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Tne ,*tn;or wall enclosure, or builiting aruelope,is the part of a
Dnsrcn RnqurnEMENTS
building that must defend the interior spaces against invasion by FOR THE EXTNNTON
water, rvindo sunlight, heat and cold, and all the other forces of Wa.r,r,
nature. Its design is an intricate process that merges art, science,
and craft to solie a long list of difficult problems. The exterior The major purpose of the exted, :
wall also tJpifies a paradox of building: Those parts of a building wall is to separate the indoor enriror,-
that are exposed to our view are also those that are exposed to ment of a building from the outdoc'::
wear and weathering. The outermost layer of the exterior wall in such a rvay that indoor temPer--
ture, humidib', and other conditio:--'
is the most visible part of a building-one to which architects
are maintained at levels suitable i' :
devote a great deal of time to achieve the desired visual effect. the building's intended use. Tl--.
It is also the part of the building that is most subject to attack by translates into a number of separa:t
naftrral forces that can spoil its appearance. and diverse functional requiremenr'

KeepingWater Out
The exterior wall must Prevent uF-:
entry of rain, snow, and ice intc' ,
building. This requirement is co::--
plicated by the Fact that waler on L;-=
face of a building is often driven i'
wind at high velocities and air prr-
slrres, not just in a downward dirt:-
tion but in every direction, ele:
upward. Water problems are esEr-
cially acute on tall buildings, rvh:;:
present a large profile to the rrl:---
at altitudes where wind velocities a:.
much higher than at ground lert-
'-r
Enormous amounts of water mtt:l.
drained from the windward face ':
a tall building during a heaw t:-:-
storm, and the water, pushed b1'r,i:-- .'
tends to accumulate in crevices a:,:
against projecting mullions, rr'hr-:
it will readily penetrate the smal-t'
crack or hole and enter the buildi:-.
A considerable portion of this ch;:-
ter is devoted to methods for keeP::-:
water out.

Frcunn rg.r
A steel-framed Chicago office building
during the installation of its aluminum-
stainless steel, and glass curtain wall
cladding. Notice the diagonal wind
braces in the steel frarne. (Architecl.t: A 'r:t
Pedason Fox/Perkins and Will. Photo bt
Architectural Camera. Permission of Anr"- r
Institute of steel Con.stnntion. )
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S6L / IIuAt rorrelxg eql roJ sluarualnbag u81saq

794 / Chapter 19 . Designing Exterior Wall Systems

devices, adequate thermal insulation

and thermal breaks, and appropriate
selection of glass are potential strate-
gies for controlling heat radiation. SAME WAI,L IJNDER DIFFEREI\TTUrIND DIRECTIONS

Controlling the Conduction

of Heat
The exterior wall of a building must
resist the conduction of heat into and
out of the building. This requires not
25
merely satisfactory overall resistance
of the wall to the passage of heat, but
()
also avoidance of thermal bridges, wall
components such as metal framing
members that are highly conductive
of heat and therefore likely to cause
localized condensation on interior
surfaces. Thermal insulation, appro-
priate glazing, and thermal breaks
are used to control heat conduction
through the exterior wall, as we will
observe in Chapters 20 and 21. Build-
ing codes specify minimum values
of thermal resistance of wall compo-
nents as a way of limiting the con-
duction of heat and also as a way of
controlling the condensation of mois-
ture on cold interior surfaces.

Controlling Sound
The exterior wall further serves to
isolate the inside of a building from
noises outside and vice versa. Noise
isolation is best achieved by walls that GROl]ND
are airtight and massive, and possi-
bly with the inclusion of interior lay-
ers that are healy yet resilient. The
required degree of noise isolation ryIA:$MUM NEGATTVE
varies from one building to another. PRESSURES
For example, the exterior wall for a
hospital near a m{or airport requires
(T'MTON ISOBARS ARE POT]NDS PER SQUARE FOOT)
more noise isolation than that for a
commercial building in a suburban
office park.

Secondary Functions of the
Exterior Wall
Fulfillment of the primary functional
requirements of the exterior wall
leads unavoidably to a secondary
but equally important set of require-
ments.
ResistingWind Forces
The exterior wall of a building must be
strong and stiff enough to sustain the
pressures and suctions imposed upon
it by the wind. For low buildings, which
are exposed to relatively predictable
winds, this requirement is fairly eas-
ily met. The upper reaches of taller
buildings are beset by much faster
winds, whose directions and velocitie.
are often made more complicated br
aerodl'namic effects from surrounding
buildings. Both high pressure and suc-
tion forces can occur on some portiorr:
of the exterior wall, especially near cor-
ners of the building (Figure 19.3).

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L6L / IIerV\ rorrelxg aql roJ sluarua.rrnbag u31seq

798 / Chapter lg . Designing Exterior Wall Systems
Resisting Fire
Building codes regulate the combus-
tibility and fire resistance of the exte-
rior wall. These issues are addressed
in greater length at the end of this
chapter.
Weathering Gracefully
To maintain the visual quality of a
building, its cladding must weather
gracefully. The inevitable dirt and
grime should accumulate evenlY,
without streaking or sPlotching.
Functional provisions must be
made lor mainlenance operal"ions
such as glass and sealant replace-
ment and for periodic cleaning,
including scaffolding supports and
safety equipment attachment points
for window washers. The cladding
must resist oxidation, ultraviolet
degradation, breakdown of organic
materials, corrosion of metallic
components, chemical attack from
air pollutants, and freeze-thaw dam-
age of stone, brick, concrete, con-
crete block, and tile.
C onstructabikty Re quirements for
theErteriorWalI
The exterior wall system should
be easy to install. There should be
secure places for installers to stand,
preferably on the floors of the
building rather than on scaffold-
ing outside. There must be built-in
adjustment mechanisms in the fasten-
ings between components of the wall
system and the frame to allow for the
inaccuracies that are normally pres-
ent betr,veen these systems. Sufficient
clearance must be provided so that
components can be installed easily,
without interference by other parts.
Most importantly, the system must
be sufficiently forgiving in its design
to allow for a lifetime of trouble-free
performance despite the lapses in
workmanship or material qualiqz that
inevitably occur.
CoNcrpruAL
AppnolcHEs To
WarnnucHTNEss rN
THE EXrnnron war,r,
In detailing the extefior wall for water
resistance. we work from a secure
theoretical base. In order for water
to penetrate a wall, three conditions
must be satisfied simultaneously:
1. There must be water present at the
outer face of the wall.
2. There must be an opening through
which the water can move.
3. There must be a force to move the
water through the opening.
If any one of these conditions is
not satisfied, the wall will not leak. This
suggests three conceptual approaches
to making a wall watertight:
1. We can try to keep water completely
away from the wall. A very broad roof
overhang can keep a one- or two-story
wall dry under most conditions. \A/hen
designing the exterior wall of a taller
building, however, we must assume that
major portions of the wall will get wel
2. We can try to eliminate the oPen-
ings in a wall. We can build very care-
fully, sealing every seam in the wall
with membranes, sealants, or gaskets,
attempting to eliminate every hole
and crack.
This latter approach, called a bar-
rier wall or face-sealcd wall, is simple in
concept but often difficult in practi-
cal application. In a wall made up of
many jointed components, all these
joints are unlikely to be perfect. If a
surface is a bit damp, dirty, icy, or oily,
joint sealants may not reliably stick
to it. If a worker applying a sealant
or gasket is insufficiently skilled, has
to reach a bit too far to complete the
joint, or is working under cold, wet,
or windy conditions that interfere
with careful installation, the joint
may be left compromised. Even if
joints are well made, building move-
ments can tear sealant or Pull gas-
kets loose. Because, in a barrier rvall.
sealed joints are on the outside of the
building, they are exposed to the full
effects of sun, wind, water, and ice and
may fail over time from weathering
and age. Further, whatever the cause
of joint failure, joints on the outside
face of the wall are difficult to reach
for inspection and repair. Thus, in
practice, long-term watertightness is
often difficult to achieve with barrier
wall construction.
3. We can try to eliminate or neutral-
ize all of the five forces that can mo\'e
water through the wall: gravity, mo
mentum, surface tension, capillan
action, and air currents (Figure 19.6 t.
factor in pulling water
Ctrauity is a
through a wall only if the wall con-
tains an inclined plane that slope:
into, rather than out of, the buildine.
It is usually a simple matter to detai-
the exterior wall system so that nc'
such inclined planes exist, though
sometimes a loose gasket or an erran:
bead ofsealant can create one despite
the best effors of the designer.
Th'e momentum of falling rain-
drops can drive water through a lan-
only if there is a suitably oriented slo:
or hole that goes completely througL
the wall. Momentum is neutralizec
by applying a cover to each joint i::
the wall or by designing each joint a-.
a labyrinth.
The surface tension of water, u'hic::
causes it to adhere to the underside
of a cladding component, allor.s
water to be drawn into the buildins
A drip on any underside surface t,:'
which water might adhere eliminate:
the problem.
Ca.pillary action is the surface tec'
sion effect that pulls water throusi
any opening that can be bridged tr.
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800 / Chapter 19 . Designing Exterior Wall Systems
Rainscreen Cladding and
Pressure-Equalized Wall
Design
The solution to the wind current
problem is to allow wind pressure
differences between the outside and
inside of the exterior wall to neutral-
ize themselves through a concept
known as pressure-equalized wall design.
This involves the creation of an air-
tight plane, the air barrier, behind
the outer face of the wall. The air
barrier is protected from direct expo-
sure to the outdoors by an unsealed,
labyrinth;jointed layer known as the
rainscreen. Between the rainscreen
and the air barrier is a space known as
the pressure equalization chamber (PEC).
As the wind fluctuates and exerts
varylng pressures on the exterior wall,
small currents of air pass back and
forth through each unsealed joint in
the rainscreen, just enough to equal-
ize the pressure inside the PEC with
the pressure immediately outside it
(Figure 19.6). These currents are far
too weak to carry water with them. A
small flaw in the air barrier, such as
a sealant bead that has pulled away
from one side of the joint, is unlikely
to cause a water leak because the
volume of air that can pass through
the flaw is insufficient to carry water.
By contrast. any flaw no matter how
small, in an external sealant joint in
a barrier wall design will allow water
Ireaky sealant
t the outside face of the panels, where it
Ieaky sealant
t
OUTSIDE
WIND
to leak through, because the sealant
joint itself is wetted (Figure 19.7).
Because wind pressures across
the face of a building frequently vary
considerably at any given momenr
between one area of the face and
another, the PEC must be divided into
compartments small enough that vol-
umes of air cannot rush through the
joints in higher-pressure areas of the
face and flow across the air chamber
to lower-pressure areas. carrying water
with them as they go. The appropriate
size of these chambers may vary con-
siderably, depending on the design of
the wall system and the wind forces to
which it is exposed. Broadly speaking,
PECs are normally no taller than one
story or wider than one or hvo col-
umn bays. In some applications they
may be significantly smaller.
Simp le Rnins cr e m D e si gn
The term rainscyeen pinci.pal originated
with the concept of pressure-equalized
wall design, and at one time was used
exclusively in reference to pressure-
equalized cladding s)4stems. More
recently, the term rainscreen cladd,ing
has come to be applied more broadly
to any cladding with a system of inter-
nal drainage, regardless ofthe extent of
compartrnentalizaion of the drainage
space and the degree of pressure equal-
ization that can be achieved. In practice,
rarying degrees of pressure equaliza-
tion or moderation occur, and the lines
Frcunn r9.7
Leakage through a defective vertical
sealant joint between curtain wall
panels, shown in plan view. In the
upper example, the sealantjoint is at
is wetted during a storm. Even a small
current of air passing through the
defective joint carries water with it. In
the lower example, with the defective
sealant located on the inside of the
panels where it remains dry, air leakage
through the joint is insufficient to
transport water through the joint, and no
water penetrates.
betlveen cladding systems best charac-
terized as simple rainscreens and those
considered fully pressure-equalized are
often indistinct. To avoid confusion with
pressure-equalized sptems, simple rain-
screen cladding may also be referred to
as d.rained, and back-uentilatcd cladding
Figure 19.9 illustrates the compo
nents of a commercial rainscreen clad-
ding system, and Figure 6.19, a typical
residential application. In either case.
water that penetrates the outer clad-
ding is captured in the furred space
and readily drained out the bottom
of the wall. Air circulation behind the
cladding further helps to extract mois-
ture from within the furred space.
Masonry cavity walls, used on build-
ings of virtually any size, are another
example of rainscreen cladding that
frequently incorporates at least some
degree of pressure-equalization (Fig-
ure 20.3). As we will see in Chapter 21.
internal drainage systems are an inte-
gral component of every metal-and
glass curtain wall system.
A Pressure-Equalized Wall Design
Figure 19.8 depicts a cladding design
that embodies the rainscreen and
pressure-equalization principles in
simple form. No surface joint sea!
ants or gaskets are used. The metal
rainscreen panels do not touch one
another, but are separated by gener-
ous gaps that preclude capillary mor-e-
ment of wateq provide installation
Frcunn rg.S
The rainscreen in this exemplar
cladding system is made up of metd
panels, each formed from sheet merz|.
The design team included Wallace-
Floyd Associates, Inc., Bechtel
Parsons Brinckerhoff, Stull and I-ee-
Inc., Gannett Fleming,/URS/TA"Ys
Consultants, and tlie Massachuseus
Highway Departrnenl
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802 / Chapter 19 . Designing Exterior Wall Systems

clearances, and allowfor expansion In the correct detail, the weather- gravity from pulling water in. Thc
and contraction. All four edges of strip, whose function is to act as an groove in the lower edge of the sa-si:
each panel are shaped so as to create air barrieq is placed to the inside of that acts as a capillary break also acl.
labyrinthjoints. The forces of surface the lower rail of the sash. The open as a drip to counteract surface ten-
tension and gravity are counteracted joint under the sash rail, which is sion. The L-shapedjoint between the
by sloping surfaces and drips. provided with a capillary break, acts sash and the sill acts as a labyrinth t,-,
Installation is simple and forgiv- as the PEC. Unless the weatherstrip prevent entry by momentum. In the
ing of minor lapses in workmanship: is grossly defective, water cannot be incorrect detail, the weatherstrip car:
Metal U-shaped clips are bolted to the blown through the joint by air pres- be wetted by rain. Any minor flart ir
backup wall, which is coated with an sure differentials. Notice how the the weatherstrip will allow r'vater r,:
airtight mastic to create an air barrier. other forces that could transPort be blown through thejoint.
Rigid insulation panels are adhered to water through the joint are counter- Relatively few buildings rely con:-
the wall, allowing the clips to project acted: A slope on the sill prevents pletely on the rainscreen principit
through. Vertical metal channels are
bolted to the clips. Finally, the metal
panels that make up the rainscreen
are simply hung on horizontal rods
that are supported by the channels,
much as pictures are hung on hooks
on awall. The space betlveen the metal
rainscreen panels and the insulation
acts as an internal drainage space.
To achieve a pressure-equalized
design, horizontal metal angles, not
shown, are installed between the
channels at one- or tlvo-story intervals.
The vertical channels further divide
the PEC into narrow comPartments.
The spaces betlveen the edges of the
panels and the channels are narrow
enough to restrict airflow sufficiently
to achieve a pressurized design. Il-
more complete compartmentaliza-
tion is needed, compressible foam
rods or gaskets can be installed along-
side the channels to create more
airtight boundaries at these loca-
tions. \Arhen wind drives rain against
this wall, small quantities of air flow
through the open joints in the rain-
screen until the pressure in the PEC
equals the pressure outside. These
airflows are insufficient in volume or Frcunn rg.g
velocity to carry water with them. A cutaway mockup of a rainscreen wall system. Beginning from the top right and
moving down and to the left The light-colored, diagonal band is glass-mat-faced
Pres sure Equalization at gypsum sheathing. The narrow dark strip is liquid primer applied to the sheathing. The
Smaller Scale primer improves the adhesion of the self-adhered membrane (the shinier, reflective
The principles of rainscreen design dark surface starting below the primer) which acts as an air barrier' water barrier,
and pressure equalization may and vapor retarder in this assembly. semirigid mineral wool batt insulation is applied
also be applied on a small scale to continuously over the self-adhered membrane. This material is sufficiently dense and
guide us in many aspects of exterior water repellent to maintain its thermal insulation value even in the relatively damp
detailing of buildings. Figure 19.10 rainscreen drainage space. Vertical galvanized steel furring strips are held away from fu
demonstrates how this practice sheathing by fiberglass standoffs that have low thermal conductivity and act as thermal
is embodied in the placement of breaks tretween the furring and the remainder of the wall. Finish cladding may be a
weatherstrip in a window sill detail. cementitious or metal panel with gapped joints' directly fastened to the furring strip*
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804 / Chapter 19 r Designing Exterior Wall Systems
50 to 100 percent. They include vari-
ous polysulfides, which are usually site
mixed from two components to effect
a chemical cure; polyuretlruneg which
may also cure by a t\,!'o-component
reaction or by reacting with moisture
vapor from the air, depending on the
formulation; and silicones, which cure
by reacting with moisture vapor from
the air. None of these sealants shrink
upon curing because none relies on
the evaporation of water or a solvent.
All adhere tenaciously to the sides
of properly prepared joints. All are
highly resilient materials that return
to their original size and shape after
being stretched or compressed, and
all are durable for many years if prop-
erly formulated and installed. Sealants
for the working joints in exterior lvall
systems are selected from among this
group. Polysulfide sealants have the
longest history of r.rse in such appli-
cations. Howeveq improved formula-
tions of polyrrethanes and silicones
now account for 90 percent or more
of the high-range construction sealant
market, with silicones generally con-
sidered the longest lasting and highest
performing of the three.
Gunnablejoint sealants are spec-
ified according to ASTM standard
C920, which defines designations for
sealant Type, Grade, Class, and Use.
Frcunn rg.rr
Applying polysulfide, a high-range
gunnable sealant, to ajoint between
exposed-aggregate precast concrete
curtain wall panels, using a sealant gun.
The operator moves the gun slowly so
that a bulge of sealant is maintained
just ahead of the nozzle. This exerts
enough pressure on the sealant so that
it fully penetrates the joint. Following
application, the operator will return to
smooth and compress the wet sealant
into the joint with a convex tool, much as
a mason tools the mortar joints between
masonry units. (Courtesy of Morton Thiokr,i"
Inc., Morton Chemical Division.)
Typ. S sealants are single-compont:'.
and require no job site mixing. Tr.pt
M sealants are multicomponent ani
must be mixed on the job site befo:r
installation. Multicomponent ser-
ants generally cure faster than sir-rgi.-
component sealants. They also allc,r
a greater variety in color choice. r.
dye packs can be added during rnlr-
ing. Grade P sealants, also calle:
self-leaeling, are plurable. Thel a:t
easily installed in horizontal parin:
joints. For vertical wall joints, Trr<
NS, nonsag sealants must be usei
Class defines the elongation capab:--
ity of a sealant. A Class 25 sealant c::
tolerate 25 percent expansion ar::
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,(ra.L
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teqt suortrrldde Surlees roJ alqetrns
sr lulas 'alqts"eu,a2 'I as3 e lslurof
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'e8esn leurJou Jepun uorlfeJluor

908 / II il rorralxg aql ul s1u1of 8u;1eag

806 / Chapter 19 . Designing Exterior Wall Systems

SealantJoint Design
Figure 19.13 illustrates the principles
ofjoint design for gunnable sealants.
Before the sealant is installed, the
joint surfaces must be cleaned of oil,
dirt, oxide, moisture, concrete form
A. UNTOOIED TOOIED
release compound, or other contami-
nants. \Mhere necessary the edges of
the joint are primed with a suitable
coating to improve adhesion between
the sealant and the joint surfaces.
Next, backer rod or backuP rod is
inserted into the joint. This is a cylin-
drical strip of compressible, flexible
plastic foam that is just a bit larger in
diameter than the width of the joint.
It is pushed into the joint, where it is
held by friction. The backer rod lim-
its the depth to which the sealant will
penetrate. This maintains the opti-
mum proportions of the sealant bead
and avoids waste of sealant material.
It also ensures that only two sides of
the sealant adhere to the joint itself.
As illustrated in Figure 19.14, sealant
adhered on three sides has limited
movement capability. Backer rod is
Sealant is extruded into the joint
from the nozzle ofa sealant gun and
then mechanically tooled, much as
a masonry mortar joint is tooled, to
compress the sealant material firmlr'
against the sides of the joint and the
backer rod. Tooling also produces
a smoother surface and creates the
desired surface profile to the sealanr
The backer rod's role is now finished
but, being inaccessible, it remains in
the joint.
The proper width of the sealant
joint depends on the expected range
of movement in the joint and the
movement capacity of the sealant. For
example, a Class 50 sealant (capable of
50 percent elongation or compression t
installed into a l-inch (25-mm)joint is
capable of accommodating no more
tl:.a;n Yz inch (13 mm) of movemenl

run.v
B. IOTNTTOO
NARROW
available in a large range of diam-
eters to fit everyjoint.
Inpractice, this calculation is made
more complicated by consideration

FrcunE 9.r3
Good and bad examples of sealantjoint
m
,/,W W
ruW
design. (A) This properly proportioned
joint is shown both untooled and tooled. A. NO BOND
The untooled sealant fails to penetrate BREAKER
completely around the backer rod and

W
does not adhere fully to the sides of the
C. SEAI,ANT joint. (B) A narrow joint may cause the
BEADTOO DEEP sealant to elongate beyond its capacity
when the panels on either side contract,
as shown to the right. (Q If the sealant

ruru
bead is too deepr sealant is wasted'
and the four edges of the sealant bead
.are stressed excessively when the joint Frcunn r9.14
enlarges. (D) A correctly proportioned In a three-sided joint' the sealant is lik l.
sealant bead. The backer rod, made of to tear unless a nonadhering plastic bod
D. SEALANT
BEAD a spongy material that does not stick breaker strip is placed in the bottom of
CORRECTLY to the sealant, is inserted into the joint the joint before the sealant is installed-
PROPORTIONED to maintain the desired depth. The
width is calculated so that the expected
elongation will not exceed the safe range
of the sealant, and the depth is between
Vs ands/s inch (3 and 9.5 mrn). (E) A
correctly proportioned lap joint. The
width of the joint (the distance between
E. MPIOTNT the panels) should be twice the depth of
CORRECTLY the sealant bead and twice the expected
PROPORTIONED movement in the joint.

Jo ape.' er reqr'r"^tffl?rll:JT;
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roopur eq1 Suneredas se IIpn se '8ur
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go uoqrod pDue1sqns e pagoddns
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-reqtJo s'tuerlgJeof, q8rq qrrn qeFeleru
uaoMleq lurof e -rog 'aldtuexe rod 'sJol
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ot enp Wplm rurof ur suonerrel Jo
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passetdutoctatg
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nooM SSWWnS
808 / Chapter lg . .Designing Exterior Wall Systems
Burr,ornc Ercr,osunr Essrrrrrr,s : A.R. Bnnnrrn
Air Leakage
Air can move through a building wall, floor/ceiling
assembly, or roof wherever air pressure differences exist
betlveen one side of the assembly and the other and one
or more openings exist for the air to pass through. Air
pressure differences can be created by wind acting on
the external surfaces of a building,by stack elfect (the ten-
dency of tall buildings to act like chimneys, drawing air in
at either the top or bottom and expelling it at the other
end), and by building mechanical equipment such as air
handling systems and exhaust fans (Figure A).
When outside air infiltrates a building through exte-
rior walls and roofs, it increases building energy con-
sumption. A 2005 study by the U.S. National Institute of
Standards and Technology estimated that air infiltration
accounts for as much as 40 percent of a building's heating
and cooling costs. Outside air infiltration also introduces
unfiltered air pollutants and unconditioned air into the
building's interior, where it can degrade indoor air qual-
ity and reduce occupant comfort. Air leakage transports
water vapor into insulated walls and roofs, increasing
the risk of condensation and moisture damage to build-
ing components. When air leaks between spaces within a
building, it can disrupt pressure differentials maintained
by FIVAC systems for the purpose of controlling the spread
of odors or contaminants between separately zoned parts
of a building. For example, unpleasant cooking odors
can be drawn from one apartment building living unit to
another, car exhaust or gas fumes from a parking garage
can infiltrate adjacent occupied areas, dust particles, can
be carried into a laboratory clean room, or bacteria can
be introduced into a hospital operating suite.
Air Barriers
Air barrier materials control air leakage through build-
ing assemblies. Examples of air barrier materials include
building wraps, g)psum wallboard, polyethylene sheet
plastic, rigid foam insulation, liquid-applied membranes
of various formulations, flashings, sealants, gaskets, tapes-
and more. To function as an air barrier, a material mrLst
be resistant to the passage of air; it must have sufficient
strength and rigidity to withstand the air pressure differ-
entials that act upon iq where it spans joints, it must be
sufficiently resilient to accommodate movement without
failure; and it must be durable enough to perform iri
function throughout the life of the building.
The greater a material's resistance to the passage of
air, the lower is its air pnmeance and the better is its per-
formance as an air barrier. Air permeance is measured
according to ASTM 82778 and is expressed as a volume
of air passing through a standard area of material in a
l-minute period, at a prescribed air pressure (cubic feet
of air per minute per square foot of area at 1.57 pounds
per square foot, or 0.3 inch of water, of air pressure, or. in
metric units, as liters per second per square meter of area
at 75 Pascals of air pressure). An air permeance of 1 cfin
sf@1.57 psf is equal to approximately 5 L/s-m2@75 Pt
The most commonly cited standard for air barrier mate'
rials is an air permeance not greater than 0.004 cfu
sf@1.b7 psf or 0.02 L/s-m2@75 Pa (Figure B).
An air barrier material must be able to resist air pr*
sure, acting either inward or outward across ft1e [silding
assembly, without damage or excessive deflection. Fler-
ible sheet materials such as building wraps, plastic sheerr
roofing membranes, and flexible flashings are especialh
Frcunn A
Air pressure differences in a building
can be caused by (a) wind, (b) the stact
effect. such as within an elevator shaft
and (c) building mechanical s''stems.
rualsh J,aLuDq J?il, peldrlJJalururl ur? 8ut1earr.'slelJelu pue
serlquesse JeuJecl JIe Jo suolleulquloJ Aq pepunoJJns
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r? Jo lrlo pue olur a8eleal rre Iorluo) Lla,tlrag;a oa
' (u
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roJ suorlpueuuroJe1 'olqrssod JJAJu sI slueuodruot
uaamlae Surleas snonuEuor 'ssaprug reqr lrgeor aql 8ur
-lleuar 'se^lasuar{l slurreltu Ienpl^lpul JoJ esoqt ueq}
lua8ur:ls ssal aJ uorluulqurol uI pesn sleualur JerJJq
Jre Jo arueu;og;ed eql roJ spJeputs erueaturad rry
stualsds pue seqqruassv rerrrsg Jr-v
'eJnIrJ ro loi4. enpun lnoqlrl{ sruelsds Surpgnq ulqll,rr
Jn)fo leql sluetuo^oru IeJnlfnlls pu" IuJeql IeurJou eql
elepoufiuo]r o1 elq eq osl" lsnru slrJeleul JaIJJeq JrF-
'lrodsue:l rode,t rale.tl Jo {sIJ eqt Sulsee-Iful pu uolll
-rlsur Jo sseue^ItlaJJe aqt Suonpa.r '.(lquasse Surppnq e go
lno pu ur rre drund ueJ lI 'eJnssard rre alrle8au pu eAIl
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lJlur surerual IIJelur JeIJJq JI u? g1 :oden JJIeM Jo
uorsnJ;rp aqt SuESIser ,ro Suiplnq eqt Jo lno :ate,tt prnbrl
Surdaal se qfns 'suorlfury luelrodrur leqlo uJoJJad ol
slrJel"u Jo aJnlIBJ eql ol pol osl uef seJnssJJd .rre Lq
pesrrl a8eureq 'sJelJreq lle s aAIlJeJJeuI aurofeq pu
asool 11r-rd ro 'rlflaJls lel uf slelJelru aseql 'peuel
-seg l.larenbape ro pauoddns dpedo,rd tou JI 'alqrauln{

'slelJaleur JarJJuq Jre JoJ af,uuerurad 4u pepueruuoJaJ

Surpaaoxa slurlaluru aleJrpur s/[oJ papuqs 'slur;eleru Surplpq uoturuoJ go acueau'rad rrv
g suncr{

48 LT pa^Erds'uor][nsut Jsolnllr3
ta T'L uorlelnsur 1lq Jrqg ssE[9
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g48r'0 LEO'O 0e#'11{ SugooX
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I600'0 400'0 Surqrzaqs -rolrelxg
(r"- A t) % 'preoqlle,tt unsd{g
'ur
(ruru 94) 'uI g 'uonlnsur
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9g0'0 400'0 aper8 lerruaprsaa

900'0 I00'0 aper8 lznrauruo3
der.u Surppnq uga1o.{1od patero;:aduop
euJqursur JJIrq JI
200'0> trO00'0> alqzarurad rode,r'parldd-pFl.{
(urrr 89) 'ur %I 'uollr?lnsur rupoJ
I00'0 u 000'0 aueqtan{1od,(u:ds dlrsuep-q8rq fuilarrdo.r4
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U- 0- (urur 920'0) uIlI I 'lloJ urnurunlv
0- 0.' (urur g1'g) Irur g 'traqs aue1.{qta{1o4
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oJrrearurad Jrv

608 / sllu,.1\ urlrnD pue sIIuAt tuuuaqpeol

810 / Chapter 19 . Designing Exterior Wall Systems

Burr,orwc Elcr,osunu Essnrrrnr,s: AIR Bnnnrrn (Cownwam)

capable of resisting air pressure differentials acting any-
where across the heated and cooled boundary of the
building. Careful attention to design details and quality of
construction is required to create such complete systems
of enclosure. All potential discontinuities-gaps between
panels, laps in sheet materials, transitions befiveen dissim-
ilar substrates, fastener penetrations, movement joints,
penetrations for structure or services, installation space
around window and doors frames, junctions bet\'veen
foundation, wall, and roof assemblies, gaps between oper-
atrle doors and windows and their frames, and so on-
must'be made airtight by the use of tapes, sealants, caulks,
flashings, gaskets, and other materials that can themselves
meet air leakage performance requirements. The Inter-
national Energy Conservation Code and the Canadian
National Building Code both include standards for air
leakage through such whole building air barrier systems'
Air Barrier Location
Air barrier materials can be located an1'r'vhere in an assem-
bly as long as they form an interconnected, continuous
system. At the inside surface of the building enclosure,
the airtight drywall approach and simple caulk and seal
are air barrier systems consisting of glpsum wallboard
combined with caulks, sealants, and gaskets to seal leak-
age paths around wallboard penetrations and between
underlying framing members (see Chapter 7). These sr-r
tems are relatively easy and inexpensive to install, making
them especially popular for residential construction' Thes
are less favored for commercial building rypes where fre-
quent changes to interior partitions, finishes, and wiring
make it unlikely that the continuity of a system depending
on the careful detailing of these elements will be mair
tained over the life of the building.
Plastic sheeting, which is frequently used as a vaPor
retarder behind g)?sum wallboard, also has low air per-
meance and can act as an air barrier. However, difficults
in sealing plastic sheet seams and penetrations, as well a-'
a tendency for the plastic to stretch and deflect bett-een
supporting framing, limit this material's suitability in air
barrier systems, especially for taller buildings or whererer
else high air pressure differentials are expected.
Toward the middle of a building enclosure assembh-
foam insulation can be sprayed into the space bet$'een
studs,joists, and rafters, acting as part of an air barrier in
combination with caulks or sealants to seal leakage patb*
around framing members.
' Toward the outside of the building enclosure, air
barrier materials are installed over sheathing in framed

Architectural Manufacturers Asso- water leakage are noted, and leakiog

Curtain Wall Testing and
Standards
Smtcntral Performance and
R.esistance to Wind cat'd Rnin
For any new curtain wall design, it
is advisable to build and test a full-
scale section of wall to determine its
resistance to infiltration of air and
water and its structural performance
under heavy wind loads. There are
several outdoor laboratories in North
America that are equiPPed to con-
duct these tests. A full-scale specimen
of the wall system, often two stories
high and a bay wide, is constructed
asthe exterior wall of a chamber that
can be pressurized or evacuated by a
calibrated blower system.
Curtain wall testing is con-
ducted according to the American
ciation standard AAMA 501 Methods
o.f Tbsts for Exterior Wal/s, which itself
references numerous other standards
for specific aspects of the testing. The
specimen is tested first for air infiltra-
tion, using ASTM E283, in which it is
subjected to a static air pressure that
corresponds to the pressure that will
be created by the anticipated maxi-
mum wind velocity in the vicinity of
the building. Air that leaks through
the wall is carefully measured, and the
rate of leakage is compared to speci-
fied standards.
A static test for water penetration
is next, using ASTM E331: The wall is
subjected to a static air pressure while
being wetted uniformly across its sur-
face ata rate ofb gallons per hour per
square foot (3.4 L/m2-min). Points of
water is carefully collected and mee-
sured. A dynamic water Penetradm
test may also be Performed in acca-
dance with AAMA 501.1, using ar
aircraft engine and propeller to drire
water against the wall.
The structural Performance cf
ASTI
the wall is tested according to
E330, in which a calibrated blors
subjects the wall specimen to air pr*
sures and suctions as high as 50 P<r
cent over the specified wind lod-
and the deflections of the structurl
members in the wall are measured-
Optionally, tests for thermal perfcr
mance, sound transmission, and th
effects of thermal cYcling, sei-sni
loads, and movement of the strucrrr
to which the curtain wall is attacbcl
mav also be performed.
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812 / Chapter 19 . Designing Exterior Wall Systems
tested to the same standards described
in Chapter 18 for doors and windows.
Trrn ExrnnroR WALL
AND THE BUTT,OTNC
Conns
The major impact of building codes
on the design of the exterior wall is
in the areas of structural strength,
fire resistance, and energy efficiency.
Strength requirements relate to the
strength and stiffness of the wall sys-
tem itself and to the adequacy of its
attachments to the building frame,
with special reference to wind and
seismic loadings.
Fire requirements are concerned
with the combustibility of the wall
materials, the fire resistance ratings
and vertical dimensions of parapets
and spandrels, the fire resistance
ratings of exterior walls facing other
buildings that are near enough to
raise questions of fire sPread from
one building to the other, and the
closing-off (firestopping) of any verti-
cal passages in the wall that are more
than one story in height. At each
floor, the space inside column covers
and the space between the exterior
wall system and the edges of floors
must be firestopped, using mineral
wool safing or other material that can
restrict the passage of smoke and fire
through these gaps (Figures 19.16
:,:,. ,:,.
_.:t::.,.
and 20.16). See Chapter 1 for more
about fire resistance rating require-
ments for building exterior walls.
As energy conservation codes.
sustainability programs, and high-
performance building standardi
continue to become increasinglr
stringent in their limits on build-
ing energy consumption, exterior
wall designs continue to evolve ani
improve to keep step with thesc
demands. Improvements in air bar-
rier and insulation materials, more
attention to the proper detailing o:
these components, improved glazin:
materials, and enhanced window ani
curtain wall framing all contribute t,-'
buildings that are more energY eF
cient. comfortable, and durable.
Frcunn rg.16
Safing is a high-temperature, fire-
resistant mineral batt material that is
inserted between a curtain wall panel
and the edge of the floor slab to blocl
the passage of fire from one floor to rh
next. It is seen here behind a metal-and
glass curtain wall with insulated spandrd
panels. The safing is held in place bY
metal clips such as the one seen in the
foreground. (Photo courtesy ofUnited S;;'
Cjpsum Companl.)
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I8 / surral^ex
814 / Chapter 19 . Designing Exterior Wall Systems
Rsvrrw Qunsrrows
1. \A/try is it so difficult to make cladding
watertight?
2. List the functions that cladding per-
forms and list one or two ways in which
each of these functions is qpically satis-
fied in a cladding design.
Exrncrsts
1. Examine the cladding of a build-
ing with which you are familiar. Look
especially for features that have to do
with insulation,
condensation, drain-
age, and movement. Sketch a detail of
how this cladding is installed and how it
works. You will probably have to guess at
some of the hidden features, but try to
produce a complete, plausible detail. Add
3. Using a series of simple sketches,
explain the principles of sealant joint
design. List several sealant materials suit-
able for use in the joints that you have
shown.
explanatory notes to make everything
clear.
2.Work out a way to add a rainscreen win-
dow with fixed double glazing to the clad-
ding system shown in Figure 19.8.
3. Prepare a sample sealant joint, using
a backer rod and silicone sealant ob-
tained from a hardware store or building
4. What are the forces that can more
water through a joint in an exterior
wall? How can each of these forces be
neutralized?
materials supplier. Apply the sealant rs
nvo parallel pieces of quarry tile or glass
that are taped together with a spacer be
tween them. After the sealant has had
time to cure (a week or so), remol'e thc
tape and spacer and test the joint by prrll
ing and twisting it to find out how elasrit
it is and how well the sealant has adhereC
to the substrate.
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