Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Pdhpe Notes
Pdhpe Notes
Pdhpe Notes
IN AUSTRALIA
Critical Question 1 - How are priority issues for
Australias health identified?
Role of Epidemiology
The collection and analysis of the data used to make this assessment
is known as Epidemiology.
Measures of Epidemiology
Morbidity: The rates, distribution and trends of illness, disease
and injury in a given population.
Mortality: The number of deaths for a given cause in a given
population, over a set time-period.
Infant Mortality: The number of deaths in the first year of life
per 1000 live births.
Life Expectancy: An estimate of the number of years a person can
expect to live at any particular age.
Cardiovascular Disease
Nature
Cardiovascular Disease (CVD) refers to all diseases of the heart
and blood vessels, caused by a build up of fatty tissue inside the
blood vessels (i.e. atherosclerosis) and the hardening of the blood
vessels (i.e. arteriosclerosis)
3 types of CVD include Coronary heart Disease, Cerebrovascular
Disease, Peripheral Vascular Disease
Extent
The leading cause of death and sickness
Both mortality and morbidity is decreasing for males and females
Determinants
Sociocultural Socioeconomic Environmental
Determinants Determinants Determinants
- Family history - Low levels of - People who live in
- Indigenous: higher disposable income rural and remote
rates of all risk - Unemployed communities
factors - Low level of
- Males: less likely education
to engage in
preventative health
measures
Groups at Risk
Indigenous Australians
Socioeconomically disadvantaged communities
People who live in rural and remote regions of Australia
Elderly
Extent
Mortality and morbidity rates are both increasing.
The most commonly occurring cancer is non-melanoma skin cancer
(which is mostly non-life threatening). The most common life
threatening cancers include: Men: prostate, colorectal, lung and
melanoma and Women: breast, colorectal, lung and melanoma
Determinants
Sociocultural Socioeconomic Environmental
Determinants Determinants Determinants
- Smoking amongst - Unemployed: higher - People who work
young females rates of smoking outdoors
- Tanning habits, - Low levels of - People who live in
such as excessive sun education e.g. rural and remote
exposure awareness of warning communities
signs and personal - Exposure to
testing chemicals in the
workplace
Groups at Risk
Indigenous Australians
Socioeconomically disadvantaged communities
People who live in rural and remote regions of Australia
Males and Females
Other minor groups include smokers, outdoor workers, young adults
and people with fair skin
Diabetes
Nature
A disease that affects the bodys ability to take glucose from the
bloodstream to use it for energy
Caused by a malfunctioning of the pancreas leading to insufficient
insulin levels, the hormone responsible for regulation of blood
glucose levels (BGL)
3 types:
1. Insulin Dependent Diabetes (IDDM) Known as Type 1 usually
presents early in life and patients require insulin injections
and must monitor diet and physical activity to maintain a safe
BGL
2. Non-Insulin Dependent Diabetes (NIDDM) Known as Type 2
usually presents later in life, as a result of long-term poor
health behaviours related to diet and exercise. Requires
medication and lifestyle modifications
3. Gestational Diabetes (GD) occurs during pregnancy
The long-term effect s of each type include vision problems,
kidney disease, circulatory issues in arms and legs and a strong
link to CVD (similar risk factors)
Extent
Worlds fastest growing disease similar issues are evident in
Australia
Prevalence increases with age, especially NIDDM Type 2
The age of onset is decreasing which is a growing concern,
especially for young people. Due to unhealthy lifestyles
3.5% of all Australians have Diabetes
Determinants
Sociocultural Socioeconomic Environmental
Determinants Determinants Determinants
- Indigenous 10-30% - Low SES more - Technology has lead
may have diabetes likely to have poor to a more passive
much is undiagnosed diet, drink excessive society e.g.
- Being Chinese, alcohol, be popularity of video
Indian or Pacific physically inactive games
Islander and be overweight - People from rural
- Social acceptance - Low education and remote and
of binge drinking less awareness of Indigenous have
- Ageing population prevention strategies difficulty in
- Being time poor and health lifestyle accessing medical
leads to increased behaviours services
reliance on - Junk food
convenient food advertising to
children
Groups at Risk
Elderly
Indigenous Australians
Socioeconomically disadvantaged
People from rural and remote regions
Nature
Any illness that negatively affects a persons emotional
stability, perceptions, behaviour and social well-being, such as
depression, anxiety, addictions, obsessive compulsive disorder,
bipolar disorder, eating disorders and dementia
Extent
20% of people suffer form a mental health problem at some stage
of life
Prevalence is increasing and much is unreported
18-24 years olds have the highest rates, especially substance
abuse and depression
Determinants
Sociocultural Socioeconomic Environmental
Determinants Determinants Determinants
- Family breakdown - Unemployed higher - Living in remote
lack of support rates of depression regions lack of
- Difficult life - Low education support and medical
circumstances e.g. risk factors services
abuse - People in financial - Stigma amongst
- ABTSI Increased distress e.g. farmers males as well as
alcohol and drug during a drought common stoical
abuse, and difficult attitudes
life circumstances - Lack of emotional
- Elderly people support e.g. family
increased social breakdown
isolation and grief
Groups at Risk
Elderly
Indigenous Australians
Socioeconomically disadvantaged
People from rural and remote regions
People born overseas, especially refugees
People with a disability
Respiratory Diseases
Nature
Common diseases that affect the respiratory system include:
Asthma, Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Diseases, Hay fever
Extent
6 million Australians have a long-term respiratory disease
Morbidity rates are now decreasing, a result of reduced smoking
Mortality is also decreasing, due to effective education programs
Asthma is the leading burden of disease amongst children
Determinants
Sociocultural Socioeconomic Environmental
Determinants Determinants Determinants
- Indigenous - Increased smoking - Higher rates of
Australians higher amongst low SES pollution in cities
rates of smoking - Low income less - People who live in
- Family history money for remote region are
preventative further from
medication emergency services
- Low SES more - Childrens exposure
likely to be exposed to passive smoke
to occupational
hazards
Groups at Risk
Indigenous Australians
Socioeconomically disadvantaged
People from rural and remote regions
Smokers
Injury
Nature
There are many types of injuries, which affect all stages of life.
They often result in ling-term harm of ones physical, emotional and
social well being. Examples include:
1. Road injuries and Motor Vehicle Accidents (MVAs)
2. Suicide and self-harm
3. Injuries around the home e.g. poisonings, falls, drowning, cuts,
fires
4. Workplace accidents
5. Acts of violence
6. Sports and recreational injuries
Extent
Leading cause of death in 1-44 years age group (particularly
MVAs and suicide amongst males)
Greatest cause of potential life lost under 65 years
Major cause of hospitalisation
Deaths from injuries are decreasing in frequency, especially
MVAs
The elderly are prone to injuries such as falls, which has a
significant impact on their quality of life
Risk Factors and Protective Factors
Modifiable Risk Non-Modifiable Risk Protective Factors
Factors Factors
- Driving behaviour - Age elderly are - Minimising driving
and attitudes more at risk of distractions e.g.
- Inadequate falls Mobile phones and GPS
supervision of - Gender higher - Effective driver
children rates of risk taking education
Occupational hazards behaviour and - Positive attitude
Unsafe home suicide towards road and OHS
environment e.g. rules and regulations
chemicals, pool - Home modifications
fencing and trip for the elderly
hazards - Strong social
- Safe roads and support to prevent
effective road laws suicide
- Safe use of alcohol
Determinants
Sociocultural Socioeconomic Environmental
Determinants Determinants Determinants
- Indigenous people - Low SES higher - Workplace injuries
suffer more injuries rates of are most common in
- Attitudes towards hospitalisation from agricultural
driving and risk injuries settings
taking amongst males - Low education - Suicide is highest
- Family breakdown, less awareness of amongst males from
leading to social dangers around the rural and remote
isolation of young home regions
people - Low income makes - Unsafe home
- Societal pressure it harder to purchase environment of
for tougher road safety equipment elderly people and
laws e.g. P plate - MVAs are highest children can lead to
regulations amongst low SES increased risk of
- Societal awareness populations injury
of hazardous
environments
Groups at Risk
Elderly (Falls)
Indigenous Australians (MVAs and self-harm)
People from rural and remote regions (occupational injuries)
Children (poisoning and drowning)
Young Adults (MVAs, sport and recreational injuries and self-
harm)
Males (Suicide and MVAs)
Healthy Ageing
Enabling and empowering people to live a healthy, productive and
contributing life for as long as possible, is a key strategy of the
government.
Increased Population Living with Chronic Disease and Disability
A larger elderly population inevitably leads to more people living
with chronic disease and disability.
People have the option of increasing the health insurance they have
by taking out private health insurance. The extra insurance covers
private hospital and ancillary or extras (dental, physiotherapy,
naturopathy, etc).
Anaerobic
Anaerobic training involves exercise of high intensity and therefore
short duration.
Interval training is a very common form of anaerobic training
usually requiring maximal effort. Generally the recovery rate ratio
will determine the type of training and aims of the sessions.
Speed, acceleration and agility are components that can be developed
through anaerobic training.
Plyometrics is a very common training style to develop anaerobic
power. Plyometrics involves exercises that produce an explosive
muscular contraction.
Flexibility
Flexibility is the ability to move a muscle through its full range
of motion. Good flexibility will assist:
- Prevention of injury
- Improved coordination
- Muscular relaxation
- Decreasing muscle soreness
Static stretching the muscle is slowly and smoothly taken to the
end of its range of motion and held for approximately 30 seconds.
This method is useful for rehabilitation, warm up and cool down.
Dynamic stretching involves a series of movements that replicate
game movements and take the muscle through its full range of motion.
It is popular for warm-ups.
Ballistic stretching involves a bouncing action at the end of the
range of motion. This form of stretching activates the stretch
reflex. The force of the movement takes the muscle beyond its
preferred length. Therefore, this type of stretching has risks and
is only recommended for elite athletes.
PNF stretching proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation involves
lengthening a muscle against a resistance. Generally it involves a
static stretch, followed by an isometric contraction then a period
of rest before being repeated. Used often during rehabilitation.
Strength training
Strength is the maximal force generated by a single muscular
contraction.
Hypertrophy an increase in the size of the muscle fibres and
connective tissues
Isotonic involves exercises where the muscle shortens and
lengthens
Isometric involves exercises where the muscle does not change
length
Isokinetic involves exercises where the load remains constant
throughout
Machine weights very popular method allowing for isotonic
contractions and are very simple to use. It is very easy to isolate
muscle groups using this method of training.
Free weights include dumbbells, barbells, medicine balls and
kettlebells. Allow a wide range of exercises, muscle groups and
types of contractions to be catered for. Good techniques are needed
to avoid injury.
Resistance bands are often used in rehabilitation but have become
a popular form of training lately due to their convenience. They
allow for a range of contractions and a wide range of muscle groups.
Stability balls have become popular of late. Their focus is to
develop the core muscles and majority of free weight exercises can
be adapted to be performed incorporating the stability ball.
Hydraulic resistance effort is made against an opposing force.
Resistance is constant through the entire movement.
Principles of training
Progressive overload
To continue to have training improvements, progressive overload
needs to occur. The body adapts to the training it undergoes. When
this adaptation occurs the training needs to be increased to stress
the body beyond its current capabilities to achieve further training
gains. It also needs to be progressive so that the stress placed on
the athlete does not cause injury or fatigue. Overload can be
achieved by increasing intensity, resistance, repetitions, duration,
frequency, etc.
Specificity
Exercise needs to be specific for the energy systems, muscles,
movement patterns, etc required for the athletes sport.
Reversibility
Training adaptations are lost once training ceases or lowers below
the current capacity of the athlete. A detraining effect results in
the physiological adaptations gained through training being
reversed.
Variety
Completing the same or similar activities can lead to boredom which
in turn may result in a reduced training effort. Therefore it is
important for training sessions to incorporate a range of training
types, settings, activities and drills.
Training thresholds
Training thresholds are the upper limits of a training zone and when
passed take the athlete to a new level.
The aerobic threshold (Lactate transition 1) is approx 70% of MHR.
This level is sufficient to cause a training effect.
The aerobic training zone is when athlete is working above the
aerobic threshold and below the anaerobic threshold.
The anaerobic threshold (Lactate transition 2 or Onset Blood Lactate
Accumulation OBLA) is approx 85% of MHR. Exercise beyond this point
will see a marked increase of lactic acid build up and therefore
fatigue and the cessation of exercise.
Sources of stress
Stress is the imbalance between what is expected of a person and
their perceived ability to meet those expectations. When there is a
large imbalance then the person becomes stressed. There are many
sources of stress and these include: financial concerns, selection
concerns, injury concerns, contract concerns, crowds, preparation
and expectations.
Optimal arousal
Optimal arousal is the physical and emotional response related to a
specific moment or event. Arousal is important for successful
sporting performance, however, not all athletes or sports require
the same level of arousal. An archer requires a different level of
arousal (calm and quiet) compared to a weightlifter (pumped up).
Optimal arousal is generally described utilising the inverted u
hypothesis. As arousal increases so does performance until optimal
arousal and this performance is reached. If arousal continues past
this point (over arousal) then performance declines.
High
Performance
Low
Low High
Level of arousal
Mental rehearsal/visualisation/imagery
This involves creating mental images or pictures of the upcoming
event, action or skill. This allows the athlete to experience
(success) prior to the actual event. This allows the athlete to feel
confident due to the fact that it is as if the athlete has been in
this position previously and therefore knows how to feel and react
and more importantly can picture a successful outcome.
Athletes may use various methods of mental rehearsal. One method is
as spectators watching themself perform the skill and the other is
from their internal view as they are actually performing the skill.
Mental rehearsal needs to be as realistic as possible for it to be
effective. Therefore the detail, timing and settings all need to
replicate the real event.
Relaxation techniques
Over-aroused and anxious athletes benefit greatly from having a
range of relaxation strategies available to them. Relaxation will
lower breathing rates, heart rate, blood pressure and muscle tension
leading to greater control and focus.
Examples of relaxation include listening to music, massage, watching
TV or a movie, controlled breathing exercises, yoga, Pilates,
meditation and hypnosis.
Goal-setting
Setting long term and short term goals can assist an athlete greatly
to remain focused. The goals of an athlete can be about the outcome
of their performance (e.g. winning gold at the Olympics) or the
process (e.g. swimming a personal best at the Olympics).Short term
goals should contribute to achieving the long term goal.
Nutritional Considerations
All athletes must ensure that the food and drink they consume will
support maximum performance. These considerations are as important
for both training and actual competition. They also apply to both
before and after intense physical activity. The primary aims of good
nutrition are:
Adequate fuel reserves, such as maximum glycogen stores for
triathletes
Repair of damaged body tissue from training, such as increasing
protein intake for strength training
Prevention of dehydration, through adequate fluid intake
Optimal functioning of all body systems (e.g. Immune System), by
meeting the recommended dietary intakes for all nutrients, such
as vitamins and minerals
Pre-performance Nutrition
Changes to an athletes regular diet may be necessary in the days
and hours leading up to an intense training session and competition.
This is to ensure the required fuel reserves are full and the
athlete is well hydrated. Knowing what and how much to eat, as well
as when to eat, will enable the body to perform intense physical
activity.
The last significant meal should be eaten 3-4 hours prior to the
event. It should contain at least 100 grams of carbohydrates, be low
in fat and fibre and have a small amount of protein. At least 500 mL
of water should also be consumed. A light meal can also be eaten 1-2
hours prior, which should consist of some high GI Carbohydrates, as
well as more fluid.
Carbohydrate Loading
Endurance athletes require more carbohydrates than other athletes,
and may need to increase their intake for 3-4 days leading up to an
event. By maximising muscle and liver glycogen reserves, they ensure
that glycogen is used as a primary fuel for as long as possible.
Hydration
To avoid the negative effects of dehydration on sporting
performance, athletes should over-compensate for their projected
fluid needs. For a normal person, 2 litres of fluids should be
consumed daily; therefore a person who is expecting to perform
intense physical activity should drink at least 3 litres in the 24
hours leading up to an event.
During Performance
Continued hydration is the main priority during physical activity.
Small amounts of fluid should be consumed at all possible times,
such as time-outs, half time and stoppages (150mL per 15 minutes).
For endurance events, lasting longer than 60 minutes, refuelling may
also be necessary. This is best achieved by eating concentrated
forms of glucose such as energy gels, bananas, sports bars or sports
drinks.
Post Performance
The primary aim of post-exercise recovery is to return all body
systems as quickly as possible to their pre-event condition. The
specific details of what to eat and when will depend on the duration
and intensity of the activity itself. The primary aims of the first
12 24 hours after intense exercise are:
Restore depleted glycogen
Repair damaged muscle tissue
Rehydrate the athlete
Supplementation
Protein
Protein is required for the growth, repair and maintenance of muscle
tissue. Athletes must ensure they eat sufficient amounts of protein
to aid recovery and promote growth of muscle tissue. This is
especially important for athletes who are undertaking strength
training or high-intensity interval training. Good food sources of
protein include lean meat, dairy products, nuts and eggs.
Caffeine
Caffeine is a stimulant, which speeds up the Central Nervous System.
It is normally consumed through chocolate, coffee, cola drinks and
advertised energy drinks. It is also available in the form a
caffeine tablets. The supposed benefits of caffeine for athletes
include increased alertness, decreased perception of fatigue and the
mobilisation of fat cells leading to glycogen-sparing. Possible
negative side effects include an elevated heart rate, over-arousal
and uncontrolled muscle twitches leading to decreased fine-motor
control. In high-doses, it also acts as a diuretic, leading to
dehydration.
Creatine
Creatine is a fuel source, which is stored in skeletal muscles. It
is produced partly in the body cells, but regular intake of protein,
especially from meat sources, ensures the RDI for Creatine is
achieved. Its role is to assist in the production of Creatine
Phosphate, which is the fuel source for the replenishment of ADP
back into ATP. This is commonly known as the ATP-CP Energy System,
which provides for ATP regeneration during short bouts of powerful,
high-intensity exercise, such as 100m sprints or shot-put. Athletes
who either train for these types of sports or undertake a heavy
resistance-training program, may achieve training benefits such as
increased lean muscle mass and improved performance levels.
Recovery Strategies
Physiological Strategies
Both active recovery exercises and appropriate nutrition are
important factors in restoring the body to a pre-event condition,
allowing the athlete to prepare for the next training session or
game as quickly as possible. Examples include:
Hydration
Nutrition
Cool Down
Stretching
Neural Strategies
Intense physical activity is very taxing on the muscular system, but
also the Central and Peripheral Nervous System. These neural
strategies are aimed at relaxing the body and muscles, reducing the
perception of localised muscle fatigue as well as decreasing general
mental fatigue.
Hydrotherapy
Massage
Psychological Strategies
The pressure involved in participating in elite sport can be
immense, and this can come from both internal and external sources.
For an athlete to maintain good mental and emotional health, as well
as manage their levels of motivation and anxiety, a range of
personal strategies can be employed to achieve this
Relaxation
Sleep
Cognitive Stage
This stage is characterised be the learner developing an
understanding of the task requirements.
Associative Stage
This stage is characterised by the need for the athlete to practise
the skill, until a correct motor pattern is established in the mind
and body.
Autonomous Stage
In this stage, the athlete is able to perform the skills
automatically, without intentional thought about the task
requirements.
Heredity
Certain genetic features can provide a varying degree of advantage
with regard to the potential for success. Specific inherited
factors, which may be influential, include:
Muscle Fibre Type
Body Shape
Gender
Confidence
Whilst this is a personality trait, it stands alone as making a
significant contribution to sporting success at the elite level
Prior Experience
Certain sports have common characteristics, which can enable a
person to transfer their ability from one sport, and quickly adapt
and learn the specific skills and tactics in another sport. Some
factors that can be transferred from one sport to another include:
Motor patterns
Tactics and strategies
Skills
Components of Fitness
Ability
Some people seem to have a natural ability at sport, which is most
evident in the rate that they move through the stages of skill
acquisition. They almost seem to be dominant in any game they play.
Some of the factors that may underpin this phenomenon include
spatial awareness (awareness of who and what is around them),
kinaesthetic sense (awareness of the bodys position in space),
tactical awareness (awareness of what equipment should feel like as
it makes contact with the body), coordination (ability to move
multiple limbs with timing and precision e.g. hand-eye or foot-eye
coordination), fast reaction time and perceptive senses (enhanced
sensitivity of the senses, especially during fast-paced sports)
Feedback
Intrinsic Feedback information that is received internally
through the senses by the performer. As a learner continues to
improve, they should be developing the ability to detect and
correct their own errors. A Refined kinaesthetic sense is
critical in enabling them to analyse the feel of the movement
Extrinsic Feedback information that is received from an
external source, such as a coach, the crowd or video analysis
Concurrent Feedback is feedback that is received during the
performance, and is closely aligned with intrinsic feedback. The
athlete may be able to adjust the current movement as it is being
executed, such as a batter adjusting their shot selection as the
ball swings unexpectedly. Or they can adjust the skill the next
time it is executed
Delayed Feedback is feedback that is received after the
completion of the skill. It can be either intrinsic, via video
analysis, or through an extrinsic source such as a coach.
Sometimes this feedback can arrive days later during a video
analysis session
Knowledge of Results information concerning the outcome or
success of the skill, such as whether ball was in or not. This
information can then be used to analyse why the skills was
successful or not. This is most useful for beginners as the
develop their basic motor patterns
Knowledge of Performance information concerning the actual
technique or the patterns of play. This is used more so by
learners in the autonomous stage and can arrive from both
extrinsic and extrinsic sources. Coaches of elite athletes must
be very competent in carefully analysing performances to detect
and help correct even minor errors. Also in team sports, the
coach must be very good at analysing the play and identifying
areas of strengths and weakness in both teams, and communicating
relevant feedback and strategies for the team
Sport as a commodity
The development of professional sport
Sport as big business
Sponsorship, advertising and sport
The economics of hosting major sporting events
Consequences for spectators and participants
Assessment of Injuries
TOTAPS
Medical Conditions
Overuse Injuries
Thermoregulation
Appropriateness of Resistance Training
Female Athletes
Eating Disorders
Iron Deficiency
Bone Density
Pregnancy
Pre-Screening
Skill and Technique
Physical Fitness
Warm-up, Stretching and Cool Down
Environmental Considerations
Temperature Regulation
Climatic Conditions
Guidelines for Fluid Intake
Acclimitisation
Progressive Mobilisation
Graduated Exercise
Training
Use of Heat and Cold
Return to Play
Indicators of Readiness for Return to Play
Monitoring Progress
Psychological Readiness
Specific Warm up Procedures
Return to Play Policies and Procedures
Ethical Considerations
Strength training
Resistance training
Weight training
Isometric training
Aerobic training
Continuous/uniform
Fartlek
Long interval
Flexibility training
Static
Dynamic
Ballistic
Skill training
Drills practice
Modified and small-sided games
Games for specific outcomes
Use of technology
Training innovation
Some training innovations include:
Equipment advances