1 List insect orders which can be examples

A) for different antennal type

a) The antennae are often called feelers. Because the insects waves them around they
are not only used for touch, the antennae are actually the insect, nose they are
used for the sense of smell. The paired antennae are made up of a number of
individual joints. This means they can be very mobile the basic form of antennae is
filiform in this type. There are many segments that are more, less equal in size.
Filiform antennae are seen in a wide variety of groups such as; Dragonflies, book
lice, biting lice, scorpion flies, crickets, Grasshopper, beetles the length and number of
joints varies much between them. Filiform antennae this is the most basic form insect
antennae. The basic structure is modified in wide variety of ways. This means that a
number of different types may be recognized. The main one are as follows ;-

a) Setaceous;-there are many joints. The antennae type gradually forms the base to the tip.

E.g. Bristletails stoneflies mayflies

Cockroachs caddis flies

b) Moniliform

The round segments make the antennae look like string of beads.
E.g. Beetles

c) Serrate

The segments are angled on one side giving the appearance of saw edge

E.g. Beetle

d) Pectinate;-the segments are longer on one side. This gives the appearance comb.

e.g. Sawflies (related to wasps) and beetles

e) Cleveite

The segments become wider toward the tip of the antennae. This may be gradual)

along it`s length .or a sudden increase and therefore mainly affecting the last few joints
and giving the appearance of club

e.g. Butterflies and moths ,beetles

f) Lamellate

The segments towards the end are flattened and plate like. This the appearances fan.

E.g. Beetles

g) geniculate

There is an abrupt bend or elbo part of the way along the antennae.

E.g. Ants and beetles

h) plumose

Segments each have a number of fine thread-like branches. This gives the appearance of a

Feather.

E.g. Flies

B) For different mouth type

Mouth parts to feed on the plant material available.

Land plant material available on land but as their food changed with the time, these mouth part
modified to suit the type food eaten.

Biting and chewing type or mandibulate type

This type of mouth parts are found in;

-Cockroaches -wasps -locust - lice, ear wing

-Grasshoppers -book and bird -termites -dragonflies

Piercing and sucking type
These types of mouth part are suitable for piercing the skin of animal or plant and suck blood or fluid.
They are found in mosquitoes, sand flies, biting midges bugs and lice.

In mosquitoes and shadflies all piece of mouth parts are narrow and enlongated to form.

Siphoning type
This type of mouth parts are found in butterflies and moths that belong to the order Lepidoptera. Only
glea of maxillae of the two sides join to form along coiled proboscis through which nector of flowers can
be sucked.

Chewing and laping type

These mouthpart are found in honey bees which have two lap up nector and honey chew pollen balls
and wax. Labrum forms the upper lip and labium is large and long and forms a lapping withlabial palps.

Maxillae and maxillary palps are reduced. Mandibles are quite well developed with teeth for biting and
chewing pollen and wax.

Haustellate or sponging type

Found in house flies these mouth parts are suitable for feeding on liquid food only. The long proboscis
like structure is made of basal rostrum and an apical haustellum. These are formed by the fusion of
maxillary palps can be seen near the base.

The apical part of labium forms a broad bilobed sponging apparatus called labellum, which consist of
lamella-like pseudo tracheae that quicly absorb fluid that is then sucked through the mouth and a food
channel located inside the proboscis.

B) Describe the type of modification in insect

Mouth part in different mouth types
E.g. For chewing type mouth part mandible is a well developed mouth part.

Labrum;-it serves as a front lip to help contain the food.

Maxillae;- paired appendages with the folling parts

1 cargo ;-basal sclerite that articulate with the head capsule

2 stipe;-medial sclerite that support a sensory palp
3 Galea and lacinia;-distal sclerite that act as a fork and spoon to manipulate the food.

Hypopharynx; - a tongue like process that helps mix food and saliva.

Labium;-a back lip that is derived from a pair appendage that have fused together along the mi

2 List the structure and function of external organ of Insect

Found thorax and abdomen

Structure and Function That Found on External Abdomen Of Insects

Abdomen is the third functional tagma of the insect body. Each segment of the abdomen consists of

A dorsal sclerite called the tergum

a ventral sclerite the sternum
pleural membrane which joins the sclerites

Abdomenal gills;- respiratory organs in the nymphs(naiods) of

certain aquatic insects.
Furcula;-the springtail jumping organ found in collembolan on
the ventral side of the fifth segment.A clasp(the tenaculum) on
the third abdominal segment holds the springtail in its cocked
position

Collophore;-this is fleshy , peg like structure found in

collembola. It is located on the ventral side of the first segment,
it maintains homeostasis by regulating absorption of water from
the environment.

Structure and Function that found on external thorax of insect

External organ of insect found on thorax are

1. Prothorax;-;-is the formost of the three segment in the thorax of an insect and bears the the
 first pairs of legs
-the prothorax never bears wings I extant insects, though some fossils groups
Possessed wing-like projection.
2. Mesothorax;-is the middle of the three segments in the thorax of an insect and bears second
Pairs of legs. The Mesothorax is the segmen that bears the forewings in all winged
Insects, though sometimes these may be reduced or modified, as in
Beetles (coleoptera) or dermaptera, in which they are sclerotized to form the
Clytra (wing covers) and the strepsiptera, in which they are reduced to form
halteres.
3. Mesothorax;-is the posterior of the three segments in the thorax of an insect, and bears the
third pairs of legs.The metathoraxis the segment that bears the hindwings in most winged
insects, though sometimes they may be reduced or modified, as in diptera, in which they are
reduced to form halters, or flightless beetles (coleoptera), in which they may be completely
absent even though forewings are still present.

In most insect all three segment bear a pair of legs. In addition, winged insects have a pair of wings on
the Mesothorax and metathorax is segments and these two segments are then collectively known as the
petrothorax.

Tergum;- the tergum of the prothoracic segment is known as the pronotum

-it is often small as it serves only for the attachment of the leg muscle, but in
Orthoptera, Dictyoptera and coleopteran it forms a large plate affording some
Protection to the pterothoracic segments.
-to provide attachment for the large longitudinal muscles moving the wings the
Antecostal ridges at the front and back of the Mesothorax and the back of the
metathorax usually develop into extensive internal plates, the phragmata.
Tergal plates;- it is simple structures in apterygotes and in many immature insects, but are
Variously modified in winged adults.
Phragmata;- are plate like apodees that extend inward below the antecostal sutures, provide
attachment for the longitudinal flight muscles.
Pleuron;- basically there are probably three pleural sclerites ,one ventral and two dorsal, which
May originally have been derived from the coxa. Thwe ventral sclerite, or
Sternopleurite, articulates with the coxa and becomes fused with the sternum so as
to
become an integral part.
- typically there are two pairs of spiracles on the thorax. These are in the pleural region
and are associated with the mesothorax and metathorax segments.
 Legs;- with the exception of apodous larval forms and a few specialized adults, all insects have
three pairs of legs, one pair on each of the thoracic segment. Each leg consists typically
Of six segments articulating with each other by mono-ordicondylic articulations set in a
Membrane the corium.the six basic segments are;
Coxa;-the most basal section of the insect leg, articulates with the
stenites.
Trochanter;-joint between the coxa and the ferum
Femur;-long and stouter than the other segments and contains the main
muscles used in running, jumping and digging.
Tibia;-generally long; increase the length of the leg, adds on on extra
joint and thus extra flexibility and the underside of the tarsal segments
may possess pads.
Tarsus;- consists of 1-5 segments and serves as the foot of the insect leg.
Claws;- at the end of the tarsus and assist the insect in holding onto
the substrate or to its prey and possess arolium.

4 Enzyme envolved in insect digestive system

Production of enzyme is usually correlated with diet.

The omnivorous insect such as the cockroach produce the full complement of enzymes
for digesting all types of food.
Blood sucking insects ,however , produce chiefly proteolytic enzymes
Some in Certain clothes mothes are able to digest keratin with the aid of a common
insect proteinase combined with peculiar ph conditions of the mid intestine
Secrete cellulase for digesting cellulose.
Insect group Enzyme substrate

Phytophagous larvae Amylase Starch

Maltase Maltose
Invertase sucrose

Ominivorous insect Protease Protein

lipase liped

Nector feeder invertase sucrose

cellulase cellulose

Meat eating maggot collagenase Collagea and elastia

Bird lice Keratinase keratia

Insects that take solid food typically have a wide, straight, short gut with strong musculature and
obvious protection from abrasion (especially in the mid gut, which has no cuticular linning).

These features are most obvious in solid feeders with rapid throughput of food as in plant-
feeding caterpillars.

In contrast, insect feeding on blood, sap or nectar usually have long, narrow, convulated guts to allow
maximal contact with the liquid food: here protection from abrasion is unnecessary.

The most obvious gut specialization of liquid feeder is a mechanism for removing excess water
to concentrate nutrient substances prior to digestion as seen in hemiptetrans.
 Most plant -feeding insect gut is usually short with and without storage areas, as food is
available continuously. By comparison, a diet of animal tissues may available only intermittently
(such as when a predator captures prey) and the gut normally has large storage capacity.
In fluid- feeding insects , prominent dilator muscles attach to the walls of the pharynx and/or
the preoral cavity (cibarium) to form a pump

Behind the mouth a well musculated organ called pharynx is present which pushes the food into
oesophageus.

Pharynx acts as a sucking pump in sap feeders.

Proventriculus or gizzard is the posterior part of foregut and is musculated.

It is found in solid feeders and absent in fluid feeders or sap feeders.

The internal cuticle or gizzard is variously modified as follows.

I. Teeth like in cockroach to grind and strain food

II. Plate like in honey bee to separate pollen grains from nector.
III. Spine like in flea to break the blood corpuscles

Iperitrophic membrane
It is the internal lining of midgut secreted by anterior or entire or midgut epithelial cells.

Present in solid feeders and absent in sap feeders.

This layer is semiprmeable in nature to digestive juice and digestion products.it`s function are

a) Lubricate and facilitate food movement

b) Envelops the food and protects the midgut epithelial cell against harder food
particles.

In many insects absorption of nutrients occurs through microvilli of midgut epithelial cells by
diffusion. Absorption of water and ions occur through ileum.

In solid feeders, resorption of water from the feaces occurs in the reactum and the
feaces is expelled as pellets.
In sap feeders (liquid feeders) the feaces is liquid like.
4 Demonstrate The Respiratory System In Insect Diagrammatically A

And Discuss The Process Together With The Function

Respiration is a process of interchange of gases between environment and the blood or cellular tissues
of organism. It is ectodermal in origin. General Respiration

A process in living organisms involving the production of energy ,typically with the intake of oxygen
and the release of carbon dioxide from the oxidation of complex organic substance.

Insect Respiration

It is a complex network of tubes (called a tracheal system) that delivers oxygen containing airs to every
cell of the body.
Air enters the insects body through valve-like opening in the exoskeleton.

Spiracle

It is the external opening through which air enters into the trachea.
Insects have about ten pairs of opening, called spiracles, in their exoskeleton.
It has a chamber or atrium with a opening and closing mechanism called atrial valve.
Spiracle is surrounded by sclerite called peritreme.
Closing and opening of spiracle is regulated by atrial valve.
In dipterans, coleopterans, lepidopteran, the spiracles consists of sieve plates.
Peristgmatic glands present around the spiracle that prevents the wetting of organs

Types of spiracles

Simple or non- atrial

An opening with no lip closure or filter chamber
 Atriate with lip closure

Slit like appratus with two movable valves lips

Atriat with filter apparatus

Atrium is lined with tiny hair

Trachea

The trachea are the larger tubes of the tracheal system

Ectodermal in oriogin
Consists of epitheiial cells (ectotrachaea) and cuticular lining called intima.
Heiical folds of cuticular lining-taenidia.

Tracheoles

The network of tracheae

Diameter is less than 1m (0.2-0.3m)
Gaseous exchange
Lie within each cell
Its lining not shed down on molting

. Insect tracheal respiration in short

Oxygen from spiracles > tracheae > tracheoles > cell

Keilin (1994) classified respiratory system of insects on the basis of the number and distribution of

the functional spiracles are;

1 Holopneustic;- All functional (2 thorax and 8 abdomen). E.g. Grasshopper

2 Hemipnustic;- 1 or 2 nopn functional. E.g. Larvae
3 peripeneustic; - 9 functional (1 in thorax and 8 in abdomen. e.g. Caterpillar
4 amphipneustic; - 2 functional (1 in thorax and 1in posterior abdomen) e.g. Maggot
5 propneustic; - 1 functional-(prothorasic) e.g. .puparium
6 metapneustic; - 1 functional (last abdomen) e.g. Wriggler
7 hypopneustic; - 7 functional (1 thorax and 6 abdomenal) e.g. Head louse
8 apneustic;-all spiral closed. E.g. Aquatic and endoprasite
9 hyperpneustic; - presence of more thanthe normal spiracles e.g. Jpygidae
10 in collembola in smithurids one pair of spiracles present between head and thorax.

Mechanism of respiration

There are thus two distinct phases in the transport of gases.

One through the tracheal system known as air tube transport.
One through the tissues in solution in the cytoplasm, known as tissue diffusion.
 Inspiration

Air enters the spiracles during inspiration and comes to the tracheae, then it comes to
the tracheoles which contain fluids ,the oxygen gets dissolved in these fluids and
reaches the tiossue cells

Expiration

In expiration some carbon dioxide may pass out through spiracles but the major part
of it diffuses out through the cuticular covering of the body

Function of respiration system

Provide the cells and tissues with oxygen

To eliminate carbon dioxide a product of respiration
It give some degree of buoyancy in aquatic insects in phantom midge chaoborus (dipteral)
Hemolymph circulation
Act as connective tissues and binds the organs together
Air sacs allowgrowth of the body
Tracheal system involves in sound production in gromphodorrhina (blattodea) by forcing
air through the spiracle.
Air sacs also helps as heat insulators and to maintain body temperature
Tracheoles involves in light emission in fire flies

Aquatic insect respiration

One problem that aquatic insects must overcome is how to get oxygen while they are under
water. All aquatic insects have become adapted to their environment with the specialization of
these structure.

Aquatic adaptations simple diffusion over relatively thin integument.

Temporary use of an air bubble
Extraction of oxygen from water using plastron or physical gill
Storage of oxygen in hemoglobin molecule in hemolymph.
Taking oxygen from surface via breathing tubes.
Insects, like all other arthropods have an open circulatory system which differs in both structure and

Function from the closed circulatory system found in human and other vertibrates.

In closed system blood is always contained within vessels (arteries ,veins ,capillaries
or the heart itself)
In an open system, blood (usually called hemolymph) spends much of its time flowing
freely within body cavities where it makes direct contact with all internal tissues and
organs.

The circulatory system is responsible for movement of nutrients, salts, hormones, and metabolic

Wastes through the insects body. In addition, it play several critical role in defense.

A dorsal vessel is the major structural component of an insects circulatory system. This
tube runs longitudinally through thorax and abdomen, along the inside of the dorsal body
wall. In most insects, it is the fragile, membranous structure that collects hemolymph in
the abdomen and conducts it forward to the head.
In the abdomen, the dorsal vessel is called the heart. It divides segmentally into the
chambers that are separeted by valves (ostia) to ensure one- way flow of hemolymph. A
Pair of alary muscles are attached laterally to the walls of each chamber. Peristaltic
contraction of these muscles forces the hemolymph forward from chamber to chamber.
The heart`s contraction rate varies considerably from species to species typically range of
30 to 200 beats per minute. The rate tends to fall as ambient temperature drops and rise
as temperature (or the insect`s level of activity) increase.
In front of the heart, the dorsal vessel lacks valves or musculature. It is a simple tube
(called aorta) which continues forward to to the head and empties near the brain
hemolymph bathes the organs and muscles of the head as it emerges from the aorta, and
then haphazardly percolates back over the elementary canal and through the body until it
reaches the abdomen and re enter the heart.
 To facilitate circulation of hemolymph, the body cavity is divided into three
compartements called blood sinusis) by two thin sheets of muscle and or membrane
known as the dorsal and ventral diaphragms.
The dorsal diaphragm is formed by alary muscles of the heart and related
structures, it separates pericardial sinus from the perivisceral sinus.
The ventral diaphragm usually covers the nerve cord, it separates the perivisceral
sinus from perineural sinus.
In some insects pulsatiles organs are located near the base the wing or legs. This mascular
pumps do not usually contract on a regular basis .but they act in conjuction with certain
body movements to force hemolymph out into the extremities.
About 90% of in insect hemolymph is plasma; a watery fluid usually clear, but sometimes
greenish or yellow in colour. Compared to vertebrate blood, it contains relatively high
concentration of amino acids, protein, sugars, in organic ions. The remaining 10% of the
hemolymph volume is made up of various cell types (collectively known as hemocytes);
they are involved in the clotting reaction, pgagocytosis, and /or encapsulation of foreign
bodies.