerstions for safe handling of numerous toxic materials of commerce.
c u ~ ~ stock
~ t d fir? insurance compwni~spublishes: 111. &hanical
a. Stnndanla for fire protection many of which are based on NFPA 1. Equipment manufacturers; will recommend safe installation procedures.
standards. 2 . U.S. Department of Labor, Division of Labor Standards; publications on
h. R ~ ~ e a r creports.
h safe nractices and recommendations for industry.
c. Special reports on unusual disasters. (Most of this information is sent 3 Xat~onalSafety Councd; safe practices, recommendations, presented in
free of charge upon request on company stationery. Advice and counsel pamphlets.
on certain phases of fire protection problems not nox covered by codes or 4. Codes for constrnct~onof vessels, tanks, piping, electrical equipment:
st:lnrl:irils r a n he ohtained.) a. ASME and API-ASME Codes for Unfired Pressure.
3. Other insurauce organizations: The Factory Insurance Associaton, 555 b . ASME Boiler Construction Code.
.4sylum Street, IIartford 2, Conn.; Amociated Factow Mutual Fire Insurance c. American Standards Association Code for Pressure Piping.
Cmn~inny,18-1 High Street, Boston 10, Mass. These also operate research d. API Standard No. 12C and 12E for Storage Tanks.
laboratories and publish standards. e . National Electrical Code.
4. Frderal Agencies, Washington, D.C. 5. Liability insurance companies; publish helpful data rrhich aid in the
n. 1. U S . Bureau of Mines-research reports and recommendations, design of safe plants.
minerals, dusts, and oils.
b. U.S. Dept. of Bgriculture; dust explosions and fires. PLANT LAYOUT
c. U.S. Drpt of Labor, Division of Labor Standards; safe practices T h e safety record of a plant depends partially upon the arrangement of
recommended for various industries.
d . N:ition:d Bureau of Standards; fire hazards and fire resistance research. thc various units and the location of equipment within thoac units. F o r
P. ITS. Pnhlic Health Service; industrial hygiene publications. tliis reason alonc zafcty considerations should permeate even t h e early
5 . National Snfrty Council, 20 N. Wacker Drive, Chicago, Ill.; mainly planning stages o f plant design.
safety education. Research work conducted-advice available (nonprofit).
6. Cndermitcrs Laboratories, Inc., 207 E. Ohio Street, Chicago 11, Ill.; Topography a n d Weather
(nonprofit). T~wtsequipment (electrical, fire protection, etc.) to insure safety.
Lists of tested and approved equipment issued annually with hi-monthly I n selecting a site topography a n d meteorological phenomena should
supplrments. be carefully considered. Hilly areas present certain inherent hazards.
7 . L:iws; federal, state, and local laws relating to fire protection and buildings. Overflowing tanks or vessel failures can send thousands of gallons of
Many refer to various provisions of the NFPA codes.
flammable materials into surrounding areas. If the area is hilly, these
8. Insurance companies and local and state fire prevention bureaus can
provide valuable advice. materials can reach a wider arca a n d if ignited cause a rapid spread of fire.
9. Amcricnn Petroleum Institute, 50 W. 50th Street, New York, N.Y.; Prevailing ir-inds should be considcred in t h e layout of a plant so t h a t
publishes bulletins on Fire Protection in Refineries. flammable and toxic gases can bc properly dissipated n i t h o u t endangering
11. Industrial hygiene t h e lives or comfort of plant personnel or peoplc in the surrounding areas.
1. M:umfscturing Chrmists' Association; publishes chemical safety data
sheet for thc safe handling and use of many chrmicals. T h e occurrence of sucli n e a t h e r phenomena a s inversions should be
2 . Nation:il Safety Council; publishes health and safe practices pamphlets analyzed. T h e atniospheric temperature normally decreases with altitude.
relatire to the handling of various chcmirals. During periods of inversion t h e reverse is true. I n such situations the
3. m e r i c a n Industrial Hygiene Bssociation; publishes technical quarterly loner atmosphere rcniains stagnant, and smoke and noxious vapors hang
on in~I~lstrial hygiene. over the earth's surface and create extreme health hazards. T h e DeA'ora,
4. U S . Bureau of Mines, Washington, D.C.; dusts and toxic vapors.
5. Atomic Energy Commission, Washingbon, D.C.; radioactive materials. Pennsylvania disaster in which a number of peoplc died was caused by
6. Mellon Institute, Industrial Hygiene Foundation, Pittsburgh, Pa.; research. such a condition. Any area t h a t has frequent inversions lasting more
7 . Division of Industrial Hygiene, U S . Public Health Service, Washington, than three t o four days should be rejected a s a possible site for a process
D.C.; publications of various typrs and advice. plant.
8. American Medical Association, Committee on Physical Agents of a
Hazardous Nat.ure.
Division of Plant into Units
9. Chemical companies; publiuh information on the safe handling of their
own products. Producers of tetraethyl-lead, for instance, recommend and T h e operating unitr of a p r o w s plant should he srparatrd not only for
furnish complete design for equipment handling the ethyl fluid. more efficient operation and ninintcnence hut also for safety reasons. By
10. Sax, N. I., Handbook of Dangerow Maten&, Reinhold Publishing
638 Project Engineering of Process Plants Safety in Plant Design 639
2 . Proride a snificirnt number of m;inholes and hantlholes for inspectio~l located belorr 6 it 6 in., locate considrrahly below and provide a walkr\-ay
and nrnintmance, and orient to permit easy access. over it.
3. Avoid screnwl nipples for small nozzles. Use 6OOO lb couplings. e . Fuel supply valves for furnaces should be in a remote location.
4. Xozzles above 1% in. should be Hanged. For high pressure, use flange6 /. Emergency dump ~ s l v e sshould be located at a safe distance from the
nozzles for all sizes. equipment to he dumped and preferahl5- behind a heavy wall or building.
5 . Careful inspertion during and nftcr fabrication; a competent inspector g. Install valves discharging into open tanks so rhat operator can operate
can m w h to prewnt vessel failures. without undue exposure to vapors or splashing.
a , Inspection of materials. 4. Check valves leak; and if such leaking is intolerable, provide a blork
b. Inspection of mrkmanship (especially quality of welds). valve in addition to the check valve.
c. Witnessing of radiographing and stress relieving. 5 . Avoid angle valves.
6. Atmoqheric storage tanks should be provided vith ndeqnate vents for 6. For structural reasons avoid pipe smaller than 1 in. fnr overhead line..
breathing (the taking in or dischzrging of rapor as the pressure in the tank 7. Drains for low points and vents for high points should be pro~ided. Use
inerrases or derreasm dlir to change in temperature or liquid level). 3/4 in. or larger sizes.
a. L-re vacuum-prenw~rebreather valves (consrrration vents) 8. Water lines, rspecially fire lines, should be looped.
b. Use floating-rnof tanks for volatile liquids. 9. Loop stf,am lines and provide block valres so steam can be provided
c. Connect rapor spaces of gas-tight tanks to a single tank serving as a from scrrml directions in case of failure of one portion of the system.
gas holder. Providc relief d v e s for all tanks, holvcrrr. 10. Separate sewer sj-stems may bc nccrisory for ccrtain haznrdous materials.
i . Automatic tnt:illy enrlosed tank level gages prrfcrred; manual gage hatchrs Venting of such sl-stems must be carefully planned.
whjret opemtor to needless hazards. 11. Firr stops are necesary in all snrfacr drainage sy-temp to prevent spread
B. IIrat eschangers of fire.
1. If both inlet and outlet of exchanger require block valves, pn~viderelief 12. Lines should be pressure tested prior to operation. Care mnst be taken
ralrr: on cold slde to prevent excessive thermal cxp;~nsion h l m y exploiion;i to avoid overstressing certain pieces of equipment or fcmmlations during
h:ive orcurred becausr of eurh expansion. hydrostatic trsts.
2. Sufficient drains should be provided for maintenance. E . Electrical ~quipmentand grounding
3. Each Huid space of an errhanger should be given an individual test. The safe installation and design of electrical equipment is carcfully out,lined
4. If units are to be stacked, they must, be st:ickcd during the testing process. by the National Electrical Code. The problenl requires the, attention of c o u ~
6. If mixture of shell and tube Huids constitutes a hamrd, extreme care in petrnt electrical engineers. They must be supplied with information on the
design and w o r k m a ~ h i pmust be excrcisrd. hnzanls in rach part of the plant.
C. Moving equipment (pumps, etc.) 1. Means for remote shut-down of opcrating eqnipment in addition to locally
1. Provide guards a t all couplings, belts, and chain drives. mounted starters is desirable.
2. Providr a r l ~ q x l t espace betx~.een units for safe and convenient servicing. 2. Critical items such :IS ST\-itchgearnnd tr;lnsformers should be loeatid ;is
3. .\utornatic overload, overspeed, or other devices are good invrstments on remotel)- as liractimble from o p ~ r n t i uunits.
~
machinery such as compressors. 3. Identify nnderground ronduit by inclndine :I dye in tho concrete for the
4. Proteetire devices such as strainers on pumps and liquid knockout drnmi casing.
for compressors are essential to safe operation. 1. Protert rwerhead rond,~itfrom expourr to excrssive hrat.
D . Piping 5 . Provide emrrgency power supplies.
1. Abore-ground process lines are prcferrcd. These may be elevated or 6. All portions of the plmt must be adequntely lighted so that operators cml
placed at ground level on sleepers. Buried lines constit~~te a hazard since leaks avoid bodily injuries from b u m p or falls.
are not readily detected. 7 . Static electricity and lightning constitute real hazards to safe procrw plant,
2. If lines are installed in trmches, fire stops and drains mnst be prmided
operation. Xeither can be pre\.ented b r ~ tprotrrtion is posiibk. Watch for
at regular intervals. static electricity :~rcun~nlation and diir.h:~rgesin the folln~~ing situations:
..
3. .\rrunmment of ninine~.nnd rslves is imnortant to safe oueration
a. Large ralvrs in particular must be readily accessible from platforms. a. Moving niachincry (belts, conveyors, etc.).
b . Flowing fluids or dust.
..
Annroximatrlv 7 ft 0 in, is thr maximum distance from centerline to illatform
c. Human beings.
level. .4bove this chain operators are used.
b. Use double-block valves for hazardous equipment which must be re- d. Lightning.
moved while remainder of unit continues to operate. A small tell-tale valve Protection is arrrmlplirhcd by propcr grounding of all equipment in arras
in between double blocks indicates leakage. whew static electricity is antieip;iterl. When all n~etalequipmmt wsts on
c. Arrange long yard lines to avoid congestion so that in case of fire any concrete foundations, for instance, grounding must be installed. Instructions
portion c:m be isolated from the renlainder by closing a block valve. for proper prouncling of equipment are given in Handbook of Fire Protection,R
d. Ilcadroom for overhead lines should be np~~roximately 15 ft 0 in. abovc the Sationnl Electrical Codes, and various govcmnlmt pr~blicationsg (See also
roads; 13 St 6 in. above platform; 9 ft 0 in, above grade. If a line must be sources of information).
640 Project Engineering of Process Plants Safety in Plant Design 641
F. Strr~cturalsteel vxprrssed ns u p p r r aml Ion-cr lin~its. T h e 111rwrlimit r ~ p r r s c n t sthe 1ra.t
1. Protect from failure due to fire b!- corrring with concrete to the main
support level or by providing cmergencl- nnter sprays for cooling steel in event amount of the mntcrial 11-hirlr d l sustain flame propagation when mixed
of fire. with air, and the upper limit represents the greatest amount. These
'2 .ivoid interfermces of structural steel n-it11 piping :ind equipment. Inter- limits of flammahility a s determined experimentally are affected b y the
ferences are sometimes remedied in the field hy removing or "cutting-out" typc of testing apparatus used. Extremely small apparatus in particu-
portions of steel, thereby reducing the -trengtli of thc structure. Inr p o c h ~ r e snarrow limit3 of flammability, and rcsults from such equil).
:i.Platforms shoald be provided :it all operxtinn or inipectiun areas with a
? it G in. minimum vidth. 3 it to 3 f t 6 in. i.< prcferrnl in maintenance arm-
rnent shoul,l he I I 1~-itl1 ~ caution. T h e flammability limits for mixtures
around manholes. of several romhustihle gases am1 air ran bc estimated from a n equation
4. Stairways are prrfrrul~lcto h d r l m ~:ind at 1c;wt t ~ are c required for d i i r h h n been verified espcrimentally:
larger units. Use gentlr slope, 45' or lwa, and nidths of 3 St 0 in. or more.
5 . Snfrt>-a g e s arc rcquirrd for I:dd~.r-owr 15 to 20 it. 100
6. Handrail? are rcq~iirrdn r o ~ m lall pl;itiorms anrl stairwrys.
I,", =
Ca
C ' + - + +C:,. ..
7. Tor plates ( G in. high) nronnd the etlgcs of platforms are necesrar!- to
protect personnel froni falling objects. 14 1,z I.3
TABLE 24-2. Conditions Requiring Relieving Devices (continued) Discharge Rates of Relief Valves a n d Rupture Disks
Crrndition Design H:& T l ~ erare of dkrhargc for a relief valve or rupturc disk is calculated
Cxposu~.eto fire (continued) 3. Cdcul:~ten p o r s genemted 11y the iollo\\-ing iorniulas for vapors and liquids. Tlie vapor formula
is derived ;i.s*uniing a n ideal gas, adiabatic expan.sion: a value of 1.001
for t11c r;>tio of sllecific heats, and vapor flowing a t the acoustic velocity.
Higher valucs of -prcific heat ratio r i l l give a lover discharge r a t e ; a n d ,
sherc Ii' = It) lrr vapors tl~eri.fore) tlrc 5implified formula given below is ronservative. Tlie
II = latent heat
io1~111l;ifor liqniiis is based on the siniplc o ~ i f i c eequation. l\Innufac-
(Alternate method) turrrs furnisli handy cliartr and tables xhich facilitate thc calculations
of rclicf I-ulvc m i l ruptwi. (1i.k -iact;.
Emergency Valving
Main shut-off valves for lines carrying flammable materials should be
located so they can be operated in case of firc. It, may be preferable in
some fires to simply stop the flow of flanmlable matcrial and allov. that - ~
already escaped to burn. This avoids large concentrations of explosive 10th l < d . S:~lionalFitc P~.otrrtiunI s s o r . . Boston. 1048.
9. .Yrilioani Biircau o f Standards H a n d b o o k H.jO. Supt, of Documents, Washing-
gas and vapor.
ton. D.C., 1945.
10. \.afinnol Fire Codes, S;ltioni~iFire Protrrtion s i o r i s t i o n . Boston (1945).
Portable Extinguishers
11. Petty, Frank A . I,idusti.iol H y g u v x aud Tozirology, Interscience Puhlishcr.~,
I n addition to the permanent installations of fire hydrants, automatic Inr., S e w Y w h , 1948.
sprinkler systems, and automatic carbon dioxide extinguishing systems. 12. Keigclutli, R . J . , S a f e l y u n d Ecmoniy i n H e n w C o n s t w c f i o n , hlcG~.a~r-Hill
portable fire extinguishers should be supplied thrnnghout a proccss plant Book Cn., S e w Y u k 1933.
13. Hol,inson, C. S.. Ezplusio,ir, l ' h c w A ~ ~ i l u n t mid
y I)esfxetii,c,tcsa, XlrCrarr-
since a small fire can often be extinguished with ease by the rapid use oi H11l Hook Co., X e w Y o I . ~1941. .
:in extinguisher. Most large fires begin as very minor conflagrations, and 14. Syl\mdrl.. 3 . F:.. :ind U . I,. I<:ctz. ? ' I K Dcriyn mid C o , i s l ~ . i ~ c f i oonj Pi.rsrri,c
immediate attention t o a small fire will often prevent a disaster. I { c l i ~ i i , ~ ,Sysfui,,r.
g Engr s : I Inst.. Bdlctin S o . 31, Unir. of Michlgon
I ' r m .\cbal. h l i d . . 1018.
Selecting Fire Extinguishing Equipment 15. Tliwntan, IV. %I,,Phil. J l u g . , 33, 140 (1917).
The project engineer should be cautious in using handy fire extinguish-
ing tables designed to indicate the exact extinguishing method for various
types of flammable material. They give general suggestions and are not
intcnried to be specific for all situations. These tables can he a helpful
guide, hut advice of authorized agencies should be obtained.
CONSTRUCTION
THE PLANT
design work is complete, construction may
A FTER
begin. At this point most of the responsibility
shifts to the construction superintendent. The project
engineer, however, must maintain active interest in the
construction operatiom in order to interpret where~er CONSTRUCTION
necessary the intent of the drsign engineers and art as
liaison between the construction forces and the enginerr-
ing design groups. Such work requires some knowledge Wlicn construction begins the work of the project engineer is rsscntiall~
finished and rompletion of the project dcpends 1111 t l ~ cconstruction ilel~art-
of construction methods. ~ u c n t . The project engineer, however, cannot bc complaisant abont t l ~ c
tecliui~~ues and problems of construction. On the contrary he must bc
st1 well scliuoled in thc inetlrods of ronstruction t h a t he can forrsw and
CONSTRUCTION PLANNING
Ileaign drawing> and spccificati~~na give thc construction d r l ~ a r t n ~ c n t
rlctniled infomlation a l x ~ u td ~ a ist t11 be built, hut the?: do not presrribc
thc uictl~odsof erertion. Long before actu;il erection begins, therefore,
the cunstruction superintendent and his staff study prelinlinary engineer-
ing data and scale tnodels of thc plant to be erected. I n this way the
most advantageous location for derricks and hoisting equipment can be
chosen; major conetruction equipment can be selected, and the most
practical con~tnlctionn~etliodsdetermined for each major piece of e q u i p
nicut. Such preliniin;iry planning in the office always results 111 loxcr
construction costs.
653
654 Project Engineering of Process Plants 1 Construction
Craft designation
klnximnm Craftsmen a t ]oh peak
Craftsmen
= 3.50
hlnxin~omused 3Ianhours
I
I
TABLE 25-1. Construction Labor Rates 1954-1955 Southwest Area U. S.
C~.aftsnran Rateihr
P Pipefitter 135 115.000 1
I, 1,ahrxer -- 68.000
1. Painters 2.50 -2.75
53 2. Tean~sters 1.615-1.70
B 13oiIer1~ker 30 51,000 \Yarehousemen 1.70
(' ('aq~nter 45 44,000 3. Lahorers 1.60 -1.80
ti I'lectriciun 3.5 37,000 4. Ckmcnt finishers 2.625
I Ironworker 45 35,000
- ! Thew r m f t m ~ e n(nos. 1-4) rereire time-and-one-half for overtime except
Subtotal 350.000 for Sondn~-and any autho~.izedlrolidny which are paid a t double time.
M Xiscellaneous crafts. I 5. Electricians 3.00 1:; Benefit fund, DO.Oi5,'lrr
clerical, and super!-ihion 40 50,000 health, and welfare
Total -100,000 These craftsmen (So. 5) receive time-and-one-half for hours from 4 3 0 P31
to 10:00 PA1 Monday through Friday. 1 1 hours past 10:00 P31, Saturday,
Craftsman Distribution by Month Sunday, :mrl holidays me l,aid a t dr,nljle time. If personnel are called from
home after w u ~ . k i nhours
~ the)- 1,eceire IIOUIIIP time from home to home,
1000 nrnnhrmrs i.e.. they n1.e paid for travel time as well as work.
XIonth per month l i u m l w of Men Used
- ~~ p~~
6. 1rona.orkers 2.90
P I, R C B I Subtotal 7. (Reinfo~ing)rodmen 2.65
8. Carpenters 2.625
9. Millwights 2.8i5
10. Operating engineers 1.975-2.75
Hear? cranes, tractors, derricks 2.75
Oilers 1.975
11. Roilermnkers 2.975 Health and welfare $O.Oij
12. .Isbestos workers 3.0625 Health and welfnre $0,075
13. Pipefitters 3.10
11. Bricklayers 3:15
These craftsmen (nos. 6-14) receive double time for all overtime.
1.5. Sheetmetal workers 2.85
These craftsmen (no. 15) receive tinre-;ind-one-IraIf for the first three hours
over any regular working day and for tire first four hours on Saturday.
T h e columns indicating subtotal and total are peak requirements rather All other overtime is paid 3t double rate.
than averages. T h e total of c m f t s m m pcr month constantly fluctuates be-
cause of thc discharging of some personnel, changes in the work, ndvcrsc CONSTRUCTION OPERATIONS
weather conditions, and off-schedule equipment delivery. T h e Sotali Every project engineer should accrpt the first opportunity t o observe
shown, if constantly a t work, would exceed t h e manhour level hy 10%. the erection o i a process plant from start to finish. An understanding of
the many complex operations can be developed only hy actual obserration.
Labor Rates
T h e erection of a plant m w t procee~lwit11 the minimum of delay and
T h e typical rates listed in Table 25-1 a r e so-called '.Journeyman" rates. a visitor t o a project is invariably impressed by t h e spirit o i action that,
Foremen receive from 1 2 % ~to 256 per hour over journeymen a n d gen- pcrvades the jubaite.
660 Project Engineering cf Process Plants
4 Construction 661
l ~ c k f i l li? II:~:IIIYI ~ Y U I I I[lit, : I ~ ~< <YI ~II I : I I t111, -it? ~villlw :s c11,~r
?I> i]o>>il~lc .As r:rl,le is installrd the insulation is tcstcrl l ~ yan i n - t r ~ ~ ~ i i c\~-birll
nt
and ready for tbe installation of underground facilities. applies high roltage across the insulation and indicntrs tile re.sistanee of
thc insulation. This testing is supervised by a competent electrical
Installation of Underground Facilities engineer, as is all electrical equipment testing and installation.
As ditches are completed, pipe fitters hegin the task of installing under- Red-col~redconcrete is poured around the condnit and after i t sets,
ground piping, and electricians, underground conduit and cable. the ditch is hackfilled and tamped. The red culor is plainly visible and
Thc nictliod of pipc installation varies with the type. Re11 anil spipi~t acts as n warning to vorkers v h e n excavations are mnrlc around it.
cast-iron pipe as used for x a t c r , process sewers, and drains is laid on ? I The only other nn~lcrgroundelectrical ~ v o r kprneccrling at this time is
sand cushion to insure cuntinuons support. Tlie joints are pavkcii n-it11 the installation of grounding systems and cathodir protection. Bare
plain or t a r - s a t u r a t d jute anil carefully caulked ~ i t n~olten h I t d . Aftvr grounding cable: either eolid or stranded c q ~ p e r .is laid di~,e~:tly in the
t l ~ cjoints are niadc-up, firm soil is packed aronnd the lower lialf o f tl~i. griinnd and brought to the surface a t prcdeterniined points for connection
pipe and ns tlir ditch is lmckfillcd tlie soil is tamped. to equipment. Insolated wire used for cathodic protection is connected
.\Icclianical joint cast-iron pipe, niost often nseri for water, is laid in n electrically to the undcrground pipe t o he protected and hrought t o the
similar manner except making u p of joints requires only the setting in surface for attachment to the cathodic protection system.
place of a gasket and tightening of bolts.
Cement,-ashestos crrnbination pipe can bc 1 1 4 instead of en-t-iron for Foundation Construction
some services. A collar and heavy rubber ring compose the joint which I Foundations are puured as soon as underground piping and conduit
can he rnade u p in one-tcntli the time reqi~ire(lfor ltw~ledjoints. I\-ork in till, ilnnirdintr area IIM h e m complrte~l. 1.awer foundations
Vitrified tile is usnally uscrl [or sanitary sc\vr.rs mi11 wrrosive pruce?t rcquirc several p n ~ w:lnd ~ u r kun a tingle ir~undutiunnlay 1;lst a week
fluid drains. T h e joints arc sealed ~ v i t h neat* cement or corrosion 01' more.
resistant mastic. Ungnlvanized carbon stccl pipe to lie installed under- The details of these operation:: arc descril~edin CI~alltcr22. Oncc a
gn~unriis first coated and ~ r a p p e d . After the wcklcr:: complete tlicir concrete pour has 11cgun it must he contiuued uninterrupted. Hence tlir
work i t is clcaned and coated with rust-rcsisting paint and then bitumastic. nlajur effort of the construction forces and supervision is directed toward
and finally it, is >mapped with tarred felt or t,arred glass fiber blanket. If the pouring operations.
the quantit,y of pipe t o 11a wrapped is large, it is done by a nincliine
\\-hidl moves along tlie ditch an11 wraps and l o ~ e r ; .the j ~ i l ~into c the ditc11. Erection of Guyed Derrick
.4lI u n d c r g r ~ ~ u njoints
d not t l i r r n d t ~ lin l~oltriiarc protected against A fi,unri:iti~mis also constructed for the guyed derrirk d i i e h must I J ~
Ienkage and xvatrr hainnicr 11y incans of concrctv :rnrholc. Tlic tanipcil installed next so tliat equipment inay he lifted in place. The r r e h o n
soil alonc nronnd n joint is not sufficient to overcome strains introdured o i a guyed derrick is a nlajor ol~er:~tion often requiring some 3000 mau-
by sudden pretmrP surges. liours of construction labor. T l ~ e(ierrick (Fig. 2;-l) consists of a v t ~ t i c a l
structural stccl mast, a boom, and a hoisting engine. T h e iiiast is often
Electrical Conduit 200 i t or more in height am1 is held in position by 6 or 8 guy c:~l]lr.
Ftcel condnit is rut, tlirmded, and bent with tools siniilnr to thnsr extending radially from its top to ground where each guy is seeurt~ly
used hy pipe fitter.;. Bccawe of the thin \T-allsand light weight, l~ow?vcr. attached to a ,'deadnlan." A "deadman" is &: liea\~ylength of 11ilr I~uriecl
Iiandling and fa1)ric:tting is very siniple. After cutting :ind threading. ~lerpeniliculnrto the direction of pull anti cncnsed in concrete.
sharl) edges arc coniplctely r e n ~ o v e ~since
l they m n damage the val)lo T h e boom is pin connected t o the niast near its bottom. At the lover
insulation during cable pulling. Tlie conduit is tlrcn lowered iiilo thc end of the mast is a hall-and-socket joint, the bass of whicli is supported
ditch and joined together by couplings. by and securely bolted t o a concrete foundation poured for the derrick.
Cable is pulled through the conduit between nlanirules by air-driven Tlie upper end of the boom is raised or lowered by heavy cables running
~vinchesor by hand, using a lubricant to reduce frictim. T o avoid injury through a set of blocks on the boom and mast, and on to the hoisting
to the cable, pulling tension is carefully cbecked by spring scales when engine. Another cable and set of blocks is extended from the boom t o
pulling tension is believed high. the load for vertical lifting. .i n.liec1-like contrivance is provided :tt tlic
*Cement ith hoot nggwgnte. lover end of the mast so tliat inast and boom may be rotwtrd. T h e load
664 Project Engineering of Process Plants Construction 665
held by steel mire slings. A crawler crane, a guyed derrick (Fig. 25-l), Any Inrgr p~efahrirntrrlreswl n.11icIl i . to he in-t:~llril rcrtirally is
gin poles (Fig. 25-2). various portable truck mounted cranes, and even unloaded from truck or freight car so that lifting equipment can operate
chain l~oistsnlay he used for the lifting, depending on tlie load. from directly above the point of attachment. The lift niust be as nearly
Large equipment n-Iiich is to bc located at or near ground l e d can
often be skidded over wood or pipe rollers to the desired position. In
Fig. 25-1. Guy dcrrirk (right) and crawler crane (Icft) at construction site.
(Courtesy of M. W. Kellogg Company.) Note guy wires.
such cases tlie equipment is protected a t its base by wooden beams called
skids. Short lifts of large equipment can be made, when necessary, by
Fig. 26-2. Gin-poles being used t o erect a 360-ton distillation tower. (Courtesy of
the use of 1ie;~vyduty jacks.
h1. W. Iicllogg Company.)
The lifting of heavy equipment is probably the most interesting phase
of the construction operation. It requires highly skilled operating .Tole: Bottom of tower rests on sled which was p u l l ~ don rollws starting with the
t o s c r in a horizontal position. The specd of \cis such that the lifting cables
engineery and helpers. Tile lifting :tnd 11recise placing of a 200-ton piccc
remnined ret.tical. The illustration shows the tor%-erhanging in a n almost vertical
of equipment, for instance, requires strong nerves and a great deal of position just before the sled was rsmored and the tower placed on its foundation.
cunfidencc. The hoist operator controls his derrick with the aid of hand
signals from a helper standing near the load. These signals, as well as vertical as possible since hoisting equipment cannot withstand high
all j~hascsof crane operation, have been standiirdized by the Anlerican horizontal forces. Vesscls fabricated on the jobsite are usually built
Stantlards Azwcintionl since ~nisintrrpretatiol~ may prove costly and n~ithinthe effective radius of the fixed lifting apparatus.
dangerous. Uuring l ~ i glifts evrn ,seasoi~rdcunstructim workers stop to Equipment may be provided with lifting lugs for attachment of hoist-
~ ~ a t and
c h admire the work of the dcrricli operatur. ing apparatus or special slings may be wrapped around the equipment.
666 Project Engineering of Process Plants Construction 667
Lifting lugs, which arc welded on the vessel, siniplify the ~ t t a c h n l e n tof
Slight misalignment can be corrected by pulling into place by suitahle
hoisting cables. They add t o the cost of the vessel, ho~vever,and make
machinery while the assembly is held stationary.
insulation of the vesscl more difficult.
Screwed piping is fabricated a t thc johsitc and as much as possihle a t
In gcneral nearly all types of cylindrical cquipmcnt are lifted v i t h
ground lcrcl. Threading and cutting tools, many of them power opcrated,
braided steel wire slings. Vcrtical ressels are lifted directly above their are part of a pipcfitter's standard etlnipment. The fitter cuts, threads,
fc~undationsand the slight degree of slope in the vessel caused by the
and partially fits the pipe on a bench about 3 ft !vide by 12 ft long.
sling aids in starting the anchor bolts into the vessel base. Anchor hillti Cutting oil is used dnring the threading operation to prevent excessive
for large vessels are usually provided with special threaded cone-shaped
heat and help in the penetration of the metal. Tllrends are ~ n a d ein
caps n.hich protect the threads as well a s guide the bolt into position. accmdance v i t h standard lengths recommended by tlic codes. They are
Steel plate shims are placcd a t each space bctween anchor bolts so that
thorouglrly clcaned before making up joints. A jointing compound which
~ r h e nthe vessel is set donm on its bolts it will be essentially level. Bolt serres as a lubricant and filler is placed on thc threads. Various com-
nuts are tightened after the vessel is cheeked with a n instrument (transit)
pounds are used for different operating temperature ranges and fluid
for perpendicularity. After the vessel is satisfactorily located, nuts are conditions. Screiring of threaded joints is donc slowly to prevent binding
tightened and the anchor bolt sleeves and base ring are grouted with
caused by excessive heat.
concrete.
Pipe assemblies and sections of straight runs of pipe are lifted intll
O t l ~ c rlarge equipment such as machines are handled in much the same position by means i ~ fchain hoists or slings attached t o cranes. Tlrv
manner. Even though machines may weigh several liundrcd tons they several pieces are then aligned. Flangc faces are thoroughly cleilncil,"
arc not usually so unwieldy as extremely long and heavy vessels.
gaskets applied and the bi~ltstightencd. 'hghtening of bolts is clone in
l\lachines are carefully aligned and leveled during the bolting i~pera- such a x a y that the tension is erln;d on opposite bi~lts. If field n-el& arc
tion, and grouting-in of large machines is usually done only after a
to be made, aligning clamps arc used.
manufacturer's representative has checked the machine for proper align- Expensive items such as valves must be handled \vith care. They arc
ment and level. When bolting and grouting is completely supervised by
well supported a t all times during erection and their faces pri~tcctcdfrom
the manufacturer's representative, the supervision is a condition of the
injury.
manufacturer's guarantee.
A safe adequate work area is necessary for the pipefitters who install
orerlicad piping. Scaffolding must be strong and roomy since it is n i ~ t
Installation of Piping
possible f i n pipefittcrs to align heavy piping ii-it11 great accurncy n-he!?
The erection of above-ground piping begins after major equipment is t,heir own bodily safety is in jeopardy or when forced t o assumc eutrem~ly
installed and continues throughout the construction period. uncomfortable positions. As piping is completed, it is nashed or pickled,
The majority of process plant piping is connected by flanges and wclds. pressure-tested, cleaned, painted, and insulated. The painting of in-
Thc rarious picces are fabricated in a shop and delivered t o the site or sulated pipe depends on process conditions. I n general all carbon-steel
fabricated in a field shop a t the jobsite. I n either case the methods are piping, whether left bare or insulated, is treated with a rust inhibitor after
similar. The pipe is cut t o the proper lengths by means of a cutting thorough cleaning.
machine or an oxyacetylene cutting torch. A piping piece or assembly
n-hioh may, f i n instance, consist of a straight length with a 90" bend Pipe Idenlificalion
attached and two nozzles in different planes is set up on a work table Each separate piece of shop-fabricated piping is given a piece nun~bcr
or on trestles. The setup is carefully aligned and then tack welded. or spool number on the original piping design dravings. These numhcrs
The tack-ivelded assembly is checked dimensionally and final welding are used as irlcntifying numbers and are painted and stamped with a
is done usually hy the electric-arc process. h full-pcnetration weld free steel dic on the fabricated pipc. T h e original design drav.ings are thcn
from slag and cracks must be made. It is economical t o do as much of used as erection drawings.
the welding as possible on the ground since the pipe may be rotated on A color code is oftcn used for identification on extensive projects haring
rollers and welding may be donc with little or no movement of the a number of process units w.hich utilize larger sizes of piping, Mark,
w l d i n g electrode. piece, or spool numbers must still be assigned to identify the pieces. If
After welding, each piece is checked for alignment and weld quality.
* Ring-type joints muat he cluaned exceylionally ell to insure a tight seal.
668 Project Engineering of Process Plants Construction 669
>el-era1q ~ a m t units
e are being fabricated, color can be >elected for each r,ffort, involving rl~cmiral,merl~nnicul, clcctriral. and rivil engineers.
unit su that pilling in the storage pard can be easily aeparated I\-itliuut draitsn~ncn,stenographers, accuuntante, buyers, i.raftsmt.n, and office hnys,
finding tlic inark nunnbcr. The color coding ib applied l i e u e a c l ~end .4.q one leave? tine plant sit? on this final day t x o people will probahly
tlie piece and cumpletely circles tlic pipe in a band sufficiently a i d e to be he busily ronfrrring: the project engineer and t h r construction superin-
$ten irom 3 reasonable diatancc. tmrient. These two men h a w done more than any t o a r m a s ~ ~ c c e s p f ~ ~ l
Rnndom pipe delivered to a jobsite is also color coded 13-hen receiwd. npwating plant. T h r projrrt cngincer has direrterl thc projrrt .;inre tlrl-
This code should be deaigned to indicate the size and type uf pipe iseani- c%rlj- prmr-r clchign. IIc Ira. Iwrn a gnori r~r,q:tnizrr nnd n rompctmt
less, alloy). llucli of tlie random pipe purchased must oiten he stored cnginccr c a l ~ : ~ l ~oil r ,do:~ling~1-irI1p ~ p l cof n-irldy ~lifierentt~ackgroimls.
for screral niontlns. Only certain mills carefully identify pipe, l ~ n tthe Tlie slightly hamssctl louking gcntieman \\-l~onithe 11n1jectcnginwr is
original identificatiun may be lost or defaced ii it cxistcd Color m:nrkin: congratulating is tire con.!t~.r~?tionsi~l~erintt.n~lrlit. n.ho ! d l sliortly move
ran be quickly ilimc as pipe is being unluaded and will save much time to :I rnen- n s s i p u ~ c n t . Hecause of his intrliigcncr. high niccl~;mir:~l
;IS the job proceeds. a l i t i t o d ~and
~ good judgment, he Inas not unly hren allle to construct tlnr
~ h n ;tI . onlrlirrcil l)y the engi~uwiiigilmxings, l ~ u talso has correcte<l,
Insulation ~ v i t htlic help of tile projcct enginecr. the inevitable errors t h a t occur in
iliter cleaning, pipe is pressure-tested and then insulated. Insulation dran-ings and procurelnnrnt. H e has inipr.oviscd where necessary, but
is done by a aubcontr:tctor specializing in this n-ork. Tlnc.<e37-orkers begin mait inipr~rtant.Irc ha3 ronililrtrd thc jo11 on time and built a l ~ l a n tthat
the itisulntiun of vesscls a t about the same time as pipe insulation. (Sce pleases the custulncr.
Chapter 19.)
REFERENCES
Buildings
Office Luildings. change houses, warehouses, and machine shop buildings
are cwctrd at :illy time (luring tlie project as men bcc,~line available.
Process buildings ; m i slnelters are erected after major cquipnnent and S e w l-ork, 1%4.
large piping are installed. 3. Hossnngcl, IV. E.. IIonrtBook oi Rigging, l\IeGmn-Hill Rook Co., Yew l'ork,
single-suction, 270
Bateh system eontr.ol. 525 wtting of ele\.atrun ui, 433433 Cont~~.-packed plunger pump, 251 specific specd of. 284-285
Bxttcr pilec. 5Y2 tkjumlnry line loc:~tion.59i Centriiugnl roniprosors, and axial blow- stuffine bar ior. 27.5
Bearing c;ipwlly. ; ~ l l ~ w ~ i l596
,le, Uowdou tulw hlti r,m. 3llX32V
f o r soil, 596, 612 Buurclon-typi g;ige, 51b516 bearings fur. 317
674 Index Index 675
Centrifuges. p~rformanceof. 375 Compr.?ssed Air and Gas Institute, ter- Consrruction labor, distribution of. 655 Correspondence, volnmc of. 139
trsts of, 375 minoiogy for centrifngnl cam- man hour requir~ments,94 Ccmrosion allowanre iar w s a ~ l s ,210
Crt.tifird prints, description of, 109 pl'i'swv hy. 3 1 W l l on ioreign johs. 41 Corrosion data, 58
f i x wntrifugnl pumps. 277 Cum~wssibilityf:i,:tor. 34S341 mtcs, 657 Corrosive fluids. pnmping of, 277
u e in foundation ilrpign. 60R i h i l for. 340 Construction ofire build in^. 658 Cor.rouion inhihitars. 552
Chain opcmtors. usr of. 458 Compr~ssionratios, typiral. 339 Contingcnries fol. estimate?. 47 Cost ~ i t i n l ~ trests
? ~ , of. 47
Chambrrs of Commerce, aid in site selec- Comprei.ion tcsts for soil, 596 Continuuus system control. 531 precision of. 4 i
tion of. 17 Conlprrssion theory, 326330 Contracts, bnscs for. 159 rauid mrthods ior, 47
iniomration :<railable itom. 24 Cornpl.rsaion-type fitting. 409 ranrrllntion oi. 166, I79 tybrs of. 46
Chnngc houses. construction for, 658 Coui~~rcssive strength of c o n r r ~ t c ,602- definition of tprms in. 173 :ost-plus contract, typical exsnlple of,
design of, 620 603 finm oi. 162 163
.. .
Cllangc o r d m , 128, 134 Corrqressor cffieicncirs, 331, 333 typrs oi, 160. 161.162 !~,st-plwwitli fixr&iee contrxrts. 161
Changing impeller diam~ters,283 Comp~.cssorhorscpox~et.,calrul;ition of. Contrart buying. 122 losts, estimation oi for piping. 447452
Characteristic curve for centriiuga' 33 1 Cantt.artor and custorn~r, division of Intmr. 54. 170. 657
pump, 279 Comprcmxs. see type work. 2 slip-on rrrrue welding n w k flanges, 404
Check valves, 295,421. 423 Colnpressors, accecsot.ies far, 322 Cuntmctor, definition of. 2 !olmt~rflow1-1 pxchanger, 216
Chwking drawingal 103-105, 211 rosL of maintenance for, 322 frmctiou oi. I56 hunting instrummts, 524
Chfmicnl feeders, 262 cylinders far. 304-305 selection of. 157 !ouplings, far rentrifugal pump, 277
Chcmical pumps. 266268 for plant air, 581 Contt.ol centers. 540 lneliing joints by, 402
Cllcmisorption instrummts, 526 foundations for. 587-588 Control Laboratories. drsign of. 622 tlsr of on \-essels. 192
C.I.F.. 126 inslnllafiun of. 325 Cun~soloi prowasr-, 525, 31-5-42 :meking furnscrii. design of. 387388
Chilton's m ~ t h o d 51 , piping at. 461 Control of turhinca, 364 :raitsmnn, ninnhonr distribution, 656
Chiltun and G ~ n r r r a u x ,pressut.e drop pistons for. 304305 Contt.al psnrls, 105,540-541 h n r . cmwlpr typr. 664
equation for exrhmrgrr.~,239 vnlws forl 304-306 Control point of nn insfnment. 534 gani~.\--typr.626
Clrromel-alumel thermocouple. 511 selrrting tj-pc oi, 32W22 Control room, design of. 540-542 self-propellrd. 600
Circuit and conduit schedules, 114 Concrete, costs of, 608 Contiol tlieol.y, 540 hss-fins, 216
Classifiers. 581 curing of, 60W03, 605, 606 Control vnlres, air ptrsawe of, 533 hsr;flow. in heat rxchnngris, 232
Clearance control for rer:ipl.orating eom- pouring of. 6 0 M 0 5 &finition of, 456 pwssure drop in, 239
pressors, 308 rcinforecd, 601 description of, 423425 h s l r c r s a n d grinders, descl.iption
Clearance pockets, effect on compressor repair oi. 606 danhlc-port,. 423 38W81
efficiency of, 308 ~ t t . m g t hof, 602403 sinele-nort. 424 selection of, 379
Clearances, typical d u e s for. pipe, struc- Uec in p i l ~ of.s 589 Contkll& volume pumps, 261, 262 test of, 380
t u r d steel, and power lines, 629 Cmrrele foundations, curing of, 605, 606 Convection roeIiieient, for horizontal :~.~-~twilizrrr, drscription of, 381
Closed impeller, 265, 271
Coal, as a fuel, 31, 556
Candenwte. piping ior, 572 pipes. 491
Conveyors, 389390
-
dpsinn and selertion of, 381
trsts oi. 381
Condrnsatc linps, typical rulps for, 461
Code for pressure piping, 396 Zcnd~nsatetraps, w e Steam traps Coalinr hetmern stagps 101. c~ntnfngitl :ultur;d iaeilities, ~ f f e c on t plant lotn-
Codeu, see name of sponsoring body Eondensation nxw, 235 mmprcssors. 315 tion, 17
state and city, 210 :'oud~nsers, 220 Cooling s y s t ~ m s ,circulating. 552 l u r t m w r , definition of. 2
Coil-in-boa cooler. 221
Coke, as a iuel, 556
Cold junction of thermocouple circuit,
513
L'ondcnsing rorfficirnts. 232
: k n d r ~ i t559
,
lonc-roofpd tank, 574
lonferencc leadrr, 137
Cooling t o ~ c r s design
Cooling w a t w 549
, o f , 377-378
I
Steiiln lines, typical ~ v l e sfolr 461 mntprials used i o r 630
Spherical tanks, 575 Steam i,owrl., 560 Structural stcel. detail dtwvines.. ni., 101 Telrphane. use oi, 151
Sphwiral ~ e s w l s ,stwsses on, 197 Strnnr smothering, 648 erection oi, 662 .. 148. 150
Tclrtrnr.
Sphwoidal tanks, 575 Steam traps, rh:iructeristics oi, 427 rnnrking oi, 662 Ternperntul.~nmawring instruments.
Splasli-pl.ooi motor. 356 description of. 426428 piles of. 591 507-515
Split-phase motor, 354 listing oi, 428 safety rulrs in design far, 690 nsud industrial rang<! o f , 508
Spool, definition oi. 457 piping fipecifiration ior. 170 Strurtures, basis for design oi, 627-629 Temperature riw, allownhle ior motor?.
Spool numbers, definition of, 457 speciiying of. 427 partially enclosed. 624 358
for pip?, 667 types of. 426 totally anclosed. 61&824 mlrulation of ior cornprssmn, 335. 344
w ~585-586 1
Spread i o o t n ~ y ~d .t ~ r ~ p t ,d, Sleaui tut.binrs. ;fij~pl~c~al~uni ili. 363 unenclosed, 624429 effiricncy ior centrifugal rompt.essors,
&sign "i. 611415 d c u l ; wu
~ ~ h r , 365 Stuh end for lap joint. 401 :<R3
cxsnlule &rign ui. 613415 Stu! halt !or flanges, 407 of cooling wltcr. 549
690 Index Index 69 1
Temporary buildings, 658 T~xuafet.pumps, 5i6 Yalres. clectrirally operated, 538 Vessels, saiety ~ u l r sin rlcagn ior tanks
T r m i n n l companies, 11 Tran-mittnl letters, 142, 148 rrrrcrgenry. 648 and, 637, 638
Terms oi L>ayment,125 Transrcrse fins, 215 estimation of prices ior, 450 skptch 01,206. 210
Test curve for centriiugi pnnlp. 2i!) Triangular pitch, 225 flow characteristics ior, 418-419 Vibration in piping, 435
Twting of pipu. firld. 463 Trickle coolers, 223 list? ior, 453 isolntian of. 587
shop, 461 Trombone coolers. 223 loration oi, 458.638 Viscosity i,orrertion curve? for rentrifugd
T ~ s t - :of rqoil,mcnt. sce typr o i equip- Truck shipments and plant location, I1 namenclntu~.efor, 414 pump perfurnlancc. 286
ment Tube hundlr: nssrnibly oi. 224 parts of. 414 Viscous fluids. pumping oi. hy rotary
Theoretical work of compression. 327 Tubing, 398 reciprocating pump typcs of. 254 pumps, 291
Thet.nul uc~ndurtivitymeter, 530 Tuhula~.exchanger, Manuiartnring :Isso- seat for. 417 Vitrified tilr, installation of. 660
Thermal eonduetirities, of t.eirartol.y and ciation Standards ior. 223-224 symhols for pipes and. 70 Voltape rztings for motors, suggestrd,
insulating fire hriuk, 485 Turbine drirps. ior imtriiugal compres trim for, 417 359
of thermal insttlntorr, 479
Thernmconplp rircuita, 511 ,. sow and blowrrs, 317
Iurbine pumps. 291
Vapor hat.riers for all insolation. 483
Vapor-filled thermometw 509
Voltages. typival, for equipmml. 559
for power distribution. 557
Tlirmocouple combinations, 511 Torbinea. 361-371 Vegetable cork insulation. 475 Volumrtrir pffici~nry, for rrriprocating
Th~rmocuuple errors, minimizing of, piping at, 461 Velocity-compounded tnrhine, 302 rumpressors, 332
512 arw also types Vrlority diagr;<ms of r m t r i i n g ~ lpump., with nrttinl gases. 341
Thrt~nououplewells, 512 stcwm classification oi, 361 280 ior rwiprocntmg pumps. 257
Tl~ennoeo~qiles, range oi, 510 Tnrhtiirnre at orifice. 504 Veloritics. ior stcam distribution piping. Volute-type multistage c r n t d u g a l pomp,
Thcnno-rlcctrie trmpcrtature mr;~auring Turbdcnt flow. 228 572 272. 273
inztt.ummts, 510-515 T w - c y r l r rngines for camprrssor drives. reasonable ior process lines. 447
Therrnu-syphon r~tmilers,2111, 220 302 I.ena contraeta, 502 \\:nrchouses, design of. 623
Thermometers, solid mpnniion type oi, Two-font. cxulnmg*rs, 218 V~ndor-prints,106 iol. eon~tnwtion.658
507 Ttru-lnipcller blowers, 319 filing and ilis(rihution oi. 108 \\:nstc rlispoanl, 14.5XO-581
fluid expansion in, 508-510 Two-position control, 532. 533 identilic::~tion u(. 109 I\-tisto-brat hoillws, 566
Thicktnrl.~.*stirnation of requityd area Two-wt>eel turbine, 361 submission oi, 109 IVaste products, as fnels. 554. 556
and volume for, 392 Typing, on drawings, 117 uac in iorlndntmn &sign of, 607 IVatcr, as a fire extinguishing agent,
test3 oi, 392 V~ndors.rrlations with. 123 ,548
- -~~
Thickness calculation, ior pipe, 398 Ultimate st,rrngth of concrete. 602 Vmtilnting systems, &sign of, 261-262, rornrnon inpuritirs in. 546548
ior vessels, 199,201, 205 Ultraviolet photometer, 527 642-643 information on. far ilcsign. 28
Thick-walled vessels, 201 Unbsltinrcd iorrrs. effect oi, on founda- Ventilntiun, for rumfort,. 642 sources of, 548
Thin-walled vessels, definition oi, 196 tion design, 616 for snfety rvasoni;. 640 t~rnpornrysupply of. iol. constrnrtion,
Threaded flange. 406 Underground iaeilities. instnllntion of. loculized, 641442 659
Threndcd pipe joints, 402 660 oi cornmpssor huildines. . . 325 \Vrrter-heitring strata, 600
Throttling hellows, 533 Untlet.gronnd lines, 458 of pump housrs, 293 \Vnter-cement ratio. 602,605
Throttling, eont1.01 of stemn turbinrr;, Union bonnet valve, 415 requir~mentsfor, 641 Rntrr-cuuled txaring housings, 275
364, 365 I:nions, iar labor. 655 Vents. fittings for. 192 \Vatpi liot~s~powcr. 259
Thrust hearings on ccntriiugd pumps, i m pipe, 402 ior tanks. 574 \Tatel. jacket. 276
27G271. 274 1-ntt plot plans, drscription of. 82-84 Venturi meter, 502-5(W \Yater-proof motor. 356
Ti& :wditians, for design, 28 steps in preparation of, 84 Vertical cxehanget.s, 220
Vertically-split casings ior r.rntiiiugal
.
Water secmee.- 600
Titrimetrrs, $27 G.S. Grodetic suwey datum, 398 \V:ttcr-softening proeesrra, comparison oi,
Toe plates, 640 Vtillty companies, porrlrsse of power pump, 269 548.55W51
Ton of reiriget~tion,347 from, 15 Vessel design, development of, 211 \Vater sources. and plant location, 13
Tanguc-nnd-groove flange facing. 407 ... d ~ t a i l r dmechaniral, 210 investigation of, I4
t,tlLt:. water. 563
Tool room. for eonstrurtian, 658 IJtilitirs. see type example of, 207 Wat~r-tuhchoilrrs, 563
Topug~.aphy,eNert on plant saipt?, 635 lowtiun o i generating pk.'.? to mini- selrrting materials o i rnrrsll-wtinn for, \Taler transportation nnrl plant location,
Top-suction, top-disrharge centrifugal 209 12
mize hazards fat.. 636
pllmps. 269 setting hnsic dimensions for. 2W Ratcr usage of plumbing fixtures. 580
primary, 54.5
Tornado frequency, ioi design, 27 theory oi. 195-197 \Vaternaya, 12
U-tohes. 221
Totally mclosctl motors. 356 Vessel drawings, 112,2W211 \Vrat.ing rings, advantages of. 272
Tower hasc plates. 211 standard details for, 211 for casing, 272
!'-angle rompr.esmr, 302, 305
Tower, self-supporting, 585 Ve.4 insulation, dctnils of. 112 ior impeller, 272
Vacuum fquipment selrrtion chart, 323
Toxie chemicals, iniorrnation on, 634 procedure ior. 481 on centriiugal pumps, 271-272
Vacuom gages. 518
Toxic concentrations of chemirals, typi- Vpssels, fabrication of. 187-3116 Kcather, data iot. ronstructiun pro~crts,
Vacuum pumps, 322
cal. 640 heads oi, 190 26
Valves, 413426
Toxic fluids, pumping oi, 277 installing of large rertwal. 665 pNwt on plant location, 16
:wrrssihility of, 435
Trade terms, 126 internal8 of. 192 effect on plant safety, 635
classification ai, 414
iol dcrigu, 2 i
Wing r.slot~s.254-255
\Virinp diapmms, 114
\Vood-composite pile. 590
\Voud, use of, in pilrs. 589
Work; calculation oi. for cumprcssors.
are. 18.8 327, 346
iaoll3-. 189 for pumps, 259. 278
of wa-el-. 188 for str;uu tnrhinr;, 366
of stntrtrli-al steel. 663 iar rnultistsgr i.omprriso~..330
Wclding r.fli~.icneies,allowable, 2 M PI. stage for ccntriinenl cornpveisor.
Welding fillinpi, 409 338
\Velding neck flanges, 404 \Vork of eomprei~ion,h;iwI on irlu:il gar
\Velds. detwling faults in, F63 law. 3 2 9 3 3 0
Wet-seal gas Iroldel., 3 5 ex:~mulrcalculation of. 345-348
Weymouth'r equation, 452
Williams plot ior steam turhinrs, 36i-
368, 369
Wind, iol. dehign purpoars, direction of,
2i
orertirrnillg nroment produced by, 586
pressure oi, 613