EXAM 4 STUDY GUIDE

Fall 2017

Exam 4 will test your knowledge of content associated with consciousness, sleep, and
neurologic disorders. (please see your course calendar for associated topics and required
reading)
You are responsible for course material from the primary course textbook, any
supplemental reading noted in your course calendar, and lectures. The emphasis of Exam
4 will be placed upon the points outlined within this guide.
Your exam will consist of a blend of question formats (i.e. matching, fill-in-the-blank,
multiple choice, and short answer). Potential essay questions can be found on the last
page of this study guide.
Just a hint: study difficult and/or complex material first. Students sometimes have a
tendency to waste time studying concepts they are already familiar with. Dont fall into
this trap. Good luck!

I. Cognition & Consciousness: The Nature of Consciousness

1. Admittedly, consciousness is hard to define. Generally speaking though, what does
consciousness refer to (what is a definition discussed)?
2. What is dualism vs. monism (briefly)?
3. Identify structures, or functions that were proposed/discussed that are associated with
consciousness (as in the slides). Note the structures, and criteria such as attention.
4. How long does it take for one to become conscious of a stimulus?
5. The cortex plays a large/central (but not exclusive) role in consciousness, thus some
details are good to know regarding cortex cytoarchitecture
a. know that there are approximately 21 billion neurons and approximately 150
trillion chemical synapses in the human cortex
b. know that there are some neuronal connections that are not chemical synapses,
but are physical connections, called gap junctions, that are formed by
transmembrane proteins called connexins. Neurons that have these connections
can pass an action potential along from one to another, via a continuous
cytoplasm and plasma membrane. An action potential could potentially travel
both directions, ie from neuron 1 to neuron 2, or from neuron 2 to neuron 1.
c. know that there are more than 100 neurotransmitters, and that it is often the case
throughout the cortex that a particular region will use more than one
neurotransmitter
d. know that there are 6 layers of cells in some, but not all, regions of the cortex,
with layer I as the most superficial
e. know that some of the cortex is arranged in functional columns that extend
vertically throughout the layers (eg. primary visual cortex)
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Fall 2017

6. The soft or easy problem regarding consciousness is what are the neural correlates,
ie. what structures or patterns of neural activity are associated with consciousness. The
hard problem is how the neurons and activity patterns give rise to subjective
experience. We settle for exploring a bit of what is known regarding the soft problem.
If you do figure out the hard problem on your own- be sure to send me a note .
Regarding the easy problem, a basic description of brain regions required for
consciousness given is fairly simplistic, admittedly so- but includes:
a. a wakeful state, maintained by an ascending arousal system that originates in
the brainstem (some brainstem regions involved are part of a system called the
reticular activating system, so this system can also can be called the ascending
reticular activating system, or ARAS)
b. Attention- attention that can be directed to external world, or internal. This is
selection of specific information for further processing, and includes in part the
anterior cingulate cortex (ACC)
c. The thalamus- the parts of the thalamus that receive signals from one part of the
cortex and relay the signal to another part
d. All major cortical lobes, with some examples of functions contributed by each
discussed, and in slides. Note that the cortical regions involved in awareness do
NOT seem to involve the primary sensory regions (eg. primary visual cortex,
auditory, somatosensory, gustatory), but more the association areas in between.
An interesting question to ponder just for fun is well then what about cases
where one of the lobes on one or both sides is damaged, is consciousness still
present? The answer to this one seems to be yes, but if you press this further- is
there a range of consciousness based on amount of cortex that is intact? And if so,
at what point is consciousness lost, if you were able to erode the activity, one
neuron at a time?
7. Theories regarding neural correlates of consciousness
a. synchronized oscillation of activity- a low-frequency synchronized firing of
cortical neurons, somewhere around 40 Hz (proposed by Francis Crick and
Christof Koch)
b. subcortical region called the claustrum and the source of consciousness (also
proposed by Francis Crick and Christof Koch). The claustrum receives axons
from widespread cortical regions, and sends axons back out throughout the cortex.
Its function is currently unknown.
c. consciousness is enabled by a network of neurons assembled that have traits
similar to a hologram- that is that the whole of the experience is represented by
each neuron in the circuit (or a small portion of a circuit). If you take away one
part of it, the entire conscious experience is maintained by the other remaining
neurons, just as happens when a portion of a hologram is removed. If you cut off a
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Fall 2017

corner of a hologram the entire image is still reproduced (proposed by Karl

Pribram)
d. Consciousness is a fairly recent trait in humans, and most of human experience,
and possibly some of current human experience was/is wholly unconscious.
Consciousness was recently developed in the context of structure imposed by
culture and the development of language. (proposed by Julian Jaynes)
e. Consciousness is learned- it is merely the brains theory about a source of the
activity; an identity for the agency that seems to be present (a single initiator);
consciousness is the brains theory about itself

II. Cognition & Consciousness: Sleep & Dreams

1. know the definition of sleep- an unconscious state from which a person can be aroused by
sensory or other stimuli
2. There is a circuit of structures associated with the awake/alert state, and a distinct circuit
of structures associated with the state of sleep.
a. the ascending arousal system is a circuit that involves many regions within
brainstem, hypothalamus, midbrain, and the base of the forebrain, that are
interconnected and use multiple neurotransmitters. Some of these regions are
active during REM sleep. One particular region and one particular
neurotransmitter to know is the lateral hypothalamic nucleus. This region uses a
small protein called hypocretin as its neurotransmitter. Note that this is related
to some forms of narcolepsy, as mentioned below
b. An opposing system inhibits the ascending arousal system. One region to know is
a different part of the hypothalamus called ventrolateral preoptic nucleus or
VLPO. The VLPO inhibits the ascending arousal system, primarily using GABA
as a neurotransmitter.
3. Know what EEG is, and the EEG patterns associate with awake states (awake relaxed and
awake alert), and EEG patterns associate with different stages of sleep (as in the sleep
slides 6-10)-
a. Awake, alert states
b. Awake, relaxed states
c. NREM Stage 1
d. NREM Stage 2
e. NREM Stages 3 & 4
f. REM Sleep
4. Know a proposed benefit of REM (rapid eye movement) sleep is possible memory
consolidation
5. Know the specific region within the hypothalamus called the suprachiasmatic nucleus
(SCN) receives input from the retina, and maintains a daily rhythm of awake and sleep
states, that roughly coincides with environmental light/dark cycles.
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6. Know some proposed benefits of sleep, as in slide #13. This includes understanding that
adenosine seems to build up within the brain as a result of metabolic activity, and can be
reduced during sleep. Adenosine can also directly induce sleep, acting by stimulating the
VLPO (see II 2 b, above)
7. Understand basic explanation of narcolepsy and insomnia, as discussed, and as in slide
#17
8. What are the symptoms of the following Sleep Disorders:
a. Insomnia
b. Narcolepsy
i. recall one type of narcolepsy is associated with genetic defects that impair
hypocretin function (reduced hypocretin or mutated hypocretin receptors),
which impairs the function of the ascending arousal system (as discussed
above)

III. Neurological Disorders

1. Alzheimers Disease, AD (in neurologic disorders 1 slides)
a. Know symptoms as on slide 5
b. Know the histologic abnormalities associated with AD
a. neuronal loss (widespread, throughout cortex and hippocampus)
b. neurofibrillary tangles within neurons (that contain a microtubule
protein called tau)
c. accumulation of a small protein called beta amyloid (primarily a
form that is 42 amino acids long), both within neurons and outside
of neurons. The excess beta amyloid forms long fiber-like chains
that eventually form the majority of large protein aggregates
(clumps) identified as plaques
d. loss of synapses
e. impaired LTP (and impaired hippocampal function)
f. genetic mutations associated with 2% of cases. The genetic causes
are diverse, and ultimately result in an accumulation of the beta
amyloid
2. Multiple sclerosis
a. Know symptoms and diagnosis as discussed and as in slides 19-21
b. understand structure of myelin- many layers of lipid membrane, held
together by proteins
c. know the type of glial cell that makes myelin sheaths in the CNS

Disorders below in slide file on Canvas neurologic disorders 2

3. schizophrenia
a. know definitions of psychotic, catatonia, delusions, hallucinations (slide
12)
b. know that the cause is unknown, but seems to have at least a partial
genetic component. It also is thought to be associated with events that are
developmental, even though symptoms dont typically appear until 3rd
decade
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Fall 2017

c. know symptoms/diagnosis criteria (as on slide 14)

d. Know brain abnormalities include
a. increased size of ventricles
b. thinner cortex
c. smaller neurons
d. abnormalities in neurotransmitter systems (both conditions below
are associated with psychotic symptoms)
i. can be increased dopamine
ii. can be decreased glutamate
e. reduced size and synaptic connections in some brain regions
including hippocampus, DLPFC, thalamus
e. Overall condition thought to be aberrant activity in, and integration of, the
components of distributed circuits involving the prefrontal cortex,
hippocampus and certain subcortical structures (eg. amygdala). Psychotic
symptoms described as a disorder of the sense of self, in which aspects of
oneself are experienced as akin to external objects, possibly due to
neurotransmitter and connectivity abnormalities described above.

4. bipolar disorder
a. understand what manic and mixed episodes are (slide 22-23)
b. know the neural abnormalities- as discussed and as on slide 25. Note you
do NOT have to know the structures in the DMN network that is
referenced
5. addiction (opiate)
a. understand the brains reward system- at least the structures called VTA
(in midbrain) and nucleus accumbens (in basal forebrain), amygdala,
septum, and PFC
b. know that the brain has an endogenous opiate system, that uses proteins
(dynorphin, enkephalin) that bind to receptors and act as
neurotransmitters. This system primarily inhibits pain, and can stimulate
the reward circuit
c. know that opiates (morphine, heroine) act by stimulating the VTA and
causing dopamine release, which is associated with the profound euphoria
and high. Chronic use can cause the brain to reduce the number of
opiate receptors, and to reduce the release of dopamine (as protective
responses). At this point, when opiate use is stopped, dopamine release is
suddenly very low, which is associated with the craving of addiction.
Resumption of opiate use can bring the dopamine levels back to normal,
which eventually is not a euphoric or high state.
6. PTSD
a. know the causes and some brain changes identified, as in slides 37-38
7. Major depression- this was quickly/briefly discussed, and on slides 39-42, however will
NOT be part of test material
8. Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID)-this discussed and on the last slides briefly, but also
will NOT be part of test material
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Fall 2017

IV. Review: Cells of the Nervous System

1. Define neuron
2. Describe the purpose/function of the following structures and cell components:
a. Cell body
b. Dendrites
c. Axon
d. Terminal branches
e. Cell Membrane
f. Nucleus
3. Label the structures of a neuron
4. Identify the roles each of the following supporting cells play within the NS (and their
division: PNS or CNS).
a. Astrocytes
b. Microglia
c. Oligodendrocytes
d. Schwann Cells
5. Describe the purpose of myelin
a. How is myelin produced?

V. Review: Neural and Synaptic Transmission

a. Know events associated with an action potential associated with
a. depolarization and movement of sodium Na+ (into or out of neurons?)
1. Define Neurotransmitter, synapse
2. After a neurotransmitter molecule binds to a receptor site, what change allows for the
excitation or inhibition of the receiving neuron?
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Fall 2017

Potential Essay Questions (new and review material):

1. How do EEG patterns change during a typical night of sleep? This includes description of
sleep stages and EEG wave patterns associated with each stage.
2. Why does the brain have receptors for morphine? And what is a mechanism for the powerful
euphoria and addictive attributes of opiate use?
3. What is the brains reward circuit discussed, as far as brain regions and neurotransmitter
used? What is its purpose? What are two behaviors associated with activation of this circuit,
and how is this circuit stimulated in each example?
4. What are examples of implicit verses explicit learning? What are neuroanatomical
differences between the two? What process and structure is critical for formation of long-
term explicit memory?
5. A related and more broad question (compared to #4 above)- What are the two major forms
of learning, and give an example of each type. (info can be found in memory slides-
(procedural vs. declarative, as in slides 8, 10-12, 16, 20)
6. What is the difference between sleep and awake/conscious states (what is the definition of
each), and how does the brain control or initiate each of these states? (ie. what are systems
and specific brain regions described above in this guide that are associated with each)
7. What is the difference between a signal transduction, action potential, and a perception?
What is an example associated with each?