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Chemistry Notes - Production of Materials by Jacqueline Lai
Chemistry Notes - Production of Materials by Jacqueline Lai
HSCChemistrv
Productionof Materials
l. Fossilfuelsprovideboth energyand raw materialssuchas ethyleneo
for
the productionof other substances
o Identif'tlrcirrclL
r su u rccol'cthr lc n1el' o rrt lre c n rc k in stolrc
rst,ial f f ra c t io n s f ro u rt h c re f in i n g o f
petfoleLlnr
Petroleum,or crudeoil, is a mixtureof hydrocarbons of varyingcarbonchainlengththat must be
separatedusingfractionaldistillation.The globaldemandfor lighterfractionssuchasetheneis much
higherthanthe demandfor heavyfractions.However,fractionaldistillationusuallygivesa much
higheryield of heavyfractions.To meetthe demands, theseheavyfractionsundergocracking,using
heatand/orcatalyststo breakthemdown into shorter,moreusefulfractions.
' Idcntif,rthatethrlette.
beciir.rse
of thc'Irighreactiritlof itscloLrble
bond^is readilvtransfbrrned
into nranvusefirlproducts
' ldentil,r'that
ethvlelie
servcsasa monorrrer fiorl lvhichpolvmelsarernade
In general,alkenesaremuchmorereactivethanalkanesbecausethey possess doublebondswith
high electrondensity.The doublebondscaneasilyopenup to createtwo singlebonds,allowing
additionalatomsto bond.This typeof reactionis knownasaddition reaction.
Ethylenecanundergomanytypesof additionreaction,somearelistedhere:
Process Reactant Catalyst Product
Hydrogenation Hz Nickel,palladium Ethane
Halosenations Iz None Diiododoethane
Ethylene+ HBr l-bromoethane
Hydrohalogenation None
HCI l-chloroethane
Hydration Water Dil. Sulfuricacid Ethanol
Jacqueline Van Lai HSC Chemistry James Ruse Agriculture
Module 01 High School MMIX
t1 t1 /H f.H l -r H H .,H H .H H
i ii I l\ t | \i I
R -O -C .-ci -g C;c c- c c;c c+ c - c- o R
I \r l i i ',,, i ,.,
,,,i i I
HHHHHH} I H H H i I H
,,l H, , ,
o r m o t*:tn r p ly "*t C "j {,: r: v{'rv ta:{i r,- i !-}tcfl {.r
lr,.l
\ l-l H ,/n
Jacqueline Van Lai HSC Chemistry James Ruse Agriculture
Module 01 High School MMIX
of
There are two types of polyethylenethat can be produceddependingon the conditions
bothutilisesthe sameprocessasoutlinedpreviously.
polymerisation,
1) Gas Phase/Ilish PressureProcess
- High pressure (up to 3000atmosphere) andhightemperatures (up to 300"c)
- Initiatorusedis peroxides, a compoundcontaininga -o-o- group.
- The reactionmust be kept cool as it producessignificantheat.
- The polymerformedis calledLow Densitv Polvethvlene(LDPE).
- It hassignificantchainbranching, thuscannotbe packedclosely.
- Weaker dispersion forces,thusflexible,softandlowertensilestrength
- Readilymeltedand mouldedinto plasticbags,bottlesand etc'
2) Ziesler-Natta/LowDensitvProcess
- Low pressure (20 atm)andlow temperatures of only about60oC'
- Initiatorusedis a catalystcontaininga mixtureof titanium(lll)chloride(TiCl3).
- The polymerformedis calledHieh Densitv Polvethvlene(HDPE).
- lt forms unbranched chainsthat can be packedclosely
- Stronser dispersionforces,thus harder,denserand strongertensilestrength
- Chemicallyresistant,suitablefor petroltanks,binsand pipes.
UsesRelatedto Properties:
- Kitchenutensils:strongdispersionforces,greaterstrength
- Bowls, bucketsandbins:rigid, hardand inflexible
- Pipes,buildingmaterials:rigid,hardandunreactive
. ascommercialllsignilicant
thefbllor.r'ing
Identit-r' rnonomers:
- Vini I ch loride
- Styrette
atlclcolrlnonnalnes
By boththeirsvsternatic
, Describe theuseso1'thepolrmersrnaclell'onrtheirbovelloltoltlersin terlnsof theirpfoperties.
Commonname:vinyl chloride
Molecularformula:CHr:61-tat
Structure:vinyl chloride is an ethylenemoleculein which a hydrogenatom is replacedby a
chlorineatom.
HHHHHHHT-I
(:. (-- + (- t-' P0Yrl*rrsa:r'.,r
../ '\ .r' \
H (-l H t- l
H { -l H ( -|
i , i nyich l nri d *
lrioride
1-rr:rly'rirrylr
c lrloroethene
l pyrr_
i
Jacqueline Van Lai HSC Chemistry James Ruse Agriculture
Module 01 High School MMIX
Commonname:styrene
Molecularformula:CHz:CHCoHs i:
HHHH
'\,tt'.,t HHH
it-riynr*ri-r*iicl' | | '
r-. '-
I r-'
1-. !.-. T !-. '.
\, {-. - (: (- - (-'
s.' \
H {-eH ., H ilr H: | |
H (-1rH5 H i- 6H1
ttyrerl*
elhenyf befizrrrP ,-rolvrtvrenF
UsesRelatedto Properties:
II alr-] ,{
| ..f
t
l \, l ..1 u
'r. I
,l Twtr -dtnrers tonal st.r-ucture
ou T' - ? OH,
I o'H\" 1.../'
}I
I
oH
I T OH
( / l5 d o wn
rr-glucose /l'-glucose
+ @ "-,jG .. ff'1
ta
G f f iG
ca
Jacqueline Van Lai HSC Chemistry James Ruse Agriculture
Module 01 High School MMIX
i- - - - - - - ,-,,t i
:_i_..i,.i-;:l ta' -'l
i
:
r
r :-.rl
-'--i -rr -.-
il
' -i ir - : 4,.--
----
Irr-l , . '] L.- :
-,-
fi H
| i' i- iLlir F r
I r-, , ' i-i i
,-,H ;
| "
L
,1...
y. {lH :
i.
i' : ' ' ; - iH ti ,l i,,
/ L,.,l
a \l i | |
ir . , n, r !i F
i iLrt \t
\t
tt
It
;
i
i
!l
ii\l
\ ,
{'
t I
i-l :i ii -'re- i_;
i-Eir
IEiT | 'r-L) tt
ll rl ti il
.'l il ,-,-l
'-l -i _____
i J ',
r- i i .l i
'l ___.i
Lj : I i ll',c]Hi:
Pronertiesof Cellulose:
- Despitethe hydrogenbonding,its structureis so largethat its insolublein water
- Everysecondunit of glucoseflips,creatinga linearstructureso it hashighdensityand
strength
- It is foundabundantlyin nature,makingup 50o/o of the total biomasson Earth
- Commonlyfoundin plantcell walls
- Usedindustriallyin the manufactureof fibressuchas cottonandpaper
' ldentil'rthatcellLrlosc
cotitaitrs
tltcblsiccai[ron-chain
strrrcirrr---. to bLrildpctrr-rlclrc-itrical:
lree,lcel
andcliscirssits rrotcntial
asa ra\\ n-raterial
The basiccarbon chain structuresneededto build petrochemicals areethylene,propeneandbutene,
whichhavea carbonchainlengthof two, threeandfour.Glucose,the basicmonomerof cellulose,
hasa carbonchainlengthof 6. Hence,theoretically glucosemolecules canbe transformed intothe
basiccompounds thatarepresentlyobtainedfrom petrochemicals.
Problemsassociatedwith Cellulose:
r It is difficultto breakcelluloseinto glucose.This is because
the longchainsof celluloseare
bondedto eachotherthroughhydrogenbondingto form very compactfibres.This makesit
difficultfor chemicalsto getbetweentheseglucose-glucose links.Onesolutionto this is using
strong,concentrated sulfuricacid,butthis is expensive.
' Fossilfuelsarecurrentlymuchcheaper to producethanbiomassfuels.After celluloseis broken
downto glucose,it mustbe fermentedintoethanolandthendehydrated into ethylene.
This is a
Iongandexpensive process
' Fertilelandis requiredto growcropsto useasan energysource.However,theselandshavemore
importantrolesin growingcropsasa sourceof food.Clearingforestsfor landcanalsoleadto
destruction of animalhabitatsandenvironmental concernssuchas soil erosion
Propertiesand Uses
- It is a renewableresource
- Biodegradable. Disposable containersfor shampoo,beverages etc.will naturallydecompose
so it savesspacesin landfills.
- It will alsodecompose naturallyin humanbodiesso it is usedas suturesso no surgeryis
necessary to removeit afterwards.
- Biocompatible.It will functionnormallyin a humanbody meaningit haspotentialto be used
as surgicalimplants
- Similar structureto polypropyleneso it canreadilyreplacemanypetrochemical plastics
Advantagesand Disadvantases
In the medicine,the development of PHB is very importantas it canreplacetraditionalsutures,
allowing it to decomposenaturallyin humanbodies,avoidinganothersurgeryto removethem
afterwards.Its biocompatibilityalsomeansit hashighly suitable,forsurgicalimplants.
RecentDevelopment
Recently,scientistshavebeenableto geneticallyengineera bacteriumknown aspglito produce
PHB by transferring the genesof Alcaligeneseutrophusthatproduces PHB.This methodis more
efficientas scientists
aremorefamiliarwith E.coli'sphysiologyso it is easyfor us to manipulate
its
growthandproductionrateoallowinghigherandfasteryieldsof PHB.This is in comparison much
moreefficientthanAlcaligenes eutrophus,of which scientistiknownlittle about.This helpsto make
PHB moreeconomically viable.However,the useof transgenic plantsis a controversialissueamong
society,raisingmanyquestions amongreligiousgroups.
Jacqueline Van Lai HSC Chemistry James Ruse Agriculture
Module 01 High School MMIX
Hydration of ethylene:
dit' Il2so4
CrHo*nr+ H2o11y >CrH5oHlrt
rl
tt
8*C C Li
lt
tl
t1
Jacqueline Van Lai HSC Chemistry James Ruse Agriculture
Module 01 High School MMIX
n Outlinethe useo1-ethanol
as a lirel anclcxplainn'hr it can be callcclaren*r'ablercsoLlrces
. Asscssthe potortiulo1'cthanolas an altcrnrtilc lircl ancldiscLrss
the aclvantages
and
clisa.lrlutti l!es,'l-ilr Llse
>
Ethanol is consideredas a renewable resourcebecauseit is derived from glucose. Despite its short
chain, ethanol is a liquid and thus it is commonly used as portablefuel for camping and as biogasin
car engines.It also considereda fuel becauseit readily undergoescombustion:
Future Research:
Futureresearchof ethanolis concentratedon makingit moreeconomicallyviableby increasingits
productionrateand yield. Oneway to do this is by geneticallyengineeringyeasttho increasethe
concentrationof alkanolproducedin fermentation to higherthanthe l5% possibleat the moment.
Anothermethodis developing a mechanism to decompose celluloseinto glucoseeconomically,or
maybeevenproducingethanoldirectlyfrom cellulose
Jacqueline Van Lai HSC Chemistry James Ruse Agriculture
Module 01 High School MMIX
o i ti o r.iu i i ,-i c trr l ri c l r tl i r tcnl e ni ;.i i i ontri -sr.l !i i r' :i r l l i r' i l tr,ri crl
Dc s c libc t itc c r.rn tl
The conditionsrequiredfor fermentation are:
- Presence of grainor fruit mashedup with water
- Presence ofyeast
- Anaerobic conditions(absence of air)
- Temperature keptaroundbodytemperature, i.e.-37'C. Too low andthe reactionwouldbe
slowerandtoo hish veastwill not survive
r Identifvtherclatiolrslripbetvvccn
displacernent br otherntctalsto thc
of'metalirinsin solr,rtion
relatir,e
activitl of rne'tals
In displacement reactions, only a morereactivemetalcandisplacea lessreactivemetal.ln the
previousexample,zinc displaced copperbecause it wasmorereactive.lf copperwas placedin a zinc
sulfate,no reactionwill takeplace.The relativitiesof metalsarerepresented in the Agl!yi$@:
K tsa I-i }la { ln I'lu Al Zn I;c litt []l-r H {.-lrrAq I}t Arr
Metalson the left aremore reactivewhile metalson the right are lessreactive.Therefore,a metal in
the seriescandisplacea solutioncontainingany metalon its right,but cannotdisplaceany solution
containingmetalson its left. ln general:
- Metalson the left arevery reactiveandloseelectrons, or oxidises,very easily
- Metalson the right areunreactivebut in ion form they canelectrons,or reduce,very easily
Apparatus,:l a Gah'attic,:ell
In this galvarrir rell- the uei ic,nit e{rlrti*li
E
N
rrf the reactiorris:
-'i :'l'i
. r.,,!+
. \fhere Zu Zrr:-representsr uretr.l]rletal iou ,^.11ttt.l F uu
tr*\J3
. The doutrleliue represerltstire salt trridge
.
Potential DifferenceCalculations
To calculatethe potentialdifferencein the galvaniccell above,we mustusethe tableof standard
potentials.
The valueson thistablearecalculated with respectto a hydrogenelectrode- 0V.
The oxidationstate:
- of atomsin elementalform is 0, suchas H2andPa
- of i onsar eeq u ato , .OH-: -1 ,P O + : -3 ,NH+ *: l, S O q 2 ' : -2
l th e ircharg ee.g
In general
- Oxidationis INCREASEin oxidationstate,corresponding
to a lossof electrons
- Reductionis DECREASEin oxidationstate,correspondingto a gainof electrons
Jacqueline Van Lai HSC Chemistry James Ruse Agriculture
Module 01 High School MMIX
Voltase 1 .5V
Anode (-) Zinc
Anode half equation Znur-------+Zn'*
+2e-
Cathode(+) oxide(MnOr)andcarbon
Mans.anese
Cathodehalf equation + LNH4clk,t,+ 2e- --) MnrOrt,,,* 2NH r(or)1 H rOrq + 2Cl -
2AInO2(n
Electrolyte Aqueouspasteof ammoniumchloride
Overall equation Zfl,,, r 2MnOr, + 2 N H 4CI@n,-----) MnrOr(,t * Zn(N H.), C 1.,+ H 20
",
Costand practicality and cheapto replace
Materialsare inexpensive
Not rechargeable
Low energydensity(outputto sizeratio)
Shonbatterylife
Leakscausedby zinccasingoxidisingduringdischarge
Robust,easyto storeandportable
Cannotdeliverhish currents
Impact on society - Widelyusedin low currentappliances and
suchastorches,calculators
remotecontrols
- availablebattery,madeportableadvicespossible
Firstcommercially
Voltase l .6v
Anode (-) Zinc
Anode half equation 2n,.,+ 2OH- ----+ Zn(OH), + 2e-
Cathode(+) Graphite and silver oxide oaste
Cathode half equation AgrO,,,+ H rO,,,+ 2e- 12Agc, + 2OH-
Electrolvte KOH paste
Overall equation Znle + AgrO+ ZnO,,,+ 2Ag,
",
Cost and practicality veryexpensive dueto silver
very smallandponable
providelargeamountsof electricity
long batterylife
not rechargeable
steelcasedoesnot takepart in reactionso leaksare unlikely
Impact on society Dueto its smallsizeandhighconstantvoltageit is widelyusedin
smallerappliancessuchaswatches,calculators,digitalcameras.
Goodfor appliancesthat requiresmallbatteryand long batterylife
' - 7t ti -),
: 1'",
Evaluation:
- In termsof chemistry,the buttoncell is ableto producealargervoltageas silverasa higher
reductionpotentialthanmanganese. It alsohasa moreconstantsupplydueto its alkalinestate.
- In termsof costandpracticality, thedry cell is morepracticalin mostsituations as it is much
cheaperandusedby manymoreappliances. Dry cellsarealsocheaper,the silverin buttoncells
areexpensive. However,the buttoncell is moreusefulin situations thatrequiresmallcellswith
longbatterylife. It is alsomorereliableas it doesn'tleakeasily,whilethe zinc casingis
graduallyoxidised.AIso,dry cell'svoltagedropsovertime andmay be too low for some
applicationsdespitenot beingflat yet.
- In termsof impacton society,the significanceof the dry cell's historymeansit had a far greater
impacton societythanthe morerecentbuttoncell. It allowedfor portableelectricaldevicesto be
inventedandusedon a largescale.
- In termsof environmental impacts,bothhavevery little negativeeffectsand arepreferredover
morepollutingcellssuchas leadacid.
Pb&
HrS&
Por.ous
SePeretsr
Jacqueline Van Lai HSC Chemistry James Ruse Agriculture
Module 01 High School MMIX
E
= u,
z
:: - +, : , t , : E: - i ':
f.lunlbFroi protonr
Jacqueline Van Lai HSC Chemistry James Ruse Agriculture
Module 01 High School MMIX
* NuclearFusionin ParticleAccelerators
In this process,
a lighteratom'srrucleusis srnashed
into a heavieratom'snucleus.For example,
plutonium-239 is bombarded with heliumto form curiumandneutron.
'il P, + | He------->'ficm
+ ln
Atoms heavierthan heliurn can also be usedsuch bornbardinsuraniurnwith carbonto form
californiurn:
u,)u*'tc ---'l\cf +a(ln)
When bombardingheavy nuclei with high speedpositive particleslike the examplesabove,we first
needto acceleratethesepositiveparticlesto a high speedto overcomethe repulsionbetweenthe
positive particleand the nuclei so that they fuse together.
Particle Accelerators
* Cyclotron
A cyclotron consistsof two @ with alternatingpositive and negativefields causedby an AC
power source.A proton is passedthrough the cyclotron which is kept in a spiral path using a strong
magnetic field. The frequency of AC is in phasewith the speedof the proton so that when the proton
passesthrough the gap betweenthe two Dees,the voltagesalternateso that the Dee it's going into is
now negativeand will attractthe proton. After many revolutionsit acquireshigh speedand strikesa
target.Cyclotronsusually use chargedparticlessuch as electrons,protonsand smallnuclei
' 1 - ..l."
\ \ : r : l+ ;t:i:= ir i.ji\ i: I- :.;i= :: -'
l : : + 1,'+. ' = r , 1 l' + ;:.' :i::, r :' i1 .;,1 q l; J
111 111jli *l 11lirl',,i ;r 11r-li,r'1,-r',','iir:
f i . i ' , :,itr ' ;r i,::, t' f tl' - . []i..
Jacqueline Van Lai HSC Chemistry James Ruse Agriculture
Module 01 High School MMIX
{. Linear accelerator
In a linearaccelerator
ionsof elementsareaccelerated in a straightline of a seriesof cylinders.These
cylindershavealternatecharge;a negativealwaysfollowsa positive,so thatparticlesarealways
beingrepelledby a positivecylinderwhile pulledforwardby a negativecylinder.As the speed
becomesfaster,the cylindersgetslongerso that the ion staysthe sameamountof time in each
cylinder.Theseacceleratorsareusuallymorethana kilometrein lensth
l'
r.'
Hollow t ubes
i
lon beanr
slrkes arget
. Describe holr cornntercial radioisotopes
arcproducecl
I lclentiflv
oneLlseo1'anantedradioisorope :
- In inclustr_r
- ln m e d icine
' Describe ther'r'avin r"lrichtheabol'enarledinclustrial
anclrneclical
r.aclioisotopes
afeusecla'ci
explaintheirusein tennsol-theirproperties
Commercialradioisotopes areusuallyproducedin nuclear reactorsandparticleaccelerators.
The
differenceis that nuclearreactorsproduceneutronrich isotopeswhereasaccelerators produce
neutrondeficientisotopes.
* Radioisotopein Medicine:Technetium-99m
Production: Technetium-99m
is producedby bombardingmolybdenum-98with a neutronto form
Molybdneum-99:
noltwo
liiut" + in---+ +y
Molybdneum-99then undergoes
betadecayto form technetium-99m
]lu"+'ni:Tt+ _0,"
This canalsobe donethroughparticleaccelerators.
An isotopeof hydrogen,deuterium,is
accelerated
and bombardedat Molybdenum-98creatingTechnetium-99m andan excessof neutrons.
Uses:technetium is usedextensively
in the medicalfield astracersfor diagnosis.Smallamountsare
injectedinto the bloodstream andthroughits distributionin the body we candetectbloodclots,
constrictions andbraintumours.E.g.Tc-99mis combinedwith tin and injectedintothe bloodwhere
it attaches itselfto redbloodcells,accumulatingat anybloodclots.The advantages of this method
arethat it canexaminea patientwithout significantharmand it alsoallowsrapiddiagnosis.
]ico+ir- flco+y
*y
fico----+iili + _1"
@: cobalt-60is usedin gausing metal thicknessand finding faultswithin objectssuchas metal
pipes,bothrely on the detectionof gammaray emission.A sourceof cobalt-60is placedon oneside
of the metalsheetsanda photographic film is placedon theotherside.Variationsin thethickness of
the metalsheetscan be identifiedby the consistencyin the levelof radiationdetectedby the
photographic film. If the radiationlevelsaretoo high,it indicates
thatthe sheetis too thin anddidn't
absorbenoughradiation.shielcJecl
r*.f,toac1!ve
scLlrr:e..,. shee1 ot filrtt of nraterial
'-l b*irrgfc,r'nred
. an'roLrntof racliatiorr
r l r tnr hr r l hr r crrrl r ooi
-'detector t rY rr ?r
o i C i C t l i i l - t i i t - r ' iit;:,.i1 1 . .:t;r 1 i,,,,,' ,' - - . ii,. r l ti r i ,i l r,.:r-i i i , t1, i .', i r;i .l l i i i l l ii
b) ScintillationCounter
Scintillationcounterdetectslow energynon-ionisingradiation.Whenceftainsubstances are
irradiatedwith alpha,betaor gammaray,theygive off light.Whenexcitedelectrons jump to
higherenergyshellsas energyis absorbed,theygive off light asthey returnto theirgroundstate.
which in tum emitsan electricalpulsethat can
This light is thenpassedthrougha photomultiplier
be recorded.
c) Cloud Chamber
This instrument wateror alcohol.Whenradiation
consistsof an air spacewith supersaturated
passes throughthe instrument, air becomesionised.Theseionsactasthe nucleuswhichvapours
formsdroplets.In this way the pathof theradiationbecomes visibleas 'clouds'.Alphaparticles
travel in straightlines,betaparticlesleavea zig-zagpathand gammaray leavesa faint track.
d) Geieer-MullerCounter
The Geiger-Mullercounterdetectsionisingradiationandhenceparticularlyeffectivein detecting
betaparticles.Radiationentersthrougha thin window at the endof the tube filled with argongas
andas it hits argonmolecules,it ionisesit by knockingelectrons out. High voltageaccelerates
theseelectrons towardthe centralelectrode,hittingmoreargonmoleculesalongthe way and
ionisingthem.This flow of electrons This pulse
formsan electricalpulseat the centralelectrode.
is amplifiedandusedto generate clicksin an audioamplifieror by an electronicdigitalcounter.
The positiveargonionsmoveslowlytowlds the negative completethecircuit.
:ase.to
rr"\ '1
o-'
E"' ....*. f-1
!, 1
i.ri r\ r', if.1 ,
r_, Lj
rtt--"---iF,
, l -'
{r io,
C: I