Partial Fractions

Rational Functions
Definition A function of the type P/Q, where both P and Q
are polynomials, is a rational function.

Example x3 1
is a rational function.
x x 1
2

The degree of the denominator of the above rational function is less than the
degree of the numerator. First we need to rewrite the above rational
function in a simpler form by performing polynomial division.

Rewriting x3 1 2
x 1
x2 x 1 x2 x 1
For integration, it is always necessary to perform polynomial division first, if
possible. To integrate the polynomial part is easy, and one can reduce the
problem of integrating a general rational function to a problem of integrating a
rational function whose denominator has degree greater than that of the
numerator (is called proper rational function). Thus, polynomial division is the
first step when integrating rational functions.
 Partial Fraction Decomposition
The second step is to factor the denominator Q(x) as far as
possible. It can be shown that any polynomial Q can be factored as
a product of linear factors (of the form ax+b) and irreducible
quadratic factors (of the form ax2+bx+c, where b2-4ac<0). For
instance, if Q(x)=x4-16 then Q(x) = (x2-4)(x2+4)=(x-2)(x+2)(x2+4)

The third step is to express the proper rational function as a sum of

partial fractions of the form
A / (ax+b)i or (Ax+b) / (ax2+bx+c)j
3x 2 3x 2 1 1 2x
Example:
x 3 x 2 x 1 1 x 1 x 2 1 x 2

The fourth step is to integrate the partial fractions.

 Integration Algorithm
Integration of a rational function f = P/Q, where P and Q
are polynomials can be performed as follows.
1. If deg(Q) deg(P), perform polynomial division and write
P/Q = S + R/Q, where S and R are polynomials with
deg(R) < deg(Q).
Integrate the polynomial S.
2. Factorize the polynomial Q.
3. Perform Partial Fraction Decomposition of R/Q.
4. Integrate the Partial Fraction Decomposition.
 Different cases of Partial Fraction
Decomposition
The partial fraction decomposition of a rational function R=P/Q,
with deg(P) < deg(Q), depends on the factors of the denominator Q.
It may have following types of factors:

1. Simple, non-repeated linear factors ax + b.

2. Repeated linear factors of the form (ax + b)k, k > 1.
3. Simple, non-repeated quadratic factors of the type ax2 + bx + c.
Since we assume that these factors cannot anymore be factorized,
we have b2 4 ac < 0.
4. Repeated quadratic factors (ax2 + bx + c)k, k>1. Also in this case
we have b2 4 ac < 0.

We will consider each of these four cases separately.

 Simple Linear Factors
Case I

Consider a rational function of the type

Px Px

Qx a1x b1 a2 x b2 an x bn
bi b j
where a j 0 for all j , for i j , and deg P n deg Q .
ai a j

Partial Fraction Decomposition: Case I

Px A1 A2 An

a1x b1 a2 x b2 an x bn a1x b1 a2 x b2 an x bn
for some uniquely defined numbers Ak , k 1, , n.
 Simple Linear Factors
2 2
Example Consider the rational function .
x 1 x 1 x 1
2

By the result concerning Case I we can find numbers A and B such that
2 2 A B
. To get the
x 1 x 1 x 1 x 1 x 1
2
equations for A
and B we use
the fact that two
Compute these numbers in the following way
polynomials are
2 A B 2 A( x 1) B( x 1)
2 the same if and
x 1 x 1 x 1
2
x 1 ( x 1)( x 1) ( x 1)( x 1) only if their
A B 0 coefficients are
0 x 2 ( A B )x ( A B ) A 1
2 . the same.
x 1 x 1
2
A B 2 B 1
2 1 1
So the partial fraction decomposition is .
x 1 x 1 x 1
2
 Simple Quadratic Factors
Case II
Px
Consider a rational function of the type , deg P deg Q .
Q x
Assume that the denominator Q x has a quadratic factor ax 2 bx c.

Partial Fraction Decomposition: Case II

The quadratic factor ax 2 bx c of the denominator leads to a term

Ax B
of the type in the partial fraction decomposition.
ax 2 bx c
 Simple Quadratic Factors
3 3
Example The rational function has a term of
x 3 1 ( x 1)( x 2 x 1)
Ax B
the type in its partial fraction decomposition.
x2 x 1

3 Ax B C 3 ( Ax B )( x 1) C( x 2 x 1)
3
x3 1 x2 x 1 x 1 x 1 ( x 1)( x 2 x 1) ( x 2 x 1)( x 1)
A C 0 A 1

3 ( A C )x 2 (C B A)x C B C B A 0 B 2.

x 1
3
x3 1 C B 3 C 1

Hence To get these equations use the fact
3 1 x2 that the coefficients of the two

x3 1 x 1 x 2 x 1 numerators must be the same.
 Repeated Linear Factors
Case III
Px
Consider a rational function of the type , deg P deg Q .
Qx
Assume that the denominator Q x has a repeated linear factor ax b
k
, k 1.

Partial Fraction Decomposition: Case III

ax b
k
The repeated linear factor of the denominator leads to terms
A1 A2 Ak
of the type in the partial fraction
ax b ax b 2
ax b
k

decomposition.
 Repeated Linear Factors
4x 2 4x 4 4x 2 4x 4
Example The rational function 3 has
x x x 1 x 1 x 1
2 2

A B C
a partial fraction decomposition of the type .
x 1 x 12 x 1
4x 2 4x 4 A B C
Equate the
x3 x2 x 1 x 1 x 12 x 1 coefficients of the
A x 1 x 1 B x 1 C x 1 numerators.
2
4x 2 4x 4
3
x 1 x 1 x x2 x 1
2

A C 4

A C x 2 B 2C x A B C

4x 2 4x 4
B 2C 4
x 1 x 1 x x x 1
2 3 2
A B C 4

A 3

B 2 4x 2 4x 4 3 2 1
C 1 We get 3 .
x x2 x 1 x 1 x 12 x 1
Repeated Quadratic Factors
Case IV
Px
Consider a rational function of the type , deg P deg Q .
Qx
Assume that the denominator Q x has a repeated quadratic factor

ax
k
2
bx c , k 1.

Partial Fraction Decomposition: Case IV

k
The repeated quadratic factor ax 2 bx c of the denominator leads
A1x B1 A2 x B2 Ak x Bk
to terms of the type
ax 2 bx c ax
2 k
ax 2 bx c 2
bx c
in the partial fraction decomposition.
 Repeated Quadratic Factors
2x 4 3 x 2 x 2x 4 3 x 2 x
Example has a partial
x x 2x 2x x 1 x 1 x 1
5 4 3 2 2
2

A1x B1 A2 x B2 C
fraction decomposition of the type .
x 1
x 1
2 2
x 1
2

A1x B1 A2 x B2 C

x 1 x 1
2 2
x 1
2

A1x B1 x 2 1 x 1 A2 x B2 x 1 C x 2 1
2

x 1 x
2
2
1

Computing in the same way as before one gets A1 B1 A2 C 1,

2x 4 3 x 2 x x 1 x 1
and B2 0. Hence 5 .
x x 2x 2x x 1 x 1 x 1 x 1
4 3 2 2 2
2
Integrating Partial Fraction Decompositions
After a general partial fraction decomposition one has to deal
with integrals of the following types. There are four cases.
Two first cases are easy.
A A
1. dx ln ax b K Here K is the constant of
ax b a
integration.
A ax b
1 l
A
2. ax b l
dx
a 1 l
K , l 1.

In the remaining cases we have to compute integrals of the type:

Ax B Ax B
3. 2 dx and 4. dx, l 1
ax
l
ax bx c 2
bx c

We will discuss the integration of these cases based on

examples. Normally, after some transformations they result
in integrals which are either logarithms or tan-1.
 Examples
3
Example 1 Compute x 3 1dx.

Observe x 3 1 ( x 1)( x 2 x 1). Hence

3 A Bx C
for some numbers A, B and C.
x3 1 x 1 x2 x 1
To compute these numbers A, B and C we get
3 A( x 2 x 1) (Bx C )( x 1)

x 3 1 ( x 1)( x 2 x 1) ( x 2 x 1)( x 1)
AB 0 A 1
3 ( A B )x ( A B C )x A C
2

A B C 0 B 1.
x3 1 x3 1 A C 3 C 2

Hence
3 1 x2

x3 1 x 1 x 2 x 1
 Examples
3
Example 1 (contd) x 3 1dx.
Compute

By the previous computations we now have

3 1 x2
x3 1 x 1 x 2 x 1dx
dx dx
Substitute u=x2+x+1
in the first remaining
1 2x 1 3 1
2 x2 x 1 2 x2 x 1
ln x 1 dx dx integral and rewrite
the last integral.
1
3
ln x 1 ln x x 1
2
2
1
2 x 1/ 2 3 / 4
2
dx

2x 1
ln x 1
1

ln x 2 x 1 3 arctan K
2 3

This expression is the required substitution to finish the computation.

 Examples
x3 x 2
Example 2 Compute dx.
x 1
2

We can simplify the function to be integrated by performing polynomial

division first. This needs to be done whenever possible. We get:
x3 x 2 2
x
x2 1 x2 1
Partial fraction decomposition for the remaining rational expression leads to
x3 x 2 2 1 1
x x
x2 1 x2 1 x 1 x 1
Now we can integrate
x 3 1 2 1 1
x2 1 dx x 1 x 1 dx
x

x2 x2 x 1
ln | x 1| ln | x 1| K ln K.
2 2 x 1