20 R U N N I N G W AT E R S

Box 1.4 Hydraulic geometry

100
Systematic variations in the physical proper- In-stream habitats
predictable and variable

Stream width
ties of the channel and ow through the
10
river system can be described using a set of Running water actively forms the physi-

(m)
equations, known as the hydraulic geometry 1
cal habitats within streams. We have
relationships [3]. already shown how substratum com-
0.1 position varies through the river system
w = aQb d = cQf U = kQm 0.1 1 10 100 from source to sea. Now we take a closer
w = aAb d = cAf U = kAm look at the variations at a ner scale,
100
within a given stretch of stream.
Where: w is the bankfull width, d is the bankfull In all lowland stream types, from

Stream depth
10
depth and U is the mean current velocity at straight to meandering, the stream

(m)
bankfull discharge, Q is the bankfull discharge, 1
habitats alternate between sections
A is catchment area, a, c, k are constants and of high and low current velocity. In
b, f, m are exponents. Note that for any given 0.1 areas of high current velocity, coarse
relationship b + f + m = 1 and a c k = 1. 0.1 1 10 100 sediment dominates, whereas ne
sediment dominates in areas of low
100
Mean current velocity

The relationships are indicated as log-log plots current velocity. The longitudinal
of the dependent variable width, depth or distance between successive areas of
10
mean current velocity as a function of the dis- high current velocity is approximately
(m/s)

charge (or catchment area). The constants and 1

exponents reect properties of the catchment
from where the stream water is drained. Differ- 0.1
ent river systems in different parts of the world 0.1
will thus have different constants and expo- Bankfull discharge (m3/s)
nents reecting differences in climate, geology
and geomorphology.
Exponents Reference
b f
Upland river (Appalachians, USA) 0.55 0.36
Great-plains river (Mid-western USA) 0.50 0.40
Lowland river Denmark (River Skjern) 0.48 0.44
streams in the moraine landscape, as schemes. The hydraulic basis for the
the catchment area increases. Further- functioning of different river ecosys-
more, moraine streams are generally tems can be compared, using constants
wider for any given catchment area and coefcients from hydraulic geome-
(Figure 1.6). These generalities persist try relationships. These provide a valu-
up to a certain catchment size, after able tool for assessing the variations
which the relationships between catch- in overall physical habitat conditions
ment area and depth and width are at the river system or catchment scale.
shifted. However, if we want to know anything
Such general relationships can be about the actual habitat conditions
used to design channels with natural within the stream we have to look at
dimensions in Danish river restoration ner scales (Box 1.5).
57 times the width of the stream.
The ultimate development of this
habitat variation is the rife and pool
1 10 100 sequence, which is a dominant feature
of all meandering streams (Box 1.5)
Rifes and pools are distinctly dif-
ferent habitats with respect to substra-
tum, depth and current velocity (Figure
m
1.7). These fundamental physical
differences are also reected in the
0.09 [9]
species composition and abundance of
0.10 [3]
macroinvertebrate communities in the
0.08 [10]
two habitats [12].
At an even ner scale, there are sig-
nicant variations in substratum, depth
and current velocity within the distinct
habitats and the varied nature of
small-scale habitat features underlines
the heterogeneous nature of lowland
stream (Box 1.6). However, local habitat
structure within any stream reach still
depends in part on large-scale condi-
tions such as ow regime, and local
conditions such as river valley slope,
meandering and riparian vegetation
structure. Variations in these control-
ling factors potentially inuence the
 1 Lowland river systems processes, form and function 21

Box 1.5 Channel morphology

Pool Riffle Current velocity, depth and streambed channels in the upper parts of the
100
substratum vary in a predictable river systems have sinuosities between
Substratum coverage

80 manner in natural stream channels. 1.05 and 1.5 and naturally meander-
60 The distance between two neighbour- ing channels have sinuosities higher
(%)

ing rifes in a meandering channel is than 1.5. The sinuosity of the streams
40
57 times the channel width. Straight in Denmark has been used to quantify
20 channels exhibit identical alternating the total length of natural channels
0 patterns. in all river systems [11]. The total
Coarse gravel The channel sinuosity is dened estimated length of channels in Den-
Fine gravel as the length between two points mark was found to be approximately
Sand along the deepest part of the channel 2,000 km. Almost half of these natural
(known as the thalweg) divided by the streams are found in the western and
100
distance along a straight line between southern part of Denmark.
80 the points. Natural straight or sinuous
Percentage

60
(%)

40

20

0 Mud
Meander length

020 2040 4060 >60 Pool

Deposition Deposition
Water depth (cm)
Gravel Gravel
Riffle
100

Meander length
Gravel+sand
80
Sand/gravel Width
Percentage

60 Depth
(%)

Erosion Erosion Gravel

40
Sidebar
20
Mud
0
020 2040 4060 >60

Current velocity (cm/s)

Pool Riffle

Figure 1.7 Substratum, depth and current

velocity of rifes and pools in a lowland
stream in Denmark. Pools are deeper areas
in the streams with low current velocity and
ne substratum. In contrast rifes are the
fast velocity and shallow areas dominated
by gravel substratum.
habitat structure between any rife in a
stream and cause signicant differences
in the micro-habitat structure both
within and among rifes. These small-
scale differences in habitats clearly
affect the composition and abundance
of the local biotic communities [13].
At rst glance lowland streams are
physically homogenous with consist-
ent and predictable variations in their
physical features from source to sea.
Local hydrological, geological and
landscape conditions inuence the gen-
eral pattern of channel sinuosity. At the
channel reach-scale, rifes and pools
alternate, creating different environ-
ments. Within these distinct habitats
there is considerable ne-scale vari-
ability in habitat conditions. And yet
despite this small-scale heterogeneity,
we are capable of predicting general
patterns in habitat structure and biotic
communities throughout the river
system from source to sea.
22 R U N N I N G W AT E R S

Box 1.6 Small-scale variability in rifes

Variations in substratum, depth and environment that characterises in- Human impacts on Danish rivers,
current velocity in rifes are con- stream habitats in streams around oodplains and valleys
siderable in lowland streams when the world. Large-scale characteristics River valleys and streams cut through
surveyed in detail, as here from the of the individual habitats (rife/pool) the countryside as corridors connect-
Tange Stream, Denmark. Small-scale usually hide considerable variations at ing the land and sea by supplying a
variations are part of the dynamic smaller scales. green vein for transport of water, sedi-
ment, nutrients, plants and animals.
Streams, river valleys and oodplains
Upstream riffle have been extensively exploited since
Depth (cm) Velocity (cm/s) Substratum
Stone +
the rst humans inhabited Denmark
45 70 coarse gravel
40 60 after the last Ice Age. In the beginning,
35 50 Fine gravel
30 river valleys acted as ideal places for
40
25 Sand
30 settlements because of the possibility of
20 20
15 10 combining shing and hunting. Later,
10 0
5 streams and rivers became valuable
0
sources of energy for water mills. Dams
that were constructed on many water-
courses now obstruct the free ow
of water from source to sea. Larger
streams and rivers were important
means of transport, e.g. barge trans-
port from Silkeborg to Randers on the
River Guden during the 18th and 19th
century, and are still widely used for
Downstream riffle recreational canoeing today. Fish farms
Depth Velocity Substratum were established in many river valleys
during the 20th century and they used
the stream as a source of water for
breeding and rearing trout.
However agriculture has caused the
most radical changes to the rivers and
oodplains. For centuries oodplains
1m were used for cattle and horse graz-
1m ing and also for haymaking, used for
winter fodder. Over the past 100 years

Streams are highly variable over small

scales.
 1 Lowland river systems processes, form and function 23

Box 1.7 Habitats in channelised and restored reaches

agricultural practices have intensied,
primarily due to increased crop produc-
tion. This has resulted in drainage and
construction of ditches in river valleys
and the straightening and channelisa-
tion of many streams, to increase drain-
age efciency. Advanced technology
increased the development of drainage
schemes, in particular by means of tile
drainage throughout eastern parts of
Denmark. Many small streams in the
upper river systems were culverted
in order to ease the use of agricultural
machinery. Physical changes to the
river valleys have altered hydrological
conditions and affected both vegetation
and animals. As a consequence of the
drainage schemes carried out during
the last century, Denmark has now
almost no pristine streams and river
In channelised rivers and streams uni- spawning grounds have been lost.
form cross sections with steep banks The combination of these actions has
have replaced the natural irregular reduced the available habitats for
cross sections. The uniform physical macroinvertebrates and sh.
conditions have reduced in-stream
habitat diversity in many Danish The habitats are more varied in a
streams. The dredging activities have restored reach of the Gels Stream
removed coarse substratum (gravel compared to an upstream channelised
and stones) from the stream and sh reach [14].
Channelised Restored
reach reach
6.34 m 6.00 m
0m
0m
5m
5m
10 m
10 m

valleys. Channelisation and straighten- 15 m

ing have physically modied more than 15 m

90% of the stream network of 64,000 km 20 m

(Box 1.7). 20 m

The extensive oodplain drainage 25 m

has caused signicant subsidence of Flow direction 25 m

river valleys soils. This phenomenon 30 m 30 m

is caused by decomposition of the
peat layers when exposed to atmos-
pheric oxygen. Subsidence levels of
0.5 m are very common in many river
valleys and levels of up to 1 m have
been measured in the lower part of the
River Skjern system, even though this
area was drained as late as the 1960s
[15]. As a consequence of the subsid-
ence, the beds of ditches and streams
have had to be further lowered and tile
drainage has been renewed.
Large-scale channelisation and
straightening of streams has increased
sediment erosion and mobilisation.
In order to maintain drainage capac-
ity in channelised streams, excess
sediment had to be removed from
the streambed, causing continuous
Habitats
35 m
40 m
Flow
direction
disturbance to stream conditions. This
maintenance is currently still required
in many streams. The recurring need
for removal of sediment from the
streambed has profound consequences
for stream ora and fauna. Streams
have gradually become wider and
deeper than they would have been
under natural conditions. At the same
40 m 35 m
Riffle
Pool
Run with sandy substratum
Run with gravel substratum
Edge
Measurements
time straightening of the streams has
reduced the stream length, which leads
to an increase in stream bed slope. In
order to compensate for the increased
slope weirs were constructed in the
streams, whereby most of the energy
was concentrated in a few large weirs.
These weirs have acted as obstructions
to the free movement of animals and