Ivor Janković, Tena Šojer - Evolucija Govora I Jezika

O P V S C V L A
A R C H O L O G I C A
I
UDK 902-904 ISSN 0473-0992
IZDAVA / PUBLISHER
ARHEOLOKI ZAVOD FILOZOFSKOG FAKULTETA SVEUILITA U ZAGREBU
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Slubena kratica ovoga asopisa je Opusc.archaeol. (Zagreb) / Official abbreviation of this journals title is Opusc.archaeol. (Zagreb)
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Tiskano 2015. / Printed in 2015
OPVSC. ARCHOL. VOL. 37/38 STR. / PAGES 1434 ZAGREB 2013/2014.
II
O P V S C V L A
ARCHOLOGICA
2013/2014
III
F I L O Z O F S K I FA K U LT E T
SVEUILITA U ZAGREBU
FACULTY OF HUMANITIES
AND SOCIAL SCIENCES,
UNIVERSITY OF ZAGREB
RADOVI ARHEOLOKOG ZAVODA
PA P E R S O F T H E D E PA RT M E N T
O F A R C H A E O L O G Y
UDK 902-904 ISSN 0473-0992
IV
SADRAJ
CONTENTS
Glavni i odgovorni urednici PROSLOV

Editors Prologue________________________________________________________9
Ivor Jankovi & EVOLUCIJA GOVORA I JEZIKA
Tena ojer THE EVOLUTION OF SPEECH AND LANGUAGE
Pregledni rad / Review paper_____________________________________________11
Filomena Sirovica POD KOD BRUKE ANALIZA NALAZITA S OSVRTOM NA
PROBLEMATIKU PRETPOVIJESNE SUHOZIDNE ARHITEKTURE
POD NEAR BRUKA SITE ANALYSIS WITH A VIEW ON
PREHISTORIC DRYWALL ARCHITECTURE
Izvorni znanstveni rad / Original scientific paper______________________________49
Stao Forenbaher, PET GROBOVA S PALAGRUE
Petra Raji ikanji & FIVE BURIALS FROM PALAGRUA
Zrinka Premui Struni rad / Professional paper___________________________________________95
Ivana Mileti akiran KERAMIKA TANKIH STIJENKI S LOKALITETA
SV. KVIRIN U SISKU
THIN-WALLED POTTERY FROM THE SITE

SV. KVIRIN IN SISAK
Izvorni znanstveni rad / Original scientific paper_____________________________111
Martina Matijako MARTIJANEC-GAMULICA. ANALIZA NALAZA PRIKUPLJENIH

1950. GODINE
MARTIJANEC-GAMULICA - ANALYSIS OF FINDS FROM 1950

Ivana Artukovi RIMSKODOBNE FIBULE IZ FUNDUSA MUZEJA

BRODSKOG POSAVLJA
ROMAN-ERA FIBULAE FROM THE COLLECTION OF THE

BRODSKO POSAVLJE MUSEUM
Anamarija Kurili & Natpis Gaja Kornelija s Ilovika i Cornelii

Zrinka Serventi u Liburniji
The Inscription of Gaius Cornelius from Ilovik
and the Cornelii in Liburnia
Ana Mikovi U POTRAZI ZA VEZAMA IZMEU SOLUNA I ZADRA

U KASNOJ ANTICI
EXPLORING THE TIES BETWEEN THESSALONIKI AND
ZADAR IN LATE ANTIQUITY
V
Marinko Tomasovi KATEDRALA SV. TRIPUNA U KOTORU I BENEDIKTINSKA

CRKVA SV. MIHOVILA NA PREVLACI KOD TIVTA PRIMJEDBE
UZ PORIJEKLO OBLIKA I DATIRANJE
THE CATHEDRAL OF ST. TRYPHON IN KOTOR AND THE
BENEDICTINE CHURCH OF ST. MICHAEL ON PREVLAKA
NEAR TIVAT COMMENTS ON THE DATE AND THE
ORIGIN OF DESIGN
Pregledni rad / Review paper____________________________________________267
Ana Azinovi Bebek & BREVARI IZ LOBORA I DRUGIH NOVOVJEKOVNIH

Kreimir Filipec GROBALJA SJEVEROZAPADNE HRVATSKE
THE BREVERLS FROM LOBOR AND OTHER EARLY
MODERN CEMETERIES IN NORTHWESTERN CROATIA
Marija iaVivek & KERAMIKE LULE S LOKALITETA ZOLJANI - EMEAC I

Kreimir Filipec CLAY PIPES FROM THE SITE ZOLJANI - EMEAC I
Tihomila Teak-Gregl STOJANU DIMITRIJEVIU U SPOMEN

IN HONOUR OF STOJAN DIMITRIJEVI
Uvodnik / Introduction_________________________________________________335
Ivor Karavani Stojan Dimitrijevi istraivanja i nastava

paleolitika u Hrvatskoj
Stojan Dimitrijevi research and teaching
Paleolithic in Croatia
Kornelija MINICHREITER PROF. DR. STOJAN DIMITRIJEVI

UTEMELJITELJ KRONOLOKE PODJELE
STAREVAKE KULTURE ZA SJEVERNU REGIJU
PROF. DR. STOJAN DIMITRIJEVI THE
FOUNDER OF THE CHRONOLOGY OF THE
STAREVO CULTURE IN THE NORTHERN REGION
Bine Kramberger Evaluation of Dimitrijevis definition of the

Sopot Culture in the light of radiocarbon dates
Maja Krznari-krivanko REZULTATI DIMITRIJEVIEVIH ISTRAIVANJA SOPOTA

U SVJETLU NOVIH ISTRAIVANJa
THE RESULTS OF DIMITRIJEVIS EXCAVATIONS
VI
AT SOPOT IN LIGHT OF RECENT RESEARCH
Lana Okroa Roi BREZOVLJANI

BREZOVLJANI
Marcel Buri Komadii i fragmenti: Bapska nakon

Stojana Dimitrijevia
Pieces and fragments: Bapska after
Stojan Dimitrijevi
Zorko Markovi STOJAN DIMITRIJEVI I ISTRAIVANJA ENEOLITIKA

U SJEVERNOJ HRVATSKOJ
STOJAN DIMITRIJEVI AND STUDIES ON THE COPPER
AGE OF NORTHERN CROATIA
VII
PROSLOV Prologue
S velikim zadovoljstvom i u ime cijelog urednitva pred- We are proud to present a double volume 37/38 of Opuscu-
stavljamo dvobroj 37/38 asopisa Opuscula Archaeologica la archaeologica on behalf of the Editorial board. Since its
koji je utemeljen 1956. godine, te s vie ili manje potekoa first volume in 1956, journal Opuscula archaeologica has
izlazi vie od pet desetljea. Usprkos trenutnim financij- been publishing scientific articles in the field of archaeology
skim potekoama pred nama je asopis koji i ovoga puta, and other historical disciplines. Despite current financial
i to sa 19 lanaka od 25 autora, na preko etiri stotine stra- challenges we were able to publish 19 articles by 25 authors
nica, objavljuje znanstvene, pregledne i strune tekstove vi- on more than 400 pages containing high quality original
soke kvalitete. scientific articles and professional papers.
No, ovaj dvobroj asopisa Opuscula archaeologica se razli- The structure of this double volume differs from previous
kuje od prethodnih izdanja jer se sastoji od dva tematska ones because it is divided into two sections. The first sec-
poglavlja. U prvom poglavlju je jedanaest radova koji su, tion consisting of 11 articles that are, in the tradition of
u skladu s tradicijom naeg asopisa, posveeni razliitim this journal, facing specific archaeological issues. We hope
arheolokim problemima koji e kako znanstvenicima, tako that these articles will provide information to readers on
i drugima, dati mogunost dobivanja uvida, ne samo u ne- new, unpublished material and current debates. The sec-
poznatu arheoloku grau, nego i mogunost upoznava- ond section contains 8 papers dedicated to the 30th anni-
nja s najnovijim razmiljanjima o odreenim problemima versary of death of Professor Stojan Dimitrijevi, a distin-
kao i njihovim moguim rjeenjima. Drugi dio broja 37/38 guished professor of Prehistoric Archaeology at the Uni-
asopisa Opuscula archaeologica nas posebno raduje jer versity of Zagreb. These papers were originally presented
se sastoji od osam radova posveenih 30-godinjici smrti at the conference organized by the Faculty of Humanities
uglednog hrvatskog profesora prapovijesne arheologije Sto- and Social Sciences, University of Zagreb on December
jana Dimitrijevia. Radovi su prezentirani na skupu po- 13th 2011.
sveenom Stojanu Dimitrijeviu na Filozofskom fakultetu Various challenges presented to us during the preparation
u Zagrebu 13.12.2011. of this volume were not discouraging, but, on the contrary,
Napor koji je urednitvo asopisa uloilo u izlazak ovoga gave us the additional motivation to secure the future of
broja nije nas obeshrabrio nego potaknuo da i dalje inimo this journal as a platform for publication of quality scien-
sve potrebno da bi autori i dalje imali priliku objavljivati tific and professional papers by fellow scholars. Extensive
lanke za koje smatraju da doprinose arheolokoj znano- team of domestic and international reviewers is the qual-
sti. Za kvalitetu objavljenih priloga brinuo se cijeli tim re- ity assurance of the published articles, and the journal as
cenzenata, ije je miljenje i omoguilo da svaki prilog ima a whole.
onu kvalitetu kakvu na asopis i zasluuje. Stoga na kraju We would like to express our gratitude to all contributors
svim autorima i suradnicima najsrdanije zahvaljujemo whose articles are published in this double volume.
na prilozima tiskanim u ovome broju asopisa Opuscula
archaeologica.
Editors
Glavni i odgovorni urednici
IX
Ivor Jankovi & Tena ojer
EVOLUCIJA GOVORA I JEZIKA
THE EVOLUTION OF SPEECH AND LANGUAGE
doi: 10.17234/OA.37.1 Ivor Jankovi

Pregledni rad / Review paper Institut za antropologiju
Gajeva 32
UDK / UDC: 81232:903632 HR-10000 Zagreb
572:903632 ivor.jankovic@inantro.hr
Primljeno/Received: 28.01.2013.
Tena ojer
Prihvaeno/Accepted: 18.06.2013.
Sv. Mateja 118
HR-10000 Zagreb
tena.sojer@gmail.com
Rad se bavi tematikom evolucije govora i jezika i pokuava The paper deals with the topic of the evolution of speech
putem multidisciplinarog pristupa i na temelju razliite and language and aims to, through a multidisciplinary
grae i dostupnih podataka i rezultata istraivanja pro- approach and based on different material and available
niknuti u pitanja vezana uz pojavu modernog jezika i go- data and results, answer the question of the appearance of
vora. Od posebnog je interesa pitanje javlja li se moderan modern language and speech. Especially interesting is the
jezik saltacijski i zajedno s nekim od ostalih elemenata question of whether modern language appeared through
moderniteta (tzv. Human revolution model ili Co- the process of saltation or in combination with some other
gnitive revolution model) ili je rezultat dueg evolucij- elements of modernity (the so called Human revolu-
skog razvoja u kojem se odreeni preduvjeti i elementi za tion model or Cognitive revolution model) or if it is
razvoj govora i jezika javljaju ranije od drugih. Navedena a result of a longer evolutionary development in which
pitanja pokualo se razmotriti kroz rezultate kompara- certain conditions and elements necessary for the develop-
tivnih istraivanja naih najbliih evolucijskih roaka, ment of speech and language appeared before others did.
ovjekolikih majmuna, putem komparativne anatomije, The authors attempted to answer these questions through
fosilne grae te arheoloke grae sensu stricto, odnosno the results of comparative research done on our closest
ostataka materijalne kulture. Na temelju dostupne grae evolutionary cousins, apes, through comparative anat-
zakljueno je da je suvremeni jezik rezultat dugog evolu- omy, fossil material and archaeological material sensu
cijskog razvoja i da se odreeni elementi javljaju u razlii- stricto, that is, through remains of material culture. Based
to vrijeme tijekom evolucijske povijesti plemena hominini. on available material, we conclude that modern language
is a result of a long evolutionary development and that
Kljune rijei: evolucija govora, evolucija jezika, pa-
different elements appeared at different times during the
leoantropologija, paleolitik, prapovijest, simbolika,
evolutionary history of the tribe hominini.
umjetnost
Key words: evolution of speech, evolution of language,
paleoanthropology, Paleolithic, prehistory, symbol-
ism, art
11
Ivor Jankovi & Tena ojer EVOLUCIJA GOVORA I JEZIKA Opusc.archaeol. 37/38, 11-48, 2013/2014 [2015].
Uvod Introduction
Jezik je jedna od temeljnih odrednica ovjeka i ut- Language is one of the basic human features and is
kan je u sve domene ljudskosti. Nemogue je zami- included into all domains of humanity. It is impossi-
sliti ijedno suvremeno ljudsko drutvo (kao ni mno- ble to imagine a contemporary human society (and
ge civilizacije, drutva i zajednice u prolosti) a da many civilizations, societies and communities in the
se ne dotaknemo pitanja vezanih uz jezik. Stoga ne past), without discussing language-related issues. It
udi da se pitanjima o pojavi i razvoju komunika- is not surprising, therefore, that the questions on the
cije, govora i jezika bave mnoge struke. Primjerice, appearance and development of communication,
Aristotel je kao jednu od osnovnih razlika izmeu speech and language are discussed in many profes-
ovjeka i ivotinjskog svijeta pronalazio u jeziku i sions. For example, Aristotle, saw language and our
naoj sposobnosti prenoenja misli putem ovog me- ability to transfer thought through this medium as
dija (vidi Barner 1984). Cilj ovog rada je na temelju one of the characteristics differentiating us from the
odabrane grae (komparativne studije ovjekolikih animal kingdom (see Barner 1984). The aim of this
majmuna, anatomije, fosilne grae, ostataka mate- paper is to, based on selected reading (comparative
rijalne kulture, kao i suvremenih genetikih istrai- studies of apes, anatomy, fossil remains, remains
vanja) pokuati proniknuti u pitanje kada se javlja- of material culture and contemporary genetic re-
ju odreeni aspekti onoga to obiavamo nazivati search), try and answer the question of when certain
modernim jezikom. Znanstvenici se uglavnom u aspects of what we tend to call modern language
razmiljanjima o evoluciji jezika priklanjaju ili mo- appeared. Scientists, discussing the evolution of
delu prema kojem jezik ima dugu evolucijsku pro- language, generally lean towards either the model
lost i prema kojem se odreeni aspekti (komunika- which states that language has a long evolutionary
cijski, govorni i jezini) javljaju u razliito vrijeme, history where certain aspects (communicational,
te modelu prema kojem se moderan jezik javlja speech-related and linguistic) appear at different
saltacijski, u sklopu evolucijskog paketa moder- times, or the model which states that modern lan-
niteta (koji ukljuuje i druge aspekte modernog guage appeared through the process of saltation as
ponaanja, modernu anatomsku grau, te nerijetko part of evolutionary modernity (including other
u raspravama ima i taksonomski znaaj). Stoga je aspects of modern behavior, modern anatomical
osnovno pitanje kojim emo se baviti u radu za- built, often of taxonomical significance). The basic
pravo suprotstavljanje ovih dvaju pristupa, koje bi, question, therefore, is the juxtaposition of these two
koristei se rjenikom evolucijske biologije mogli approaches which could be, using the vocabulary of
nazvati postupnim, darvinistikim modelom s jed- evolutionary biology, called the Darwinian on the
ne strane, te saltacijskim modelom, s druge strane. one, and saltation on the other hand. The authors
Namjera nam nije bila nije donijeti detaljan pregled did not mean to write a thorough overview of all
svih razmiljanja i teorija o pojavi jezika, niti o po- thoughts and theories on the emergence of lan-
javi pojedinih jezinih skupina, kao ni detaljno ra- guage, nor on the appearance of certain language
spravljati o nainu komunikacije koji je prethodio groups, nor to go into detail about the ways of com-
pojavi vokalne komunikacije kao osnovnog naina munication which preceded the appearance of ver-
jezine komunikacije ovjeka (iako emo se nakrat- bal communication as the basic mode of linguistic
ko dotaknuti i tih pitanja). communication of man (although we will briefly
also discuss these issues).
Materijali i metode
Materials and methods
U radu polazimo od hipoteze da su se svi, ili gotovo
svi, aspekti modernog jezika (i govora kao osnovnog The paper starts from the hypothesis that all, or al-
modaliteta jezika) javili otprilike u isto vrijeme (u most all, aspects of moderns language (and speech
skladu sa saltacijskim modelom). U provjeri nave- as the basic mode of language) appeared approxi-
dene hipoteze sluit emo se prvenstveno objavlje- mately at the same time (in accordance with the
nim rezultatima istraivanja komunikacije i jezinih saltation model). Testing this hypothesis, we will
sposobnosti naih najbliih evolucijskih roaka, o- primarily use published results of communication
vjekolikih majmuna, komparativnom anatomijom and language skill research of our closest evolution-
morfolokih kompleksa vezanih uz govor i jezik ary cousins, apes, comparative anatomy of morpho-
(posebice mozak i vokalni trakt), raspoloivom fo- logical complexes relating to language and speech
silnom graom plemena hominini (rodovi Austra- (especially the brain and the speech apparatus), the
lopithecus i Homo), materijalnom ostavtinom kao available fossil fund of the tribe hominini (genera
12
Ivor Jankovi & Tena ojer THE EVOLUTION OF SPEECH AND LANGUAGE Opusc.archaeol. 37/38, 11-48, 2013/2014 [2015].
temeljem razumijevanja ponaanja u prolosti (ar- Australopithecus and Homo), and material remains
tefakti, nain ivota, simbolike pojave i sl.) te no- as the basis for understanding past behavior (arti-
vijim rezultatima genetikih istraivanja (primjerice facts, way of life, symbolic occurrences and the
FOXP2 gena) vezanim uz pitanja od interesa za na like) and newer results of genetic research (e.g. the
rad. FOXP2 gene) connected to questions we discuss in
this paper
Jezik u evolucijskoj perspektivi

Language from an evolutionary
Svaka mitologija ima svoju priu o postanku jezika, perspective
a razliita objanjenja nalaze se i u svetim pismima
razliitih religija. Darwinova je publikacija O podri- Every mythology has its own story on the emergence
jetlu vrsta napravila potpuni preokret u promilja- of language, and holy scriptures of different religions
nju ljudskih poetaka te istovremeno pruila nov also offer different explanations. Darwins publication
pristup ovom problemu, koji je utemeljen na znan- On the origin of species marked a complete change of
stvenom pristupu. Unutar evolucijske perspektive perspective on thinking about human origins and,
razlikuje se niz teza o razvoju i pojavi jezika, nai- at the same time, created a new approach to solving
nu na koji se razvio te modalitetu koji je u poetku this problem, one based on science. The evolutionary
prevladavao. Tako se s jedne strane pretpostavlja da perspective consists of several assumptions about the
je jezik rezultat postupne promjene iz ivotinjskog development and emergence of language, the way in
komunikacijskog sustava u moderni ljudski jezik which it developed and the modality which was dom-
(vidi npr. Pinker & Bloom 1990; Lieberman 1984; inant at first. On one hand, language is supposed to
Corballis 2009 i tamo citiranu literaturu), dok dru- be a result of a gradual change from the animal com-
gi autori pojavu modernog jezika vide kao naglu munication system to modern human language (e.g.,
promjenu koja se dogodila tek nedavno u ljudskoj see Pinker & Bloom 1990; Lieberman 1984; Corbal-
evoluciji i esto je veu uz anatomski moderne ljude lis 2009 and therein cited bibliography), while other
i pojavu simbolike i modernijeg ponaanja u vri- authors saw the emergence of modern language as a
jeme gornjeg paleolitika (vidi npr. Bickerton 1995; sudden change which occurred very recently in hu-
Mithen 1996; Noble & Davidson 1996; Wadley man evolution and is often connected to anatomical-
2001; Mellars 1973; 2005; Klein 1973; 1995 i tamo ly modern humans and the appearance of symbolism
citiranu literaturu). and modern behavior in the upper Paleolithic (e.g.,
see Bickerton 1995; Mithen 1996; Noble & Davidson
Darwin (1871.) je u djelu O podrijetlu ovjeka pred-
1996; Wadley 2001; Mellars 1973, 2005, Klein 1973;
loio kako je jezik nastao iz imitacije i modifikacije
1995 and therein cited bibliography).
razliitih zvukova iz prirode te posebnih ljudskih
povika, potpomognut znakovima i gestama i favori- Darwin (1871), in his book The Descent of Man,
ziran prirodnim (spolnim) odabirom. Mnogi se sla- proposed the idea that language appeared by imi-
u s tom pretpostavkom te istiu prednosti zvuno- tation and modification of different sounds from
ga govorenoga jezika kao dokaze vokalnih jezinih nature and special human sounds, and that it was
poetaka (Tomasello 2008; Riede et al. 2005; Zu- supported by gestures and favored natural (sexual)
berbhler 2005; Hewes 1973), dok se komparativna selection. Many agree with his idea and emphasize
istraivanja primata koriste kao temelj gestikularne the advantage of sounded spoken language as proof
teorije (Corballis 2009, Armstrong et al. 1995; Arm- of vocalized beginnings of language (Tomasello
strong i Wilcox 2007; Goldin-Meadow & McNeill 2008; Riede et al. 2005; Zuberbhler 2005; Hewes
1999). 1973), while comparative studies of primates serve
as a basis for the gestural theory (Corballis 2009,
Prvi i osnovni korak u prouavanju jezika u prapo- Armstrong et al. 1995; Armstrong & Wilcox 2007;
vijesti je definiranje samog pojma jezik. Mnogo se Goldin-Meadow & McNeill 1999).
znanstvenih disciplina bavi prouavanjem jezika i
The first and basic step in studying language in pre-
svaka od njih imati e svoju definiciju ve prema vla-
history is to define the term language itself. Many
stitim potrebama. Zajedniki je nazivnik svima, me-
scientific disciplines study language and each of
utim, injenica da je jezik univerzalan i jedinstveno
them has its own way of defining it based on its re-
ljudski fenomen. Radi lakeg snalaenja, u tekstu ko-
quirements. However, the common denominator of
ristimo radne definicije osnovnih pojmova vezanih
all of them is the fact that language is universal and
uz tematiku rada. Pod pojmom komunikacija sma-
uniquely a human phenomenon. To avoid confusion,
tramo svaku interakciju kojoj je svrha prenoenje
in this paper we will use loose definitions of the ba-
odreene informacije, bez obzira na medij kojim se
13
ta informacija prenosi. Primjerice, u jednoj od prvih sic terminology connected to the subject matter. The
evolucijskih analiza komunikacije Otte (1974.) stav- term communication encompasses every interaction
lja naglasak na signale kao fizioloke, morfoloke ili conducted in order to transfer certain information,
karakteristike ponaanja favorizirane prirodnom se- regardless of medium by which the information is
lekcijom u svrhu prenoenja informacije drugim or- transferred. For example, in one of the first evolu-
ganizmima. No, takva definicija je iroka i ukljuuje tionary analyses of communication, Otte (1974) put
ne samo ljudsku, ve i komunikaciju kod ivotinja. emphasis on signals as physiological, morphological
Pod pojmom govor podrazumijevamo jedan od me- or behavioral characteristics favored through natural
dija prenoenja informacija putem zvuka. Govor je selection with the aim of transferring information
medij specifian za ovjeka, a ekvivalent je (iako ne to other organisms. However, such a definition is
u potpunosti, kao to emo kasnije vidjeti) ivotinj- wide and includes not only human, but also animal
skoj vokalnoj komunikaciji (oba sustava se koriste communication. The term speech encompasses one
zvukom). No ljudski je govor mnogo sloeniji od vo- of the media of transferring information by sound.
kalne komunikacije kod ostalih ivotinja (barem kod Speech is an exclusively human medium and is the
suvremenih ljudi) jer u njegovoj podlozi lei jezik. equivalent (although not entirely, as we explain later
Pod pojmom jezik podrazumijevamo sustav komu- on) of animal vocal communication (both systems
nikacije koji se koristi zvukom. No ni ova definicija use sound). Human speech is a lot more complex
nije dovoljna da opie neke od najvanijih znaajki than vocal communication between other animals
ljudskog jezika, budui da uz komunikacijsku funk- (at least in modern humans), because language is its
ciju ljudski jezik ima i simboliku stoga je ljudski basis. The term language is defined as a system of
jezik i sloen simboliki sustav. Nadalje, za razliku communication by sound. However, this definition
od ivotinjske komunikacije ljudski je jezik otvoren also insufficiently describes some of the most impor-
sustav (Bickerton 1990; Dessalles 2007). Suvremen tant features of human language, since apart from
ljudski jezik sastoji se od odreenog broja znakova the communicative function, human language has a
(simbola) koji omoguavaju bezbrojne kombinacije, symbolic one therefore, human language is also a
kao i izraavanje prolosti, budunosti, apstraktnih complex system of symbols. Furthermore, unlike ani-
pojmova i ideja i sl. Iako ogranieni naim vokabu- mal communication, the human language is an open
larom, svatko od nas uz malo truda moe izgovoriti system (Bickerton 1990; Dessalles 2007). Contempo-
(ili napisati) sasvim novu reenicu, reenicu koji nit- rary human language contains a specific number of
ko nikada jo nije izrekao. ivotinjska komunikacija signs (symbols) which allows for countless combina-
uglavnom se koristi ogranienim repertoarom koji tions, as well as expressing the past, future, abstract
se u prirodi veinom prenosi genetski, a ne kulturno terms and ideas, and the like. Although limited by
(uenjem) i kao odgovor na trenutnu situaciju (upo- our vocabulary, each of us, with a little effort, can
zorenje, ritual parenja i sl.). Komunikacijski signali say (or write) a completely new sentence, a sentence
kod ivotinja nemaju znaenje (niti simboliki as- no one had ever said before. Animal communica-
pekt), ve funkciju (Li 2002). tion mostly uses a limited repertoire which is, in na-
Vanu ulogu u prouavanju razvoja jezika imala je ture, mostly transferred genetically, and not cultur-
ideja koju je razvio lingvist Noam Chomsky (1957., ally (through learning), and is a response to a certain
1965., 1986.). Njegova teorija univerzalne gramati- situation (warning, mating ritual, and so on). Animal
ke (universal grammar) pretpostavlja da sve ljud- communicative signals do not have meaning (nor the
ske populacije posjeduju uroen sustav za usvajanje symbolic aspect), but serve a function (Li 2002).
jezika, odnosno zajedniku strukturalnu bazu koja An important part in the study of language was lin-
prua gramatike preduvjete, a koja je zajedni- guist Noam Chomskys idea (1957, 1965, 1986). His
ka svim suvremenim jezicima. Na ovu osnovnu theory of universal grammar was based on the as-
ideju kasnije se nadovezuju znanstvenici koji pret- sumption that all human populations have an in-
postavljaju da je osnovna sintaktika sposobnost herent system for language acquirement, which is
nastala saltacijski, mutacijom koja je rekonstruirala a common structural basis which sets grammatical
neuralnu anatomiju unutar mozga (Piatelli-Palma- preconditions and is common to all modern lan-
rini 1989; Bickerton 1990; Newmeyer 1991; Burling guages. This basic idea was later developed by scien-
1993). Drugi autori pokuavaju sagledati razlii- tists who supposed that the basic syntactic abilities
te aspekte jezika, govora i komunikacije kroz dui developed through saltation, i.e. through a mutation
evolucijski razvoj i proniknuti u njihove pleziomor- which reconstructed the neural anatomy within the
fne i apomorfne elemente (Lieberman 1984, 2000). brain (Piatelli-Palmarini 1989; Bickerton 1990; New-
Za komunikacijski sustav koji prethodi pojavi mo- meyer 1991; Burling 1993). Other authors tried to
dernog jezika, a od njega se razlikuje nedostatkom study different aspects of language, speech and com-
14
gramatike, razliiti autori koriste razliite termine. munication through a longer evolutionary develop-
Primjerice Salzmann (1998.) koristi termin predje- ment and to define their plesiomorphic and apomor-
zik (prelanguage), dok ga ostali autori nazivaju pro- phic elements (Lieberman 1984, 2000). The commu-
tojezikom (Hewes 1973; Bickerton 1990), iako ovaj nication system which preceded the appearance of
termin moe dovesti do zabune, budui da je isto- modern language, and differs from it due to lack of
vjetan onom koji lingvisti koriste za jezik iz kojeg grammar, is differently defined by different authors.
se razvijaju ostali suvremeni jezici, odnosno jezi- For example, Salzmann (1998) uses the term prel-
ne skupine (npr. proto-indo-europski). Pokuamo anguage, while other authors call it protolanguage
li proniknuti u razliite aspekte i svojstva jezika i (Hewes 1973; Bickerton 1990), although the term
njegovog evolucijskog razvoja, potrebno je barem might be misleading since it is the same term used by
ukratko obratiti pozornost i na mogue razloge linguists to define language from which other mod-
zbog kojih je ovaj nov nain komunikacije mogao ern languages, or language groups, developed (e.g.
imati selektivnu prednost nad neverbalnim. Miller proto Indo-European). If we try to understand differ-
(1999.) i posebice Deacon (1997.) naglaavaju va- ent aspects and properties of language and its evolu-
nost koju je jezik mogao imati u sve sloenijim od- tionary development, it is necessary to at least briefly
nosima unutar zajednice, posebice izmeu spolova. discuss the possible reasons why this new mode of
Deacon (1997.) smatra da je takav oblik komuni- communication could have had selective advantages
kacije mogao favorizirati i razvoj monogamnih od- over nonverbal communication. Miller (1999) and
nosa jer su partneri mogli stvarati jae veze putem especially Deacon (1997) highlight the importance
socijalne interakcije (vidi i Lovejoy 1981). Dunbar language could have had in the increasingly complex
(1993., 1996.) takoer naglaava vanost jezika u ja- relations within the community, especially between
anju socijalne strukture i odnosa unutar zajednice the sexes. Deacon (1997) considers that this mode
i smatra ga ekvivalentom i zamjenom za timarenje, of communication could favor the development of
vrlo estu i socijalno vrlo vanu radnju kod prima- monogamist relations because partners could make
ta (Dunbar 1991; Lehmann et al. 2007). Jezik kao stronger connections through social interaction (also
zamjena za tjelesni kontakt (timarenje) omoguava see Lovejoy 1981). Dunbar (1993, 1996) also stresses
bre i efikasnije stvaranje odnosa unutar veih gru- the importance of language for the strengthening of
pa. No iako su navedeni razlozi vrlo vjerojatno imali social structures and relations within the commu-
vanu ulogu u razvoju odreenih etapa ili elemena- nity, and sees it as an equivalent and replacement
ta razvoja jezika i govora, najvjerojatnije su samo for grooming, a very common and socially impor-
dio zagonetke. Vjerojatno, barem u prvim fazama tant act in primates (Dunbar 1991; Lehmann et al.
razvoja, govor i jezik zapoinju kao efikasnija vari- 2007). Language as a replacement for physical con-
janta naina koji slui onoj prvoj i osnovnoj funk- tact (grooming) allows for a faster and more efficient
ciji, komunikaciji. Naravno, sve sloenija socijalna creation of relations within larger groups. However,
organizacija hominina favorizirala je ovakav oblik as the listed reason probably had an important role in
komunikacije, pogotovo nakon to nai preci zapo- the development of certain stages or elements of lan-
inju svoj sve sloeniji kulturni razvoj (proizvodnja guage and speech development, they are most prob-
orua, organizirani lov, irenje u nove geografske ably only part of the riddle. Most likely, at least in
prostore s drugaijim okolinim imbenicima, poja- the first developmental stages, speech and language
va neutilitarnih predmeta, izgradnja nastambi, po- appeared as a more efficient variant of a mode serv-
jave simbolikog razmiljanja, ukapanja pokojnika, ing the first and basic function of communication.
razvoj umjetnosti i sl.). Naturally, an increasingly complex social structure
of hominins favored this type of communication, es-
pecially because our ancestors went into an increas-
Komparativne studije: jezine ingly complex cultural development (making tools,
sposobnosti ovjekolikih majmuna organized hunting, appearance of non-utilitarian ob-
jects, dwellings, symbolic thinking, art, and the like).
Budui da je ovjek nastao evolucijom te da pripada
redu primata, logino je da je u razvoju ljudske ko-
munikacije, govora i jezika odreenu ulogu imao i Comparative studies: linguistic
komunikacijski sustav naih predaka. Stoga e kom- abilities of apes
parativne studije ivuih primata imati vanu ulogu
u rasvjetljavanju nekih pitanja vezanih uz evoluciju Since humans developed through evolution and be-
jezika. No, isto tako valja imati na umu da komuni- longs to the order of Primates, it is logical that the
kacija kod ivuih primata ne predstavlja a priori communication system of our ancestors played a
istovjetno stanje u naeg zadnjeg zajednikog pret- part in the development of human communication,
15
ka te da se evolucijska linija ovjeka i impanzi od- speech and language. Hence, comparative studies of
vojila prije 5-7 milijuna godina (vidi npr. Jankovi & living primates will have an important role in shed-
Karavani 2009 i tamo citiranu literaturu). ding light on some questions regarding the evolu-
Jednim dijelom, komunikacija ovjeka vrlo je nalik tion of language. However, we must have in mind
onoj ostalih primata. Komunikacijski sustav pri- the fact that he communication of living primates
mata iznimno je razvijen i sloen te se podjednako is not a priori equal to our common ancestors and
temelji na vokalizaciji, gestikulaciji, izrazima lica, that the evolutionary line of million years ago and
tjelesnim kretnjama i mirisu pri emu svaki od ovih chimpanzees got separated between 5 and 7 million
modaliteta ima odreenu funkciju i prenosi odre- years ago (see Jankovi & Karavani 2009 and there
ene informacije (Doty 1981; Macedonia i Stanger cited bibliography).
1994; Kirchof i Hammerschmid 2006; DiBetti 1993; In part, human communication is very similar to
Slocombe i Zberbuhler 2006; Pfefferle et al. 2008; that of other primates. The communication sys-
Slocombe 2010; Corballis 2009). Svi su ovi aspek- tem of primates is very diverse and complex and
ti komunikacije prisutni i kod ljudi i oznaavaju se is almost equally based on vocalization, gesticula-
pojmom neverbalna komunikacija. Neovisno o tion, facial expressions, body movement and smell,
kulturi iz koje potjeu ili jeziku kojeg govore, ljudi whereby each of these modalities has a specific
mogu na licima drugih prepoznati ljutnju, tugu, pri- function and transfers certain information (Doty
jetnju, znatielju ili uivanje. Isti izrazi lica, meu- 1981; Macedonia & Stanger 1994; Kirchof & Ham-
tim, svojstveni su i impanzama (Burling 2005), kao merschmid 2006; DiBetti 1993; Slocombe & Zber-
i poloaj tijela koji odaje, primjerice, naklonost, za- buhler 2006; Pfefferle et al. 2008; Slocombe 2010;
titniku nastrojenost, prijetnju ili oputenost (Eibl- Corballis 2009). All of these aspects of communica-
Eibesfeldt 1967). Sve vie studija pokazuje da je u tion are present in humans and go under the term
ljudskoj komunikaciji izuzetno znaajna interakcija non-verbal communication. Regardless of culture
osjeta i razliitih regija u mozgu, pri emu je jedan they come from or language they speak, humans can
od kljunih osjeta vid, kako u komunikaciji, tako i u recognize anger, sadness, threat, curiosity or enjoy-
akviziciji jezinih i govornih sposobnosti (vidi Ro- ment on the faces of other humans. The same facial
senblum 2008, 2010 i tamo citiranu literaturu). Taj expressions, however, are also typical of chimpan-
fenomen naziva se vieosjetna percepcija govora zees (Burling 2005), as is the position of the body
(multisensory speech perception). which shows, for example, affection, protective at-
Ako elimo proniknuti u prolost odreenih ele- titudes, threat or relaxation (Eibl-Eibesfeldt 1967).
menata razvoja ljudskog govora i jezika, jedan od More and more studies show that the interaction
vanih pokazatelja bit e slinosti i razlike od naih between different regions of the brain is extremely
najbliih roaka, ovjekolikih majmuna. Prva istra- important for human communication, where eye-
ivanja jezinih mogunosti primata krenula su od sight is one of the key senses for communication,
pogrenih pretpostavki i naglasak stavila na govor but also for the acquisition of linguistic and speak-
(Furness 1916; Hayes 1951), to je dovelo do krivog ing abilities (see Rosenblum 2008, 2010 and there-
zakljuka da ostali primati nemaju kognitivne spo- in cited bibliography). This phenomenon is called
sobnosti za usvajanje kompleksnijeg sustava komu- multisensory speech perception.
nikacije poput jezika. Usporedbe anatomskih odlika If we want to study the past of certain elements of
ovjeka i ovjekolikih majmuna (o emu e detalj- human speech and language, the similarities and
nije biti rijei kasnije u tekstu) jasno pokazuju da differences from our closest cousins, apes will be
postoje razlozi zbog kojih nije za oekivati da e ne- one of the main indicators. The first research in pri-
ljudski primati usvojiti govor kao osnovni mod ko- mate linguistic abilities were based on the incorrect
munikacije, no to nam nita ne govori o ostalim ele- assumption and put emphasis on speech (Furness
mentima jezika. No, za razliku od ogranienja koja 1916; Hayes 1951), which led to the incorrect con-
postavljaju razlike u vokalnom traktu, gotovo svi clusion that other primates do not have the cogni-
primati imaju vrlo pokretljive ake koje omoguuju tive abilities necessary to acquire a complex com-
vrlo preciznu kontrolu i velik raspon pokreta. Zna- munication system like language. Comparisons of
kovni jezik gluhih u potpunosti ima sve elemente anatomical features of humans and apes (which
jezika (otvoren je i simbolian sustav), iako je medij will be discussed later in the text) clearly show that
kojim se prenosi drugaiji (ne prenosi se zvukom, there are reasons why non-human primates would
ve gestikulacijom) (vidi npr. Emmorey 2002; Nei- not accept speech as the basic mode of communi-
dle et al. 2000). Prouavanja komunikacije primata cation, but it does not say anything about other as-
u prirodi pokazala su vei naglasak na gestikulaciju pects of language. However, unlike the limitations
nego na komunikaciju vokalnim putem (Pollick i de set by differences in the speech apparatus, almost
16
Waal 2007). tovie, komunikacija gestikulacijama, all primates have very flexible fists which allow for
poput jezika, nije instinktivna i univerzalna, ve se very much control over the movement and a large
ui kulturnom predajom i razlikuje se od populacije array of movements. The sign language used by the
do populacije. Tako e skupine iste vrste impanzi deaf has all elements of language (it is an open and
na razliitim podrujima razviti vlastiti dijalektal- symbolic system), although the medium it uses is
ni sustav gestikulacije, razliit od sustava drugih different (it is not transferred by sound, but by ges-
skupina (McGrew i Tutin 1978.). ticulation) (e.g. see Emmorey 2002; Neidle et al.
Prekretnicu u istraivanju jezinih sposobnosti ne- 2000). Studies of primate communication in nature
ljudskih primata oznaila su istraivanja branog pointed to more emphasis being put on gesticula-
para Beatrix i Alan Gadner sa impanzom Was- tion than on vocal communication (Pollick and de
hoe. Washoe je odgajana u njihovoj obitelji kako Waal 2007). Furthermore, gestural communication,
bi u drutvenom okruenju prola prirodan proces like language, is not instinctive and universal, but is
usvajanja amerikog znakovnog jezika (ASL) na- learned through cultural transmission and is differ-
lik onome koji prolaze gluha djeca. U razdoblju od ent from population to population. Groups of chim-
dvije godine Washoe je nauila stotinjak znakova panzees from different areas will develop their own
koje je ubrzo poela kombinirati u smislene fra- dialectal system of gesticulation, different from
ze i imenovati nove stvari kombinirajui poznate the system used by other groups (McGrew and Tu-
pojmove (vidi Gardner et al. 1989). Kasnija istra- tin 1978).
ivanja pokazala su da je tempo usvajanja jezika The study the spouses Beatrix and Alan Gard-
kod impanzi i ljudi otprilike isti sve do oko dvije ner did on chimpanzee named Washoe were a
godine starosti, nakon ega impanze stagniraju, turning point in the study of linguistic abilities of
dok ljudska djeca poinju ubrzan razvoj jezinih non-human primates. Washoe was raised in their
sposobnosti (vidi Lieberman 2000 i tamo citiranu family in order to go through the natural process
literaturu). Jo je vanija injenica da je Washoe u of acquiring American sign language (ASL) in a so-
meuvremenu znakovnom jeziku nauila i usvo- cial environment, just like the one deaf children go
jenog sina Lolisa (Dunbar 1996), dok je impanza through. Over two years, Washoe learned around a
Lucy uspjeno svoja znanja jezika gluhih prenijela hundred signs which she soon started to combine
drugim impanzama (1989). Nadalje, usvajanje ova- into meaningful phrases and to name new things by
kvog naina komunikacije nije dokazano samo na combining known terms (see Gardner et al. 1989).
impanzama. Gorila Koko pokazala je jo zavidnije Later research has shown that the pace of language
rezultate i uspjeno je koristila gotovo 700 znakova, acquisition in chimpanzees and humans is almost
nerijetko ih upotrebljavajui u kontekstu prolih i identical until the age of two, after which point the
buduih radnji, te izraavanja emocija (Fouts 1997; chimpanzees stagnate and human children start to
Patterson 1978). develop their linguistic abilities increasingly (see
Drugi veliki pomak u suvremenim jezinim istrai- Lieberman 2000 and therein cited bibliography).
vanjima primata uinila je psihologinja Sue Savage- The fact that Washoe taught sign language to the
Rumbaugh s bonobom Kanzijem, s kojim je razvila adopted son Lolis is even more important (Dunbar
elaboriran sustav komunikacije temeljen na susta- 1996), while the chimpanzee called Lucy success-
vu leksigrama (Savage-Rumbaugh & Lewin 1996). fully transferred her knowledge of sign language to
Kanzi, koji je svoje prve pojmove nauio promatra- other chimpanzees. Moreover, the acquisition of
jui istraivae koji su pokuavali uiti njegovu maj- this type of communication has not been proven
ku, do svoje je este godine nauio oko 200 rijei. Uz exclusively on chimpanzees. The gorilla Koko dis-
to, iznenadio je znanstvenu zajednicu kada je po- played even more impressive results and success-
kazao mogunost da shvati vrlo specifine naredbe fully used almost 700 signs, commonly using them
koje dotad nije uo. when indicating past and future actions and when
showing emotion (Fouts 1997; Patterson 1978).
Navedeni rezultati potaknuli su val istraivanja je-
zinih mogunosti ovjekolikih majmuna te poka- The second great breakthrough in linguistic re-
zali kako njihova komunikacija uistinu moe sadr- search on primates was reached by psychologist
avati sva odredbena obiljeja ljudskog jezika. To Sue Savage-Rumbaugh with Kanzi the bonobo, with
samo po sebi ne znai da ostali primati imaju jezik which she developed an elaborate system of com-
niti da je njihova jezina sposobnost jednaka ljud- munication based on the system of lexigrams (Sav-
skoj. Razlike su i dalje znatne, no istraivanja su do- age-Rumbaugh & Lewin 1996). Kanzi, who learned
kazala kako ovjekoliki majmuni u odreenoj mjeri his first concepts by watching researches trying to
posjeduju kognitivne sposobnosti nune za razumi- teach his mother, learned about 200 words by the
jevanje i produkciju jezika, kao i osnovne elemen- age of six. Additionally, he surprised the scientific
17
te otvorenog sustava te osnovne sintaktike spo- community when he displayed the ability to under-
sobnosti (Pollick & de Waal 2007; Lieberman 2000, stand very specific orders he had never heard before.
vidi tab. 1), to govori u prilog tome da se temeljni The listed results sparked a line of research on the
preduvjeti za razvoj jezika javljaju relativno rano, linguistic abilities of apes in order to show that their
prije odvajanja zadnjeg zajednikog pretka ovih o- communication can truly contain all features of hu-
vjekolikih majmuna i ovjeka, iako valja naglasiti da man language. This in itself does not mean that other
je razlog pojave, ili prvotna funkcija u tih drevnih primates have language or that their linguistic abili-
hominida mogla biti nevezana uz jezik. ties match those of humans. The differences are still
Glasanje majmuna i
Znakovni jezik - ovjekoliki Znakovni jezik - ljudi/ Ljudski govoreni
ovjekolikih majmuna/
Design feature majmuni/Sign Sign Language - Jezik/ Spoken
Vocal Communication
Language -Apes Human Language
(Apes & Monkeys)
Glasovno-sluni kana/
Yes No No Yes
Vocal auditory channel
Posvudanji prijam i
usmjereni prijenos/ Yes Yes Yes Yes
Broadcast transmission
Zamiranje/ Rapid fading Yes Yes Yes Yes
Meurazmjenjivost/
Yes Yes Yes Yes
Interchangeability
Potpuna povratna
Yes No No Yes
sprega/ Total feedback
Specijaliziranost/
Yes Yes Yes Yes
Specialization
Semantinost/
Yes Yes Yes Yes
Semanticity
Arbitrarnost/
Yes Limited Mostly yes Yes
Arbitrariness
Razluivost/
Yes Yes Yes Yes
Discreteness
Premoivanje
razdaljine/ No Yes Yes, frequently Yes, frequently
Displacement
Produktivnost/
Yes Limited Yes Yes
Productivity/Openness
Kulturni prijenos/
Unknown Yes Yes Yes
Cultural Transmission
Dvostruka ralanjenost/
Species-dependent Yes Yes Yes
Double articulation
Species dependent, li-
La/ Lie Yes Yes Yes
mited
Refleksivnost/
No Unknown Yes Yes
Reflexivity
Uljivost/ Learnability No Yes Yes Yes
Tablica 1: Usporedba odredbenih obiljeja komunikacije kod ljudi i ovjekolikih majmuna prema Hockettu (1996). Podaci prema Fedurek
& Slocobe 2011; Dolhinow & Fuentes 1999.
Table 1: A comparison of defining features of communication in humans and apes according to Hockett (1996); data taken from Fedurek
& Slocobe 2011; Dolhinow & Fuentes 1999
No iako su osnovne strukture, ili preduvjeti, koje ka- significant, but research has shown that apes, to a
snije nalazimo utkane u razvoj govora i jezika posto- certain extent, have the cognitive abilities necessary
jale ve vrlo rano, od svih primata samo ovjek ima for the understanding and production of language, as
sve elemente modernog jezika i samo ovjek slui se well as basic elements of an open system and syn-
govorom kao osnovnim oblikom jezine komunika- tactic abilities (Pollick & de Waal 2007; Lieberman
cije. Razlozi za to oiti su u anatomskim strukturama 2000, see tab. 1), which supports the assumption
vezanim uz produkciju govora i jezika koje su vidljive that the basic preconditions for the development
u suvremenih ljudi, a nedostaju, ili se razlikuju od, of language appeared relatively early, before the last
ovjekolikih majmuna i ostalih primata. Stoga govor separation of the last common ancestor of these apes
i u potpunosti moderan jezik valja traiti u vremenu and humans, although the reason for the emergence,
18
nakon odvajanja od ostalih ovjekolikih majmuna, and the primary function of these ancient hominids
unutar evolucijske prolosti plemena hominini (po- could have been unrelated to language.
evi prije otprilike 5-6 milijuna godina, za detaljniji However, although the basic structures, or precon-
pregled suvremene taksonomije vidi Jankovi & Ka- ditions, which we later see woven into the develop-
ravani 2009) te ga temeljiti na anatomskim struktu- ment of speech and language, existed very early, only
rama vezanim uz kognitivne elemente komunikacije, humans display all elements of modern language and
govora i jezika (neuralne strukture) i izvedbene ele- only humans use speech as the basic mode of linguis-
mente (prvenstveno anatomija govornog aparata). tic communication. The reasons for it are apparent
in the anatomical structures connected to the pro-
duction of speech and language visible in modern
Anatomija govora i jezika humans, and are lacking or differ from those of apes
and other primates. Hence, speech and completely
Poetkom 19. stoljea bilo je vrlo popularno pove- modern language should be sought for in the periods
zivati odreene regije i strukture mozga uz razliite when the human lineage separated from other apes,
aspekte ponaanja na emu se temelji (pseudo) within the evolutionary history of the tribe hominini
znanstvena teorija frenologije. Ekstremni zagovor- (beginning approximately 5 and 6 million years ago,
nici tog pristupa idu toliko daleko da pokuavaju for a detailed discussion on contemporary taxonomy
tipizirati moralne i druge karakteristike pojedinaca see Jankovi & Karavani 2009), and should be based
na temelju fenotipskih odlika lubanje. Frenologija je on anatomical structures connected to the cognitive
odjek imala i u lingvistikim prouavanjima, pose- elements of communication, speech and language
bice na temelju istraivanja i medicinskih zapaanja (neural structures) and performativity (primarily the
dvojice lijenika: Paula Broce i Carla Wernickea. anatomy of the speech apparatus).
Godine 1861. Broca je opisao pacijente s otee-
njem frontalnog dijela neokorteksa (danas pozna-
tom kao Brocina regija) koji su pokazali potekoe The anatomy of speech and
u produkciji jezika. Kod anatomski modernih ljudi language
Brocinim se podrujem nazivaju Brodmanova po-
druja 44 i 45 u eonom renju (sl. 1). Ozljeda ovog At the beginning of the 19th century it was very pop-
dijela mozga najee rezultira Brocinom afazijom, ular to connect certain regions and brain structures
govornim poremeajem koji se oituje kroz agrama- to different aspects of behavior the basis of the
tizam i potekoe u produkciji jezika, ali ne i u nje- (pseudo)scientific phrenology. Extreme supporters
govoj recepciji. Osobe s Brocinom afazijom tako e of this approach go so far as to try and typify moral
savreno dobro razumjeti tui govor ili, primjerice, and other characteristics of individuals based on the
proitani tekst. U govoru im, meutim, esto nedo- phenotypic characteristics of their skulls. Phrenolo-
staju eljene rijei, a reenice su kratke, jednostavne, gy also influenced linguistic studies, especially based
isprekidane te najee bez gramatikih rijei poput on research and medical observations of two doc-
pomonih glagola. Ljudi koji pate od ove afazije tors: Paul Broca and Carl Wernicke. In 1861, Broca
imaju potpunu povratnu spregu, to znai da uju i described patients with damage on the frontal part
prepoznaju svoje pogreke te su esto frustrirani ra- of the neocortex (today known as Brocas region)
zlikom izmeu zamiljenog i ostvarenog (Dronkers which displayed difficulties with language produc-
et al. 2000). Iz tog razloga pretpostavlja se kako je tion. In anatomically modern humans, Brocas area
Brocino podruje zadueno uglavnom za produkci- covers Brodmans regions 44 and 45 in the frontal
ju jezika te fonoloko procesuiranje. O tonoj ulozi lobe (fig. 1). An injury to this part of the brain most
Brocinog podruja kad je rije o jeziku postoji mno- often results in Brocas aphasia, a speech impairment
go teorija i jo je uvijek predmet rasprave. Osim lin- displayed through agrammatism and difficulties in
gvistike uloge, Brocino podruje, tonije podruje language production, but not reception. Persons
44 u Brocinom podruju, zadueno je i za koordi- with Brocas agrammatism will be able to perfectly
naciju ruke pri kompleksnim pokretima, senzori- understand someone elses speech or, for example,
motorno uenje i integraciju (Binkofski & Buccino will be able to read a text. In speech, however, they
2004), a pretpostavlja se da igra odreenu ulogu i often lack key words, and their sentences are short,
u snalaenju u vremenu. Zbog motorikih funkcija simple, discontinuous and most often without gram-
koje obavlja, smatra se da se ovo podruje razvilo iz matical words such as auxiliary verbs. People suffer-
motorikog asocijativnog korteksa (Wilkins 2009). ing from this type of aphasia have complete feed-
Mozak ostalih primata takoer pokazuje odreenu back, which means that they hear and recognize
asimetriju u frontalnom renju te se pretpostavlja their mistakes and are often frustrated by the dif-
da bi podruje oznaeno kao F5 zbog svoje funkcije ference between what they imagined and what they
19
i smjetaja moglo biti homologno ili pretea Broci- said (Dronkers et al. 2000). This is why it is thought
nog podruja (Rizzolati & Arbib 1998; Binkofski & that Brocaa area is mostly responsible for language
Buccino 2004). Posljednja istraivanja pokazala su production and phonological processing. The pre-
kako se Brocino podruje kod ljudi te podruje F5 cise role of Brocas area when it comes to language
kod ovjekolikih majmuna posebno aktiviraju pri is the topic of many discussions and theories. Apart
planiranju pokreta prinoenja ustima (Gentilucci et from the linguistic function, Brocas area, or area 44
al. 2011). Pritom se i otvaranje prstiju i usta simul- in Brocas area, is responsible for hand coordination
tano prilagoava veliini predmeta, to predstavlja in complex movements, sensory-motoric learning
vrlo istananu koordinaciju i motoriku. Iz tog razlo- and integration (Binkofski and Buccino 2004), and
ga, neki autori smatraju kako je upravo taj neuralni there is an assumption that it plays a certain part in
mehanizam stvorio temelj za prenoenje motorikih time management. Due to the motoric functions it
uzoraka signaliziranja rukama na sustav artikulacije does, this area is thought to have developed from
ustima, omoguivi tako funkcionalno prebaciva- the motoric associative cortex (Wilkins 2009.). The
nje komunikacije na vokalni modalitet i formiranje brains of other primates also shows certain asymme-
mogunosti govora (Gentilucci et al. 2011). 1874. try in the frontal cortex and the area noted as F5, due
godine Wernicke je na temelju zapaanja ustanovio to its function and placement, could be homologue
da oteenja na posteriornom dijelu korteksa (danas to or a predecessor of Brocas area (Rizzolati and
poznatom kao Wernickeova regija, sl. 1) uzrokuju Arbib 1998; Binkofski and Buccino 2004). Latest re-
potekoe u razumijevanju govora. Wernickeovo search has shown that Brocas area in humans and F5
podruje smjeteno je u temporalnom renju na in apes are more active when planning movements
dijelu Brodmannova podruja 22, neposredno do bringing something closer to the mouth (Gentilucci
auditornog korteksa. Glavna mu je funkcija proce- et al. 2011). The opening of fingers and the mouth
suiranje i recepcija jezika - bilo govora, znakovnog are simultaneously in accordance with the size of
jezika ili pisma. Ozljeda ovog podruja uzrokuje the object, which requires detailed coordination and
istoimenu afaziju koja se manifestira besmislenim, motoric abilities. Thus, some authors state that it
ali potpuno tenim, ritminim te sintaktiki tonim was precisely this neural mechanism which created
reenicama. Za razliku od ljudi pogoenih Broci- the basis for transferring motoric patterns of hand
nom afazijom, oni koji pate od Wernickeove esto signalization to the system of mouth articulation, al-
ne mogu percipirati vlastite pogreke u pismu ili lowing for a functional transfer of communication to
govoru niti razumjeti govor drugih (Dronkers et al. the vocal mode and the formation of speech ability
2000). Komparativna su istraivanja pokazala kako (Gentilucci et al. 2011). In 1874, based on his obser-
u temporalnom renju ovjekolikih majmuna po- vations, Wernicke established that damage to the
stoji asimetrija koja odgovara lokaciji Wernickeova posterior part of the cortex (today called Wernickes
podruja u ljudi (Hopkins et al. 1998). Na temelju area, fig. 1) causes damage in speech understanding.
Brocinih i Wernickeovih zapaanja, postavljen je Wernickes area is situated in the temporal lobe on
tzv. Lichtheimov model prema kojem se govor koji part of Brodmanns area 22, right next to the audi-
ujemo procesuira u Wernickeovom podruju, na- tory cortex. Its main function is language, whether
kon ega informacija putuje do Brocina podruja it is speech, sign language or written language, pro-
koje slui kao regija za ekspresivnu produkciju je- cessing and reception. An injury to this part of the
zika (expressive language output device). Naravno, brain causes Wernickes aphasia, which is manifested
ovo je vrlo pojednostavljen model i kasnija istraiva- through producing meaningless but completely flu-
nja pokazala su da, iako odreene regije mozga ima- ent, rhythmic and syntactically correct sentences.
ju vanu ulogu u procesuiranju odreenih stimula, Unlike people suffering from Brocas aphasia, those
ili motorikoj kontroli, niti jedna regija nije isklju- who suffer from Wernickes aphasia often cannot
ivo odgovorna za sloeno ponaanje. Novija istra- perceive their own mistakes in writing or speech and
ivanja idu u smjeru razumijevanja komunikacije cannot understand the speech of others (Dronkers et
odreenih regija koje zajedno ine tzv. funkcionalni al. 2000). Comparative research has shown that the
neuralni sustav (functional neural system, FNS, ili u temporal lobe of apes displays an asymmetry in the
sluaju jezika funkcionalan jezini sustav, functional region equivalent to Wernickes area in human (Hop-
language system, FLS). Uloga funkcionalnog jezi- kins et al. 1998). Based on Brocas and Wernickes
nog sustava je brzo prenijeti, razumijeti i pohraniti observations, the so called Lichtheim model was de-
informacije, te ih procesuirati kroz medij jezika (go- vised, according to which the speech we hear is pro-
vora). Iako je ljudski mozak vrlo prilagodljiv i prema cessed in Wernickes area, after which information
potrebi moe se prilagoditi na drugaij medij jezi- travels to Brocas area which is in fact an expressive
nog procesuiranja, njegov osnovni medij je govor. language output device. Naturally, this is a simplified
U novije vrijeme, istraivanja su pokazala jo jednu model and later research has shown that, although
regiju koja potencijalno ima vanu ulogu (izmeu certain areas of the brain play an important role in
20
ostalog) u razvoju jezinih sposobnosti, a nalazi se u processing certain stimuli or motoric control, no sin-
podruju parijetalno-okcipitalno temporalnog spo- gle area is exclusively responsible for complex behav-
jita (POT). Podruje POT najudaljenije je od svih ior. Recent research focuses on understanding com-
senzornih podraaja te obuhvaa Brodmannova po- munication between certain areas which, together,
druja 39, 40 te dio podruja 22, na kojem se nalazi make up the functional neural system, FNS, or, in
i Wernickeovo podruje (sl. 1). Kod anatomski mo- case of language, the functional linguistic system,
dernih ljudi to je najrazvijenije asocijacijsko podru- FLS. The role of the functional linguistic system is to
je, zadueno za interpretaciju podraaja te usko po- quickly transfer, understand and store information
vezano s jezinom kognicijom i ponaanjem, kako and process them through the medium of language
receptivnim, tako i produktivnim. Mozak ostalih (speech). Although the human brain is very flexible
primata ne pokazuje nikakve naznake proirenja u and can, if needed, adapt to a different medium of
ovom dijelu mozga koji bi mogli odgovarati POT- language processing, its basic medium is speech.
u (Wilkins 2009). Kako se razvilo posljednje, nakon Recently, research has shown another area which po-
odvajanja od posljednjeg zajednikog pretka, pret- tentially has an important role (among other things)
postavlja se da se razvilo kao odgovor na neke nove in the development of linguistic abilities, and is situ-
potrebe koje u ranijih primata nisu bile prisutne. ated in the parietal-temporal-occipital association
Slika 1: Poloaj Brocine, Wernickeove, POT regije i Brodmanovih podruja koje se spominju u tekstu (modificirano prema Montreal
Neurological Institute).
Figure 1: The positions of Brocas, Wernickes, and PTO areas and Brodmanns areas mentioned in the text (modified from the Montreal
Neurological Institute).
Kada je rije o evoluciji jezika, jedna od vanijih area (PTO). PTO is an area furthest from all sensory
tema rasprava vodi se oko pitanja je li pojava ljud- stimuli and includes Brodmanns areas 39, 40 and
skog jezika u svojim samim poecima bila vokal- part of area 22, including Wernickes area (fig. 1).
ne ili gestikularne prirode (Arbib 2005; Tomasello In anatomically modern humans, this is the most
2008; Riede et al. 2005; Zuberbhler 2005; Hewes developed association area, responsible for stimuli
1973). Iako komparativna istraivanja djelomino interpretation and closely related to linguistic cog-
podravaju oba stajalita, vokalizacija i govorni jezik nition and behavior, both receptive and productive.
imaju nekoliko bitnih prednosti. Ponajprije, zvuni The brains of other primates do not show traces of
signal u sluaju opasnosti mnogo je uinkovitiji i widening in this part of the brain which would be
privlai vie pozornosti na govornika, a vokalna ko- equivalent to PTO (Wilkins 2009). As it developed
munikacija omoguava istovremenu interakciju s last, after the last common ancestor separation, it is
vie lanova grupe ak i u uvjetima koji su iznimno supposed to have developed as a reaction to some
nepovoljni za komunikaciju gestama, poput mraka, new needs earlier primates did not have.
velike udaljenosti izmeu sugovornika te fizikih ili When it comes to language evolution, one of the
drutvenih prepreka (Fedurek & Slocombe 2011). important discussions revolves around the question
Anatomija koja omoguava govor stoga je iznimno of whether the emergence of human language in its
bitna u prouavanju evolucije jezika. beginnings was vocal or gestural in nature (Arbib
Fizika produkcija govora zapoinje disanjem, to je 2005; Tomasello 2008; Riede et al. 2005; Zuberbh-
glavno pokretako sredstvo vokalizacije. Kod ana- ler 2005; Hewes 1973). Although comparative re-
tomski modernih ljudi u procesu disanja glavnu ulo- search partially supports both standpoints, vocali-
21
gu imaju interkostalni miii koji svojom kontrak- zation and verbal language have several important
cijom ire prsnu upljinu. Kontrola interkostalnih advantages. Firstly, a sound signal in case of danger
miia ujedno je i kontrola subglotalnog pritiska koji is more efficient and attracts more attention to the
omoguava izgovor duih nizova rijei ili reenice u speaker, and vocalized communication enables for a
jednom izdisaju kao i naglaavanje pojedinih jedinica contemporaneous reaction of more group members
govora te kontrolu intonacije, to su iznimno bitne even in conditions which are extremely bad for ges-
karakteristike ljudskog govornog jezika. Upravljanje tural communication, e.g. darkness, great distances
interkostalnim miiima vri se preko kraljenine between speakers and physical or social barriers
modine, tonije, sive tvari u kojoj se nalaze glavni (Fedurek & Slocombe 2011). The anatomy which al-
projekcijski neuroni motoneuroni - iji se aksoni lows for speech to exist is, therefore, extremely im-
pruaju do svih poprenoprugastih miia, meu portant in the study of language evolution.
ostalim i interkostalnih (Krmpoti-Nemani & Ma- The physical production of speech starts with
rui 2004). Veliina vertebralnog kanala izravno je breathing, the main motivator of vocalization.
povezana s debljinom kraljenine modine (Mac- In anatomically modern humans, the process of
Larnon & Hewitt 1995), a relativna debljina kralje- breathing is made possible by intercostal muscles
nine modine s koliinom sive tvari u grai (Mac- which, by contracting, help open the chest cavity.
Larnon 1993). Manja koliina sive tvari tako znai i The control of intercostal muscles is also the control
manju kontrolu nad poprenoprugastim miiima. of the subglottic pressure which allows for saying
Akustika energija koja se stvara disanjem prvo longer lines of words or sentences in a single breath,
prolazi kroz supralaringalni vokalni trakt koji kon- as well as for accentuating certain units of speech
tinuirano mijenja svoj oblik stvarajui tako razliite and speech intonation, all extremely important
obrasce zvukova. Supralaringalni vokalni trakt sa- characteristics of human spoken language. Inter-
stoji se od usne i nosne upljine, drijela i grkljana costal muscle control is achieved through the brain
(sl. 2). U usnoj upljini nalazi se jezik iji se zaoblje- stem, that is, gray matter where the main projec-
ni kraj lagano sputa u upljinu drijela (Fitch 2000). tion neurons, motoneurons, are situated. Their ax-
drijelo je postavljeno okomito na usnu upljinu i ons reach all striated muscles, including the inter-
kod anatomski modernih ljudi podjednake je du- costal ones (Krmpoti-Nemani & Marui 2004).
ine s njom (Lieberman 2007). Grkljan anatomski The size of the vertebral canal is directly connected
modernih ljudi poneto je sputen te se protee od to the thickness of the brain stem (MacLarnon &
gornjeg ruba etvrtog do donjeg ruba estog vrat- Hewitt 1995), and the brain stem thickness is con-
nog kraljeka. Kod ne-ljudskih primata, kao i kod nected to the amount of gray matter (MacLarnon
ljudske novoroenadi larinks je smjeten visoko u 1993). Smaller amounts of grey matter, therefore,
grlu (vidi Lieberman & McCarthy 1999), to omo- mean less control over striated muscles.
guava istovremeno disanje i gutanje to je vano The acoustic energy created by breathing first travels
za sisavce. No to ograniava raspon glasova koji se through supralaringeal vocal tract which continu-
mogu producirati. Tijekom rasta i razvoja, kod ljudi ally changes its shape creating different sound pat-
se larinks pomie prema dolje i dostie svoj konaan terns. The supralaringeal vocal tract includes the oral
poloaj izmeu 3 i 4 godine starosti (Sasaki et al. and nasal cavities, the pharynx and the larynx (fig.
1977; Fitch 2000; Nishimura et al. 2008). U kombi- 2). The oral cavity contains the tongue. The curved
naciji s visokim nepcem tako sputen grkljan omo- end of the tongue goes down into the pharynx (Fitch
guava produkciju najveeg mogueg broja glasova. 2000). The pharynx is perpendicular to the oral cav-
Mogunosti artikulacije suglasnika uvelike odreu- ity and is, in anatomically modern humans, equal in
je poloaj jezine kosti, spojene na hrskavinu pot- length (Lieberman 2007). The larynx of anatomically
poru grkljana. Na nju se veu tri miia (m. geni- modern humans is somewhat lower and stretches
oglossus, m. palatoglossus i m. mylohyoideus) ija je from the upper part of the fourth to the lower part
uloga pomicanje jezika u usnoj upljini tijekom va- of the sixth vertebra. In nonhuman primates, as well
kanja, gutanja i govora. Tijekom odrastanja jezina as in human infants, the larynx is placed high in the
kost se kod ljudi znatno sputa u odnosu na nepce, throat (see Lieberman & McCarthy 1999), which al-
dok kod ostalih primata ostaje relativno visoko u lows for contemporaneous breathing and swallow-
grlu. Takav poloaj rezultira drugaijim izgledom ing important for mammals. However, this reduces
navedenih miia i njihovih hvatita, a samim time the span of sounds which can be produced. During
i drugaijim mogunostima. Oblik i poloaj jezine growth and development in humans, the larynx
kosti kod ovjekolikih majmuna ograniava fleksi- moves downwards and reaches its final span between
bilnost jezika te rezultira veom udaljenosti izme- the age of 3 and 4 (Sasaki et al. 1977; Fitch 2000; Ni-
u korijena jezika i prednjeg predjela usne upljine, shimura et al. 2008). In combination with the high
22
Slika 2: Poloaj grkljana kod impanze i ovjeka (preuzeto iz Krmpoti-Nemani & Marui 2004:276).
Figure 2: The position of the larynx in chimpanzees and humans (taken from Krmpoti-Nemani & Marui 2004: 276).
to onemoguava da jezik dopre do svih mjesta u palate, such a lowered larynx enables the production
usnoj upljini. Ovo ogranienje u pomicanju jezika of the largest possible number of sounds. The ability
ujedno znai i da jezik ne dopire do mjesta na koji- to articulate consonants is affected by the position of
ma se tvore odreeni konsonanti u ljudskom jeziku the hyoid bone, connected to the cartilage support
(Duchin 1990). of the larynx. It includes three muscles (m. genioglos-
Kod odraslih impanza i ostalih neljudskih prima- sus, m. palatoglossus and m. mylohyoideus) which
ta grkljan se nastavlja neposredno na meko nepce, help move the tongue in the oral cavity during chew-
a farinks je mnogo krai u odnosu na usnu upljinu ing, swallowing and speaking. As people grow up,
(Negus 1949, Laitman i Reidenberg 1993: sl. 2). Tije- the hyoid bone is significantly lowered in relation to
kom sazrijevanja grkljan se donekle sputa u odnosu the palate, and in other primates it remains relatively
na nepce i tako relativno produuje drijelo (Flgel high in the throat. Such a position results in differ-
i Rohen 1991). Istovremeno se, meutim, razvija i ent appearance of the listed muscles and their bases,
prognatizam lica zbog ega se dodatno produuju which means different abilities. The shape and posi-
usna upljinu i jezik, to ponovno rezultira veom tion of the hyoid bone in apes limits tongue flexibil-
razlikom u duljini drijela i usne upljine (Nishimu- ity and results in a greater distance between the root
ra et al. 2006). Ovakav anatomski ustroj onemogu- of the tongue and the front part of the oral cavity,
uje krianje probavnog i dinog puta te eliminira which is why the tongue cannot reach all parts of the
mogunost aspiracije hrane ili tekuina (Be et al. oral cavity. This limitation in tongue movement also
2002), ali takoer uvelike ograniava produkciju gla- means that the tongue cannot reach the places where
sova i mogunosti vokalne komunikacije. ovjeko- certain consonants are produced (Duchin 1990).
liki majmuni imaju znatno ui torakalni vertebralni In grownup chimpanzees and other nonhuman pri-
kanal od anatomski modernih ljudi. Ne udi onda mates, the larynx is directly connected to the soft
to se glasanje i disanje primata pri glasanju uvelike palate, and the pharynx is significantly shorter relat-
razlikuju od ljudskoga govora. Pri disanju neljudski ed to the oral cavity (Negus 1949, Laitman and Rei-
primati koriste abdominalne miie i dijafragmu denberg 1993: fig. 2). During maturing, the larynx
kako bi upravljali disanjem pri glasanju, dok interko- is somewhat lowered in relation to the palate and
stalni miii uglavnom nemaju aktivnu ulogu. Kako relatively elongates the pharynx (Flgel & Rohen
interkostalni miii ne sudjeluju aktivno u procesu, 1991). At the same time, however, face prognathism
vokalizacija je u primata uglavnom kratka i nemo- develops, additionally elongating the oral cavity and
dulirana (MacLarnon & Hewitt 1999). the tongue, again resulting in a greater difference in
larynx and oral cavity length (Nishimura et al. 200.).
This anatomical feature disables the crossing of the
Temelji razumijevanja govora i digestive path and the airway and eliminates the
jezika u prolosti ability to inhale food or liquids (Be et al. 2002.), but
also greatly limits sound production and the ability
Fosilna graa for verbal communication. Apes have a significantly
narrower thoracic vertebral canal than anatomical-
Budui da se jezik ne fosilizira te sve do pojave pi- ly modern humans. Therefore, it is not surprising
sma ne ostavlja izravan trag, na uvid u ranu evolu- that the sounds and breathing while making sounds
cijsku prolost jezika (i govora) bit e prilino ogra- in primates is very different from human speech.
23
nien. Kao jedan od najboljih pokazatelja posluit While breathing, nonhuman primates use abdomi-
e nam fosilna graa. Budui da smo u prethodnom nal muscles and the diaphragm to control breathing
poglavlju odredili dio anatomskih regija vezanih uz while making sounds, while the intercostal muscles
jezine sposobnosti i produkciju govora, ovdje emo mostly do not play an active part in that. Since the
na temelju dostupnih fosilnih nalaza pokuati vidjeti intercostal muscles do not play an active role in the
kada se u ljudskoj evolucijskoj prolosti ti elementi process, primate vocalization is mostly short and
javljaju. Panju emo posebno obratiti na kranijal- non-modulated (MacLarnon & Hewitt 1999).
ni kapacitet (odnosno poveanje istog), morfoloke
odlike Brocinog i Wernickeovog podruja, no i na
ostale anatomske detalje koje je mogue vezati uz THE BASIS FOR UNDERSTANDING
neke od elemenata govora ili jezinih sposobnosti. OF SPEECH AND LANGUAGE IN THE
Imajui na umu raznolike funkcije Brocinog i Wer- PASTFossil record
nickeovog podruja te funkcije podruja iz kojih su
se specijalizacijom razvila, ne udi to su u odre- Since language cannot be fossilized and there are no
enoj mjeri bila prisutna ve prije pojave plemena direct traces of it until the emergence of writing, our
hominini. Prethodnici anatomski modernih ljudi, insight into the early evolutionary past of language
ali i ostalih ivuih primata, morali su imati sposob- (and speech) will be fairly limited. We will use fossil
nosti poput snalaenja u vremenu i prostoru, dobru material as one of the best indicators. In the previous
kontrolu nad pokretima te mogunost interpreta- chapter we determined some anatomic areas con-
cije zvunih signala te poruka i informacija koje su nected to linguistic abilities and speech production,
primali od drugih pripadnika svoje vrste. Evolucija we will move on to try and see, based on available
je tako iskoristila ove postojee djelie anatomije i fossil remains, when these elements appeared in hu-
prilagodila ih produkciji jezika kada se za to ukazala man evolution. We will put special emphasis on cra-
potreba. Samo postojanje ovih podruja ili njihovih nial capacity (i.e. when it increased), the morphologi-
pretea u zadnjeg zajednikog pretka, meutim, ne cal features of Brocas and Wercnickes areas, but also
svjedoi o njihovoj razvijenosti i ulozi u komunika- on other anatomical details which can be connected
ciji, niti o njihovom evolucijskom putu. Odgovor na to elements of speech or linguistic abilities.
ta pitanja treba potraiti u fosilnim ostacima plio- With different functions of Brocas and Wernickes
pleistocenskih hominina. areas in mind which developed through speciali-
zation, it is not surprising that they were present
O anatomiji i organizaciji mozga vie se moe sazna-
before the appearance of the tribe hominini. The
ti iz vrlo rijetkih prirodnih endokasta ili umjetnih
predecessors of anatomically modern humans and
odljeva napravljenih pomou ouvanih lubanja (vidi
other living primates, had abilities like time and
Holloway et al. 2004). Jo 1972. godine Holloway
space orientation, good movement control and
(1972) je analizirao posebno dobro ouvan endokast
the ability to interpret sound signals, messages
vrste Australopithecus robustus u potrazi za ana-
and information they received from members of
tomskim karakteristikama koje bi mogle upuivati
their species. Evolution made use of these exist-
na jezine sposobnosti. Njegove su analize pokazale
ing anatomical particles and adapted them to lan-
kako se ve kod ovog ranog hominina javlja reorga-
guage production when it became necessary. The
nizacija mozga, oitovana u veem i zaobljenijemu
sole existence of these areas or their predecessors
predjelu Brocinog podruja te znatnom poveanju u
in the last common ancestor, however, is not proof
temporalnom renju na mjestu gdje se kod anatom- of their development and role in communication,
ski modernih ljudi nalazi Wernickeovo podruje. or of their evolutionary path. The answers to these
Nalazi pripisani vrsti Homo habilis pokazuju reorga- questions should be sought in the fossil record of
nizaciju mozga u smjeru anatomski modernih ljudi. Plio-Pleistocene hominins.
Prisutna je cerebralna asimetrija te se u manjoj mjeri We can learn more about the anatomy and organi-
javljaju podruja koja odgovaraju Brocinom, Wernic- zation of the brain from extremely rare endocasts
keovu podruju te POT-u (Tobias 1998), a kranijalni or artificial casts made based on preserved skulls
kapacitet neto je vei u odnosu na ranije hominine (see Holloway et al. 2004). Back in 1972, Holloway
(Deacon 1997), to se povezuje s relativnom velii- (1972) analyzed a well-preserved endocast of the
nom neokorteksa i mogunosti kompleksnih dru- species Australopithecus robustus, searching for
tvenih interakcija te poveanja zajednice (Dunbar anatomical characteristics which could indicate lin-
2003; Mithen 1999). Wilkins i Wakefield (1995) guistic abilities. His analyses showed that brain re-
proirili su istraivanje Brocinog podruja analizom organization appeared in early hominins, apparent
njegovih izvanjezinih funkcija, posebice neuralne through a bigger and more curved part of Brocas
kontrole palca, vezanom uz uporabu i proizvodnju area and through a significant increase in the tem-
24
kamenih alatki, to zahtjeva koordinaciju oka i ruke. poral lobe in the place where Wernickes area is in
Wilkins (2009) predlae model prema kojem je mo- anatomically modern humans.
toriko podruje rano u ljudskoj povijesti koevolu- Finds ascribed to Homo habilis display brain reor-
iralo sa somatosenzornim podrujem zahvaljujui ganization in the direction of anatomically mod-
selekciji koja je favorizirala mogunost bolje izrade ern humans. Cerebral asymmetry is present and,
orua te lova na daljinu. Podruja koja su se posebno although smaller, areas appear which are similar to
razvila pritom su Brocino i Wernickeovo podruje te Brocas, Wernickes and PTO areas (Tobias 1998),
dijelovi POT-a. Iako se ove anatomske komponente and the cranial capacity is somewhat larger than in
nisu razvile kako bi podrale lingvistike funkcije, earlier hominins (Deacon 1997), which is connected
njihov je razvoj bio nuan za pojavu jezika i govora to the relative size of the neocortex and abilities of
(Wilkins 2009). Wilkinsovu teoriju o razvoju moto- complex social interactions and increase in commu-
rikog podruja koje je potom posluilo kao neuralni nity size (Dunbar 2003; Mithen 1999). Wilkins and
temelj za jezinu produkciju podupiru i suvremene Wakefield (1995) widened research on Brocas area
spoznaje u rehabilitaciji djece s cerebralnim otee- by analyzing his non-linguistic functions, especially
njima. Iako se motorike funkcije na prvi pogled ne neural thumb control, connected to using and mak-
ine usko povezane s jezinom sposobnosti, u mozgu ing stone tools which requires hand to eye coordina-
su gusto isprepletene. Vjebe za poticanje koordina- tion. Wilkins (2009) suggested a model which states
cije i razvoj motorike kod djece s oteenjem mozga that motoric areas in early human history coevolved
tako simultano utjeu na razvoj jezine sposobnosti. with the somatosensory area thanks to selection
Na temelju fosilne grae mogue je zakljuiti da which favored the ability to produce better tools and
su se jo znaajnije promjene u organizaciji moz- hunting from a distance. Some areas developed pre-
ga, kao i poveanje kranijalnog kapaciteta javile cisely due to this, including Brocas, Wernickes and
kod taksona Homo erectus/ergaster. Dunbar (1996) parts of the PTO areas. Although these anatomical
smatra da je u to vrijeme vokalizacija preuzela ulo- components did not develop in order to support lin-
gu (Dunbar 1996), iako se suvremena inaica jezika guistic functions, their development was necessary
javlja tek mnogo kasnije i prema Dunbaru (1996) for the emergence of language and speech (Wilkins
vezana je uz anatomski moderne ljude i pojavu sim- 2009). Wilkinss theory on the development of mo-
bolike, rituala i religije. Osim poveanja kranijalnog toric areas which later served as a neural basis for
kapaciteta, nalazi pripisani vrsti H. erectus/ergaster language production were widened by contempo-
pruaju dokaze i o prisustvu Brocine i Wernickeove rary findings on the rehabilitation of children with
regije (Wynn 1998). cerebral paralysis. Although motoric abilities do not
Naglaeno poveanje kranijalnog kapaciteta homi- appear to be closely related to linguistic abilities,
nina mogue je pratiti u razdoblju izmeu 2 i 1.5 they are thickly intertwined in the brain. Exercises
milijuna godina prije sadanjosti, nakon ega slijedi for increasing coordination and developing motoric
razdoblje relativne stagnacije, te ponovo u razdo- abilities in children with brain damage can simulta-
blju izmeu 600 000 i 250 000 godina prije sada- neously affect linguistic abilities.
njosti, kada je dostignuta dananja vrijednost (Ruff Based on fossil material, it is possible to conclude
et al. 1997). S pojavom vrste Homo ergaster tjelesna that even more significant changes in brain organi-
masa poveala se za gotovo 50-70% u odnosi na ra- zation, as well as an increase in cranial capacity,
nije hominine, dok se veliina mozga udvostruila appeared in Homo erectus/ergaster. Dunbar (1996)
(Key & Aiello 1999, vidi tab.2 i sl. 3).
takson srednja vrijednost (u ml) raspon vrijednosti (u ml)
Australopithecus afarensis 445.8 387 - 550
Australopithecus africanus 461.2 400 - 560
Australopithecus aethiopicus 431.7 400 - 490
Australopithecus robustus 493.3 450 - 530
Australopithecus boisei 508.3 475 - 545
Australopithecus garhi 450 -
Homo habilis 610.3 510-687
Homo rudolfensis 788 752-825
Homo ergaster 800 750-848
Homo erectus 951.8 727-1222
Homo heidelbergensis 1262.8 1150-1450
Homo sapiens neanderthalensis 1427.2 1200-1700
Tablica 2: Endokranijalni kapacitet za neke vrste hominina (prema Holloway et al. 2004)
Table 2: The endocranial capacity for some species of hominins (according to Holloway et al. 2004)
25
states that, at the time, vocaliza-

tion took over (Dunbar 1996.),
although the contemporary
version of language appeared
later and is, according to Dun-
bar (1996), connected to ana-
tomically modern humans and
the appearance of symbolism,
rituals and religion. Apart from
an increase in cranial capac-
ity, finds of H. erectus/ergaster
give evidence for the existence
of Brocas and Wernickes areas
(Wynn 1998).
A marked increase in hominin
cranial capacity can be followed
in the period between 2 and 1.5
million years before present,
after which there is a period of
relative stagnation, and again
in the period between 600 000
and 250 000 years before pre-
sent, when todays values were
reached (Ruff et al. 1997). The
appearance of Homo ergaster
meant a 50-70% increase in
body mass in relation to earlier
Slika 3: Volumen mozga u cm3 za neke vrste hominina (prema hominins, and the size of the brain doubled (Key &
Dunbar 2009:25) (MYA oznaava milijune godina prije
sadanjosti).
Aiello 1999, see tab. 2 and fig. 3).
Figure 3: Brain volume in cm3 for some species of hominins The increase in cranial capacity, especially the neu-
(according to Dunbar 2009:25) (MYA means millions of years rocortex as the region where information is stored
before present). and processed in the basis for developing many
complex behaviors, relations and developing com-
Poveanje kranijalnog kapaciteta, posebice neuro- plex language systems (Li 2002). Modern brain
korteksa kao regije u kojoj se spremaju i procesui- organization and the development of the so called
raju informacije temelj je razvoja mnogih sloenih linguistic areas created a good foundation for the
ponaanja, odnosa, te razvoja sloenog jezinog su- mergence and development of language. Speech,
stava (Li 2002). Moderna organizacija mozga i ra- however, required significant anatomical changes
zvoj takozvanih jezinih podruja stvorio je dobru to the speech apparatus, one of the basic changes
podlogu za pojavu i razvoj jezika, no za razvoj govo- included a better control of the intercostal muscles
ra bile su potrebne i znaajne anatomske promjene and breathing (although the reasons for this change
u govornom aparatu. Jedna od osnovnih promjena were probably also connected to emphasizing the
bila je bolja kontrola nad interkostalnim miiima i importance of long-distance running and the like)
disanjem (iako su razlozi za ovu anatomsku promje- (see MacLarnon 1993; MacLarnon & Hewitt 1999;
nu vjerojatno bili vezani i uz naglasak na vanost 2004).
tranja na duge staze i dr.) (vidi MacLarnon 1993; The anatomical area which can give us insight is
MacLarnon & Hewitt 1999; 2004). the vertebral canal, that is, its dimensions (for ex-
Anatomska regija koja e nam pruiti uvid u to je ample, contemporary human populations have
vertebralni kanal, odnosno njegove dimenzije (pri- bigger vertebral canals than apes). Unfortunately,
mjerice, suvremene ljudske populacije imaju vee fossil material for studying this anatomical region
dimenzije vertebralnog kanala od ovjekolikih (especially in early hominins) is very sparse. Based
majmuna). Naalost, fosilna graa za prouavanje on limited finds, Mac Larnon and Hewitt (1999;
ove anatomske regije (posebice ranih hominina) 2004) concluded that australopithecines members
vrlo je oskudna. Na temelju ogranienih nalaza had more resemblance to other primates than hu-
Mac Larnon i Hewitt (1999; 2004) zakljuili su da mans. Based on find KNM-WT 15000 they con-
26
su australopitecini u tom aspektu sliniji ostalim cluded that the situation was similar with Homo
primatima nego suvremenim ljudima. Na temelju ergaster (Homo erectus), unlike the Neanderthals
nalaza KNM-WT 15000 zakljuili su da je slino i whose values fit into those of modern human pop-
sa taksonom Homo ergaster (Homo erectus), za ra- ulations. Later analyses showed many pathologies
zliku od neandertalaca ije vrijednosti se uklapaju of KNM WR 15000, including those to the verte-
pod one kod suvremenih ljudskih populacija. Ka- bral canal, and the analyses of early Homo speci-
snije analize ukazale su na mnoge patologije nala- mens outside Africa (H ergaster or H. erectus)
za KNM WR 15000 ukljuujui i one vertebralnog from Dmanisi in Georgia (Meyer 2005), as well
kanala, a analize ranih pripadnika roda Homo izvan as preliminary analyses on finds from Sima de los
Afrike (H ergaster ili H. erectus) s nalazita Dmanisi Huesos in Spain (H. heidelbergensis?, Carretero et
u Gruziji (Meyer 2005) kao i preliminarne analize al. 1999; Gmez-Olivencia et al. 2007) revealed
nalaza s lokaliteta Sima de los Huesos u panjolskoj values which fit into the span of values in modern
(H. heidelbergensis?, Carretero et al. 1999; Gmez- human populations.
Olivencia et al. 2007) pokazuju vrijednosti koje se Apart from the motoric control of breathing, the
uklapaju u raspon vrijednosti kod suvremenih ljud- production of speech and modern language re-
skih skupina. quires changes in the vocal tract, especially its su-
Osim motorike kontrole disanja, za proizvodnju pralingual part. Since these changes cannot be pre-
govora i modernog jezika nune su promjene u served in the fossil record (the only bone element
vokalnom traktu, posebice njegovom supralingval- is small and fragile hyoid bone, os hyoideum), the
reconstruction of the vocal tract of extinct homi-
nom dijelu. Budui da se ove promjene naalost
nins will be based on indirect indicators like the
nee ouvati u fosilnoj grai (jedini kotani ele-
evaluation of the ration between the pharynx and
ment je krhka i malena jezina kost, os hyoideum),
the oral cavity and the angle of the cranial base.
rekonstrukcije vokalnog trakta izumrlih hominina
Lieberman and McCarthy based their compari-
temeljit e se na indirektnim pokazateljima poput
sons on these features (1999) and concluded that
procjene omjera drijela i usne upljine i kuta baze
the modern ration of pharynx to oral cavity (1:1)
kranija. Na tome se temelje i rekonstrukcije Lieber-
is present only in anatomically modern humans,
mana i McCarthyja (1999) koji zakljuuju da je mo-
starting from 40 000 years before present, and that
derni omjer drijela i usne upljine (1:1) prisutan tek not even our closes evolutionary cousins did not
kod anatomski modernih ljudi poevi od 40 000 speak like we do. Some authors even suggest that
godina prije sadanjosti, te da niti nai evolucijski the evolutionary advantage of modern humans
najblii srodnici, neandertalci, nisu govorili poput over Neandertals was partly in moder speech and
nas. Neki autori ak predlau da je evolutivna pred- language and that this could have been part of the
nost modernih ljudi nad populacijama neanderta- reason why Neandertals became extinct (Wash-
laca dijelom bila u modernom govoru i jeziku te je burn 1981), although many research has shown
to dijelom moglo pridonijeti izumiranju neander- that there are no significant differences in brain
talaca (Washburn 1981), iako su mnoga istraiva- organization of Neandertals and contemporary
nja pokazala da nema bitnijih razlika u organizaciji humans (Holloway 1985; Kochetkova 1972; LeMay
mozga izmeu neandertalaca i suvremenog ovjeka 1975). Lieberman (2008) thinks that the position
(Holloway 1985; Kochetkova 1972; LeMay 1975). of the larynx deeper in the throat and a different
Lieberman (2008) smatra kako poloaj larinksa ratio of the vertical and horizontal cavities results
nie u grlu i drukiji omjer okomite i vodoravne in limiting the articulation of consonants and na-
upljine rezultiraju ogranienjem u artikulaciji sa- sal speech. In other words, the larynx of Neander-
moglasnika te nazalnom govoru. Drugim rijeima, tals would be deeper in the throat, so they could
neandertalcima bi larinks bio smjeten duboko u not produce the vocals [i], [a] and [u] (Lieberman
grlu, te ne bi mogli proizvesti samoglasnike [i], [a] and Crelin 1971; Lieberman et al. 1972; Lieberman
te [u] (Lieberman & Crelin 1971; Lieberman i sur 1989; 1992; 1994). Later reconstructions (Falk
1972; Lieberman 1989; 1992; 1994). Kasnije rekon- 1975; LeMay 1975; Aiello 1998; Houghton 1993;
strukcije (Falk 1975; LeMay 1975; Aiello 1998; Ho- 1994) have shown that the reconstruction of the
ughton 1993; 1994) pokazale su da je rekonstrukcija vocal tract suggested by Lieberman was wrong.
vokalnog trakta koju predlae Lieberman pogrena. Furthermore, if these authors were right and if Ne-
Nadalje, kada bi ovi autori i bili u pravu i kad bi neandertals were limited in the production of certain
andertalci bili ogranieni u mogunosti produkci- vocals, it would not mean that they could not have
je odreenih vokala, to ne bi znailo da nisu mogli had a completely modern, although different, lan-
imati sasvim moderan, iako drugaiji, jezini sustav. guage system. Simulations conducted by Bo et al.
Simulacije koje su proveli Bo i suradnici (2002) po- (2002) show that the length of the pharynx, that is,
27
kazuju kako duina farinksa, odnosno nii poloaj a lower placement of the larynx is not a necessary
larinksa, nije nuna predispozicija za produkciju precondition for the production of the full span
punog raspona glasova. ene i adolescenti anatom- of sounds. Women and adolescents of anatomi-
ski modernih ljudi, primjerice, imaju krae drijelo cally modern humans, for example, have a shorter
u odnosu na odrasle mukarce, no to ne utjee na pharynx compared to grown men, but it does not
njihove artikulacijske mogunosti (de Bor 2009). affect their articulatory abilities (de Bor 2009).
Istraivanje Boa i suradnika (2002) pokazalo je Research carried out by Bo et al. (2002) has
kako govornici iste vokale tvore razliito te da na shown that speakers create the same vocals in dif-
tvorbu utjeu okreti usnica, jezika i eljusti. Pritom ferent ways, and that their production is affected
poloaj tijela jezika sudjeluje u tvorbi vokala [a] dok by lip, tongue and jaw movement. The body of the
su poloaj jezika i otvorenost usnica kljuni za ar- tongue participates in the production of the vocal
tikulaciju vokala [i] te [u] koje Lieberman vee is- [a], while the position of the tongue and the open-
kljuivo uz poloaj drijela. Uzevi sve to u obzir, ness of the nostrils are crucial for the articulation
simulacijom potencijalnog artikulacijskog prostora of vocals [i] and [u], which Lieberman linked ex-
kod neandertalaca Bo i suradnici (2002) pokazali clusively to the position of the pharynx. Consider-
su kako je on identian onome kod anatomski mo- ing all this, by simulating the potential articulation
dernih ljudi. area in Neandertalsthals, Bo et al. (2002) showed
Otkrie jezine kosti (os hyoideum) neandertalca that it is identical to that of anatomically modern
u peini Kebara u Izraelu (KMH2), datirane na ot- humans.
prilike 60.000 godina prije sadanjosti (Valladas et The discovery of the hyoid bone (os hyoideum) in
al. 1987), omoguilo je preciznije rekonstruiranje Neandertals from the Kebara cave in Israel (KMH2),
vokalnog trakta (Arensburg et al. 1989; 1990; 1992; dated to approximately 60.000 years before present
Houghton 1993). Pronaena kost svojim morfome- (Valladas et al. 1987), allowed for more precise re-
trikim odlikama ne razlikuje se od jezine kosti u constructions of the vocal tract (Arensburg et al.
ivuih ljudskih populacija (Arensburg et al. 1989; 1989; 1990; 1992; Houghton 1993). The morpho-
1990; Frayer 1992). Analiza miinih hvatita omo- metric features of the found bone do not differ from
guila je rekonstrukciju poloaja jezine kosti u od- the hyoid bone in living human populations (Arens-
nosu na donju eljust, smjestivi je otprilike u razini burg et al. 1989; 1990; Frayer 1992). The analysis of
etvrtog vratnog kraljeka, na istoj razini kao i kod muscular attachments allowed for a reconstruction
suvremenih ljudi. of the position of the hyoid bone in relation to the
lower jaw, placing it at the level of the fourth verte-
bra, just like in modern humans.
Arheoloka graa sensu stricto:
materijalna kultura i ponaanje
Archaeological material sensu stricto:
Prepoznati simboliko ponaanje na temelju osta- material culture and behavior
taka materijalne grae iz prapovijesti vrlo je teak
zadatak. No ukoliko odreenu sferu simbolikog Recognizing symbolic behavior based on prehis-
razmiljanja pretpostavimo na temelju prisustva toric material remains is a difficult task. Howev-
neutilitarnih predmeta - onih bez funkcije koja je er, if we ascribe symbolic thinking to discovered
strogo vezana uz preivljavanje, kao i pojavu ukopa, non-utilitarian objects - those without a function
koji veina autora vezuje uz odreen stupanj sim- strictly connected to survival, as well as the appear-
bolike svijesti (ukoliko nije rije o praksi iz strogo ance of burials, linked to a certain degree of sym-
higijenskih razloga, vie o tome vidi u Karavani bolical consciousness by most authors (if it is not
2012 i tamo citiranoj literaturi), naa e razmatra- a strictly hygienic practice, see more in Karavani
nja ipak imati odreen temelj (vidi na pr. Ambrose 2012 and therein cited bibliography), our consider-
2001; Klein 2000; McBrearty & Brooks 2000; Me- ations will have a more solid basis (e.g. see Ambrose
llars 1973, 1998; Davidson & Noble 1989; Noble & 2001; Klein 2000; McBrearty & Brooks 2000; Mel-
Davidson 1991; Mellars 1996; Deacon 1997; Aiello lars 1973, 1998; Davidson & Noble 1989; Noble &
1998 i tamo citiranu literaturu). Davidson 1991; Mellars 1996; Deacon 1997; Aiello
Nadalje, prije same pojave umjetnosti i simboli- 1998 and therein cited bibliography).
kog razmiljanja, jezik i govor imao bi vanu ulogu Furthermore, before the appearance of art and
i selektivnu prednost nad neverbalnom komunika- symbolic thinking, language and speech would
cijom ve u doba pojave prvih alatki i prenoenja have an important role and selective advantage
sloenih informacija uenjem. Na temelju spoznaja over nonverbal communication from the time the
28
suvremene znanosti, prve kamene alatke stare su first tools were made and complex information was
oko 2.5 milijuna godina (Semaw et al. 1997; Semaw transferred through learning. Based on findings
2000). Iako je rije o oruima koje je vrlo jednostav- of contemporary science, the first stone tools are
no napraviti (sjekai, sjeckala i odbojci tzv. oldovan- about 2.5 million of years old (Semaw et al. 1997;
ske industrije ili kulture), ti artefakti omoguili su Semaw 2000). Although they are tools which are
ranim homininima veliku prednost. Eksperimen- easy to make (choppers, chopping tools and flakes
tima je dokazano da za samo nekoliko sati i tim of the so called Oldowan industry or culture), these
jednostavnim izraevinama mogue raskomadati artifacts gave early hominins a great advantage. Ex-
i najvee kopnene sisavce, poput slona (Schick & periments showed that it takes only a few hours to
Toth 1994). Prije vie od 1,5 milijuna godina (za vri- butcher even the biggest mammals, like elephants,
jeme tzv. aelejenske kulture) alatke i proces njiho- with these tools (Schick & Toth 1994). More than
ve izradbe postaju sve sloeniji, a vidljiv je i paljiv 1.5 million years ago (during the so called Acheu-
odabir u materijalu (vrsti kamena) koji je koriten. lean culture) tools and the way they were made be-
Budui da je esto rije o materijalu koji je donesen s came more complex, and there is a visible careful
vie kilometara udaljenosti od mjesta njihovog pro- selection of raw material (type of stone). Since it is
nalaska, mogue je zakljuiti da se paralelno javlja i often material which was brought from places sev-
dugorono planiranje, to je jo vie stavilo naglasak eral kilometers away from where they were found,
na kognitivni razvoj, a najjednostavniji i najsvrsis- we it can be concluded that long-term planning also
hodniji nain prenoenja sloenih uputstava i infor- appeared at this point, highlighting cognitive devel-
macija, kao i spoznaja o razlozima zbog kojih je va- opment even more, and the simplest and direct way
an odabir odreenog kamena i sl., govorni je jezik to transfer complex instructions and information,
(Boda 1991; Karlin & Julien 1994; Pelegrin 1990; as well as why a certain type of stone is better than
Perls 1992; Schlanger 1994; Wynn 1991). To ne another, is spoken language (Boda 1991; Karlin &
znai da je ve u tom razdoblju prisutan suvremen Julien 1994; Pelegrin 1990; Perls 1992; Schlanger
jezik sa svim njegovim dananjim odlikama, nego 1994; Wynn 1991). This does not mean that mod-
da bi selekcija djelovala u smjeru njegova razvoja, ern language was present in this period with all its
to e sve veim naglaskom na kulturu i sve sloeniji present features, but that selection acted towards
nain ivota i socijalnu strukturu rezultirati ubrza- its development, which would, along with more
nim razvojem jezinih i govornih aspekata. Nadalje, emphasis on culture and a more complex way of
u vrijeme pojave prvih pripadnika roda Homo, po- life and social structure result in a faster develop-
sebice skupina Homo ergaster/erectus, ljudi po prvi ment of linguistic and speaking aspects. Addition-
put naputaju svoju afriku pradomovinu. To je raz- ally, when the first Homo appeared, especially Homo
doblje znaajnih klimatskih promjena i poetka ple- ergaster/erectus, people left their African home for
istocena u kojem su prisutne oscilacije od oledbi do the first time. It was a period of significant climate
razdoblja relativno blage klime, to uzrokuju este changes and the beginning of Pleistocene, full of
promjene u okoliu, kao i biosferi (biljke i ivotinje). oscillations between glacials and periods of mild
Iako su vidljive mnoge bioloke prilagodbe na nove climate, which caused frequent changes in the en-
okolnosti i nov okoli (posebice oite u kosturu ti- vironment and the biosphere (plants and animals).
jela koji poprima modernije dimenzije i odnose, no, Although many biological adaptations to new cir-
kao to smo ranije spomenuli i u dimenzijama i or- cumstances are visible (especially evident in the
ganizaciji mozga), osobita promjena uoljiva je i u skeleton which becomes more modern in dimen-
ponaanju. U razdoblju izmeu 2 milijuna i 500 000 sion and relations, but also, as was mentioned, in
godina prije sadanjosti ovjek je naselio vei dio the dimensions and organization of the brain), a sig-
Euroazije, ovladao vatrom, poeo graditi nastambe nificant change occurred in behavior. In the period
na otvorenom (iako su nalazi takvih struktura re- between 2 million and 500 000 years before present,
lativno rijetki) i poeo organizirano loviti krupni man had inhabited most of Eurasia, mastered fire,
plijen. U svemu tome odreene jezine i govorne started building shelters in the open (although finds
sposobnosti nesumnjivo bi pruile veliku prednost. of such structures are relatively rare) and started to
Osim poveanja u sloenosti kulture koju je mogue organize hunting for bigger prey. Certain language
iitati kroz dugi vremenski razvoj starijeg kamenog and speech abilities would surely be a significant ad-
doba (i u tipolokom i tehnolokom smislu), unutar vantage in such a situation.
ovog dugog vremenskog razdoblja javljaju se i dru- Apart from the increased cultural complexity evi-
gi elementi putem kojih je moda mogu odreen dent through the long time period of the Old Stone
uvid u razvoj govora i jezika. Tu grau obiavamo Age (both typologically and technologically), other
nazivati neutilitarnim predmetima, budui da elements also appeared at this time which could
29
se ne radi se o oruju i oruu kojim bi se ispunja- give insight into the development of language and
valja uloga biolokog preivljavanja. Ova skupina speech. We tend to call this non-utilitarian ob-
predmeta vrlo je raznolika i ukljuuje razne modi- jects since they are not weapons or tools which
ficirane ili bojane predmete iz prirode (primjerice would serve for biological survival. This group of
kamenje), ostatke ivotinja (primjerice modificirane finds is very diverse and includes different modified
koljke, zube i sl.), kao i nalaze koje s punim pravom or colored objects taken from nature (e.g. rocks),
nazivamo umjetnikim predmetima (primjerice an- animal remains (e.g. modified shells, teeth and the
tropomorfnu i zoomorfnu plastika, gravure, slika- like), as well as finds which can be rightfully called
rije, glazbene instrumente i sl.). Posebnu kategoriju works of art (e.g. anthropomorphic and zoomor-
predstavljaju i spomenuti ukopi pokojnika, bilo da phic figurines, engravings, musical instruments and
se radi o samim ukopima, ili sloenijim simbolikim the like). A special category includes the noted buri-
ili ak religijskim inovima koji se mogu pretposta- als, whether in themselves or as more complex sym-
viti na temelju grobnih priloga. bolic, or even religious acts which can be observed
Najranije primjere spomenute grae mogue je ras- through grave goods.
poznati u uporabi boje (pigmenta). Oblutak s trago- The earliest examples of this material are seen
vima okera koji se moda pomalo matovito naziva through the use of color (pigments). A pebble with
Venerom pronaen je na nalazitu Tan Tan u Ma- traces of ochre which is, possibly somewhat fantas-
roku (Bernardik 2003.) i datiran u razdoblje izmeu tically, called a Venus was found at Tan Tan in Mo-
500 i 300 000 godina prije sadanjosti. Slian je slu- rocco (Bernardik 2003) and was dated to between
aj i s kontroverznim nalazom za koji dio znanstve- 500 and 300 000 years before present. The situation
nika smatra da predstavlja ljudski lik pronaenom is similar to the controversial find which some sci-
na nalazitu S nalazita Berekhat Ram na Golanskoj entists think features a human character, which was
visoravni (Goren-Inbar 1986.; Goren-Inbar & Peltz found at Berekhat Ram on the Golan Heights (Gor-
1995.). Ova dva predmeta jo su predmet rasprava en-Inbar 1986; Goren-Inbar & Peltz 1995). These
meu znanstvenicima, no ako se pokae da su uisti- two finds are still a topic of discussion among scien-
nu namjerno izraeni prikazi ljudskog lika, pojavu tists, and, if it turns out that they were intentionally
umjetnosti i simbolike valja pomaknuti mnogo ra- made to show the human character, the emergence
nije nego se to do sada smatralo. Pojavu simbolike, of symbolism and art should be moved to a lot ear-
odnosno prijenosa apstraktnih ideja, veina znan- lier time than we thought so far. The appearance of
stvenika vee uz govor i vrlo razvijen jezik. symbolism, that is, the transfer of abstract ideas, is,
U razdoblju izmeu 200 i 40 000 godina prije sada- by most scientists, linked to speech and very devel-
njosti svjedoci smo velikih inovacija u kulturnom oped language.
izriaju, a istovremeno se javljaju i pokazatelji za koje Between 200 and 40 000 years before present, we
veina autora smatra da valja tumaiti u sferi simbo- witness great innovations in cultural expression,
likog (poput ukopa i umjetnosti). Neandertalci, koji and, at the same time, indicators appear which most
u to vrijeme obitavaju na tlu Europe i zapadne i sre- scientists believe should be interpreted as symbolic
dinje Azije, prvi su ljudi za koje imamo nepobitne behavior (like burials and art). Neandertals who, at
dokaze o ukapanju mrtvih (vidi raspravu u Garget the time, inhabited Europe and western and central
1989; Riel-Salvatore & Clark 2001; DErrico et al. Asia are the first humans who, we can safely say,
2003; Klein 2000; Harrold 1980; Binford 1968; Tou- buried their dead (see discussion in Garget 1989;
ssaint et al. 2001; Leroi-Gourhan 1975; Solecki 1963, Riel-Salvatore & Clark 2001; DErrico et al. 2003;
1975; Akazawa et al. 1995; Ovchinnikov et al. 2000; Klein 2000; Harrold 1980; Binford 1968; Toussaint
Rak et al. 1994; Hovers et al. 1995, 2000; Arensburg et al. 2001; Leroi-Gourhan 1975; Solecki 1963, 1975;
et al. 1985; Hayden 1993; Valladas et al. 1987). Uko- Akazawa et al. 1995; Ovchinnikov et al. 2000; Rak
pi neandertalaca kao to su La Chapelle-aux-Saints, et al. 1994; Hovers et al. 1995; 2000; Arensburg et al.
La Ferrassie, Spy, Amud, Kebara, Dederiyeh, Teshik 1985; Hayden 1993; Valladas et al. 1987). Neander-
Tash, samo su neki od primjera ovakvog odnosa pre- thal burials like those from La Chapelle-aux-Saints,
ma pokojnicima. Ponekad, iako ne toliko esto, ukopi La Ferrassie, Spy, Amud, Kebara, Dederiyeh, Teshik
sadre i grobne priloge. Shanidar 4 esto se navodi Tash, are only some examples of this relation to the
i kao primjer postojanja grobnih ceremonija, budu- deceased. Sometimes, although not often, the buri-
i da visoka koncentracija cvjetnog peluda unutar als contained grave goods. Shanidar 4 is often listed
groba ukazuje na postojanje grobnog priloga u vidu as an example of the existence of burial ceremonies,
cvijea, ili pak cvjetnog odra u grobu (Leroi-Gour- seeing that the high concentration of flower pollen
han 1975; Solecki 1975; za drugaije objanjenje vidi points to grave goods in the sense of flowers, or a
Chase i Dibble 1987). floral catafalque within the grave (Leroi-Gourhan
30
Brojna nalazita svjedoe da su neandertalci bili 1975; Solecki 1975; for a different explanation see
vrlo snalaljivim i inteligentni ljudi koji su se uspje- Chase & Dibble 1987).
no prilagoavaju lokalnim uvjetima ivota, te bri- Numerous sites show that Neandertals were very
nuli o ozljeenima i nemonim pripadnicima svo- capable and intelligent people who successfully
je zajednice (Trinkaus 1983; Radovi et al. 1988). adapted to local living conditions and took care
Musterijenska kultura ili industrija, koju na tlu Eu- of the wounded and weak members of their com-
rope veemo iskljuivo uz neandertalce sve do pred munities (Trinkaus 1983; Radovi et al. 1988). The
kraj njihova postojanja, odlikuje se velikim brojem Mousterian culture or industry, which is, in Eu-
tipova alatki pogodnim za razliite radnje (Bordes rope, ascribed exclusively to the Neandertals until
1950, 1951, 1961; Mellars 1996). Vrlo sloen postu- the very end of their existence, is characterized by
pak izrade alatki, obrada drva, ponekad i kosti, po- a large number of tool types suitable for different
kazuju visoku razinu umjenosti. Nadalje, na gotovo activities (Bordes 1950, 1951, 1961; Mellars 1996).
40 musterijenskih nalazita u Europi pronaeni su The procedure of making stone tools is very com-
i tragovi pigmenta. U stanitima neandertalaca, uz plex, as is wood, and sometimes bone, working, and
oker i druge crvene i crne pigmente, sakupljani su i they show a high level of skill. Furthermore, traces
razliiti fosili koljaka i kamenje neobinog oblika of pigments were found on almost 40 Mousterian
koje nije imalo praktinu namjenu (vidi reference sites in Europe. Along with ochre and other red and
u Jankovi & Karavani 2009; dErrico & Soressi black pigments, different shell fossils and unusually
2002; Karavani 2012). Na lokalitetu Pech-de-lAze shaped rocks were collected in Neandertals habitats
vidljiva je uporaba pigmenta za koje je mikroskop- which did not have a practical purpose (see refer-
skom analizom dokazano da su koriteni za crtanje ences in Jankovi and Karavani 2009; dErrico &
linearnih uzoraka, a dva komada pigmenta na sebi Soressi 2002; Karavani 2012). The site of Pech-de-
imaju apstraktni uzorak nainjen kamenim alatom lAze showed the use of a pigment which, as proved
(dErrico et al. 2003). Budui da je ovaj lokalitet da- by microscopic analysis showed, was used to draw
tiran na 90 000 do 60 000 godina prije sadanjosti, linear patterns, and two pieces of pigment show an
20 000 do 50 000 godina prije dolaska anatomski abstract pattern made by a stone tool (dErrico et
modernih ljudi na ta podruja, jasno je da se ovaj al. 2003). Since this site was dated between 90 000
aspekt modernog ponaanja razvio neovisno i u and 60 000 year before present, meaning 20 000 to
Europi. Uporaba pigmenta u razdoblju prije 50 000 50 000 years before the appearance of anatomically
godina dokazana je i na lokalitetima Cueva de los modern humans in this area, it is clear that this as-
Aviones i Cueva Antn u panjolskoj gdje su pro- pect of modern behavior developed independently
naene koljke s ostacima crvenog i naranastog pi- in Europe as well. The use of pigment before 50 000
gmenta na vanjskim povrinama, kao i vee koljke years ago was proven at Cueva de los Aviones and
s ostacima razliitih pigmenata za koje se pretpo- Cueva Antn in Spain, where shells were found with
stavlja da su mogle sluiti za mijeanje i pripremu red and orange pigment remains on the outer sur-
boja (Zilho et al. 2010) . Zbog udaljenosti od mora face, along with bigger shells with traces of different
i nadmorske visine na kojoj se peine nalaze, koljke pigments which could have been used to mix and
se nisu mogle ondje akumulirati prirodnim putem. prepare colors (Zilho et al. 2010). Due to the dis-
Istovremeno s biolokim i kulturnim razvojem ne- tance from the sea and the altitude of these caves,
andertalaca na tlu Europe i dijela Azije, u Africi se the shells could not have accumulated naturally.
prije izmeu 190 i 160 000 godina pojavljuju prvi Contemporaneous to the biological and cultural
nalazi koji svjedoe o, u osnovi, modernoj anatomiji development of Neandertals in Europe and parts of
nae vrste (Homo sapiens sapiens). Njihovi se po- Asia, the first traces of modern anatomy of our spe-
tomci prije stotinjak tisua godina poinju iriti i u cies (Homo sapiens sapiens) appeared in Africa be-
druge geografske regije (prvo na tlo Zapadne Azije, tween 190 and 160 000 years before present. Their
kasnije dalje na istok, te prije otprilike etrdesetak descendants, about a hundred thousand years ago,
tisua godina i na prostor Europe) te svojim kasni- started spreading into other geographical regions
jim irenjem u druge geografske prostore zamjenju- (first to western Asia, later further east, and to Eu-
ju starosjedilako stanovnitvo (vidi McDugall et al. rope around forty thousand years ago) replacing the
2005; Smith et al. 2005;2012 i rasprave o modelima native population (see McDugall et al. 2005; Smith
u Jankovi 2004. i Jankovi & Karavani 2009). Ovaj et al. 2005; 2012 and discussions on models in
bioloki razvoj prati i promjena u ponaanju. Na na- Jankovi 2004 and Jankovi & Karavani 2009). This
lazitu Twin Rivers u Zambiji i Kapthurin u Keniji biological development was followed by behavioral
(Barham 1998.; 2002) nalazi pigmenta stari su 200 changes. At Twin Rivers in Zambia and Kapthurin
000 godina. U jednom od slojeva na lokalitetu Twin in Kenya (Barham 1998; 2002.) 200 000 year old pig-
31
Rivers pronaeno je sto osamdeset komada pi- ments were found. One of the layers at Twin Rivers
gmenta, u bojama od jarko crvene (okera) do uto- yielded hundred and eighty (180) pieces of pigment,
zelene, s vidljivim tragovima troenja i oblikovanja. ranging from bright red (ochre) to yellowish-green,
Meu najstarije nalaze za koje dio autora smatra da with visible traces of wear and shaping. Beads made
predstavljaju simboliki izriaj ubrajamo perlice od of snail shells and pieces of ochre with incised mo-
ljutura pueva i komade okera s urezanim motivi- tifs from 70 000 year old layers of Blobmos cave in
ma iz 70 000 godina starih slojeva pilje Blombos the Republic of South Africa are among the old-
u Junoafrikoj republici (Henshilwood et al. 2002; est finds testifying to, by some authors, symbolic
Henshilwood 2004; Watt 2009: sl. 4). behavior (Henshilwood et al. 2002; Henshilwood
To su samo neki od primjera mogueg simbolikog 2004; Watt 2009: fig. 4).
ponaanja u vrijeme srednjeg paleolitika, a kao to These are only some of the examples of possible
vidimo prisutni su i na prostoru gdje borave rani symbolic behavior in the Middle Paleolithic, and, as
anatomski ljudi, kao i na prostoru gdje su u to doba we see, they exist in areas occupied by Neandertals
ivjeli neandertalci. Nakon to se prve grupe ana- as well as those occupied by anatomically modern
tomski modernih ljudi polako sele iz Afrike i do- humans. After the first group of anatomically mod-
laze na podruje Levanta (u razdoblju izmeu 100 ern humans slowly moved out of Africa into the Le-
i 50 000 godina prije sadanjosti), tamo nailaze na vant (between 100 and 50 000 years before present),
neandertalce. Vano je napomenuti da iako mnogi they encountered Neandertals. It is important to
esto navode znaajne razlike u ponaanju izmeu note that many authors often mention significant
ove dvije populacije, na temelju arheolokih nalaza differences between these two populations which
to nije oito. I neandertalci i anatomski moderne archaeological finds do not. Both Neandertals and
skupine na podruju Levanta koriste musterijensku anatomically modern groups on the Levant used
kulturu i obje grupe pokapaju svoje mrtve (vidi Bar- Mousterian culture and both buried their dead (see
Yosef 1992). Barem u tom razdoblju i tom geograf- Bar-Yosef 1992). At least in that period and in that
skom prostoru, nije mogue govoriti o znaajnoj region, it is not possible to note a significant cogni-
kognitivnoj prednosti jednih nad drugima. Ako je tive advantage of one group over the other. If lan-
jezik i moderan govor bio dio paketa moderniteta, guage and modern speech were part of the modern
znanstvenu podlogu za takve tvrdnje nije mogue package, scientific basis for such claims cannot be
pronai na tom mjestu i u tom razdoblju. found here.
The foundations of mod-
els supporting the so
called behavioral revo-
lution, that is, a sud-
den change in culture
and symbolic expres-
sion connected to the
emergence of modern
language (at least in its
early variants) on Euro-
pean finds and sites. It
was considered that, af-
Slika 4: Oker s ugraviranim linijama pronaen u peini Blombos ter they, the carriers of
(modificirano prema Henshilwood et al. 2009: 35) modern cultures and artistic expression, anatom-
Figure 4: Ochre with incised lines found in the Blombos cave ically modern groups quickly replaced Neander-
(modified from Henshilwood et al. 2009: 35) tals (carriers of Middle Paleolithic cultures) (Klein
1989; 2000; Mellars 1996; 1989; Binford 1989).
Temelji modela koji se zalau za tzv. revoluciju Modern language is considered to be one of the
u ponaanju, odnosno naglu promjenu u kulturi i most important advantages of modern immigrants.
simbolikom izraaju vezanu i uz pojavu modernog This model has, over the years, proved insufficient
jezika postavljeni su (barem u svojim ranijim inai- for explaining both the replacement of populations
cama) na europskim nalazima i nalazitima. Sma- and cultural aspects of different finds and sites. In
tralo se da nakon to anatomski moderne skupine, the 1980s, Neandertals remains were found in as-
nosioci modernijih kultura i umjetnikog izriaja sociation with Chatelperronian, a recognizable
dolaze na tlo Europe, u relativno kratkom razdoblju Upper Paleolithic industry, at Arcy-sur-Cure and
i u potpunosti zamjenjuju neandertalce (nositelje Saint Csaire in France (Lvque & Vandermeersch
32
kulture srednjeg paleolitika) (Klein 1989; 2000; Me- 1980; Hedges et al. 1994; Hublin et al. 1996). Apart
llars1996; 1989; Binford 1989). Kao jedna od va- from stone tools, these sites yielded decorative ob-
nijih prednosti modernih pridolica navodi se mo- jects like perforated teeth, grave goods, intention-
derni jezik. Ovaj model se tijekom godina pokazao ally modified bones and the like (Leroi-Gourhan
nedostatnim objanjenjem, kako za populacijsku 1958; Hublin et al. 1996; Lvque and Vander-
smjenu, tako i za kulturne aspekte raznih nalaza i meersch 1980; dErrico et al. 1998). Furthermore,
nalazita. Osamdesetih godina prologa stoljea ot- analyses showed that the cultural and biological
kriveni su nalazi neandertalaca u asocijaciji sa atel- changes at the transition to the Upper Paleolithic
peronijenom, prepoznatljivo gornjopaleolitikom was a lot more complex than was thought, and that
industrijom, na nalazitima Arcy-sur-Cure i Saint many short-term, local cultural industries appeared
Csaire u Francuskoj (Lvque & Vandermeersch which showed elements of old (Mousterian) and
1980; Hedges et al. 1994; Hublin et al. 1996). Osim new (Upper Paleolithic) (see discussion in Jankovi
kamenih alatki, na tim su lokalitetima pronaeni et al. 2006; 2011, and therein cited bibliography.).
i ukrasni predmeti poput buenih zuba, grobnih There is no reason why Neandertals could not have
priloga, namjerno modificiranih kostiju i sl. (Le- been capable of symbolical thinking, artistic expres-
roi-Gourhan 1958; Hublin et al. 1996; Lvque & sion and even modern language. Many controver-
Vandermeersch 1980; dErrico et al. 1998). Nadalje, sies appeared about the so called Mousterian flute
brojne analize pokazale su da je kulturna i bioloka from Divje Babe I in Slovenia (Turk 1997). Many
smjena u vrijeme prijelaza srednjega u gornji paleo- authors did not see Neandertals as musicians, and
litik bila puno sloenija nego to se to ranije smaralo round holes on the said bone were interpreted as
te da se u to vrijeme javljaju mnoge kratkotrajne, lo- traces of carnivore activities (dErrico et al. 1998;
kalne kulture i industrije koje u sebi nose elemente also see discussion in Chase & Nowell 1998 & Otte
starog (musterijen) i novog (gornji paleolitik), (vidi 2000), especially because other earliest instruments
raspravu u Jankovi et al. 2006; 2011 i tamo citiranu were found in Upper Paleolithic layers on sites like
literaturu). Ne postoje opravdani razlozi zbog kojih Vogelherd, Hohle Fels and Geienklsterle in Ger-
neandertalci ne bi bili sposobni za simboliko mi- many (Niven 2006; Conard & Moreau 2004; Conard
ljenje, umjetniki izriaj, pa i moderan jezik. Mno- 2009; Higham et al. 2012) and differ from the find
ge kontroverze podiglo je otkrie tzv. musterijen- from Divje Babe in appearance and technique of
ske frule na nalazitu Divje Babe I u Sloveniji (Turk production. However, these differences should not
1997). Mnogi autori nisu bili skloni u neandertalci- be the basis for discarding the possibility that in
ma prepoznati glazbenike, te su tumaenja okruglih both cases we are dealing with objects which made
rupica na spomenutoj kosti pripisivana aktivnosti the ancient Europeans (both Neandertals and mod-
ivotinja (dErrico et al. 1998; i vidi raspravu u Cha- ern humans) cheerful. Experiments on a carefully
se & Nowell 1998 i Otte 2000.), posebice iz razlo- made copy of the find from Divje Babe resulted in a
ga to ostali najraniji glazbeni instrumenti dolaze wide range of sounds and reproduced, in the hands
iz gornjopaleolitikih slojeva nalazita poput Vo- of a musician, a lot of popular and classical music
gelherd, Hohle Fels i Geienklsterle u Njemakoj (attested by video and audio recordings) (see Turk
(Niven 2006; Conard & Moreau 2004; Conard 2009; & Dimkaroski 2011).
Higham et al. 2012) i svojim se izgledom i nainom After the last groups of Neandertals disappeared (at
izradbe razlikuju od nalaza iz Divjih Baba. No razli- least as an anatomically distinct population), and
ke u materijalu i izradi ne bi smjele biti temelj odba- anatomically modern humans (Homo sapiens sa-
civanja mogunosti da je u oba sluaja rije uistinu piens) became a global phenomenon, there was an
o predmetima koji su drevne stanovnike Europe (i increase in population size. The reasons for this are
neandertalce i anatomski modernije ljude) uvese- numerous and are not the topic of our discussion,
ljavali svojim zvukovima. Eksperimenti na brino but include new hunting and strategies a different
izraenoj kopiji nalaza iz Divjih Baba rezultirali su use of space. It is worth noting that it is possible to
velikim rasponom zvukova i u rukama glazbenika track the development of a wide communication
proizveli izvedbe mnogih popularnih djela zabavne and exchange network in all of Europe and the larg-
i klasine glazbe (o emu svjedoe videosnimke i er part of Asia. At this time, artistic expression be-
nosai zvuka) (vidi Turk & Dimkaroski 2011). came wide-spread and appears in different variants,
Nakon to posljednje skupine neandertalaca nesta- from numerous non-utilitarian objects and tiny
ju (barem kao anatomski prepoznatljiva populacija) statues (different zoomorphic and anthropomor-
i anatomski moderni ljudi (Homo sapiens sapiens) phic figures, and those combining both aspects),
postaju globalni fenomen, dolazi do populacijskog musical instruments (flutes), to cave incisions and
porasta. Razlozi za to su brojni i nisu predmet na- painting. Furthermore, the contact and exchange
33
ega rada, no ukljuuju i drugaije strategije lova i networks are attested to by numerous finds made
koritenja prostora. Ono to je vrlo znaajno jest da from materials which, in certain cases, came from
je mogue pratiti razvoj rairene mree kontakata i tens, even hundreds of kilometers away (see Montet
razmjene na irokom prostoru koji obuhvaa itavu White & Holden 1991; Knecht et al. 1993; Klein
Europu i vei dio Azije. U tom se razdoblju umjet- 1999; Gamble 1999). For example, shells from the
niki izriaj postaje opeprisutan i javlja se u raznim Black Sea were found at Kostenki in Russia which
varijantama, od brojnih neutilitarnih predmeta i came from almost 500 kilometers away (Hahn
sitne plastike (raznih zoomorfnih i antropomorfnih 1977.). The Gravettien site of Sprendlingen in Ger-
prikaza, te onih koji kombiniraju oba aspekta), glaz- many yielded shells which originated almost 700
benih instrumenata (frulica), pa sve do piljskih gra- kilometers away (Bosinski 1979). The shells from
vura i slikarija. Nadalje, o mrei kontakata i razmje- the Upper Paleolithic layers of Spy in Belgium most
na svjedoe brojni nalazi predmeta koji su izraeni probably originated from England (Otte 1977), and
od materijala koji u pojedinim sluajevima dolazi iz Mediterranean shells, probably from Istria, were
prostora udaljenih vie desetaka, ponekad i stotina found at Pavlov in the Czech Republic (Otte 1981).
kilometara (vidi Montet White & Holden 1991; The increase of finds and analyses point to the ex-
Knecht et al. 1993; Klein 1999; Gamble 1999). Pri- istence of certain paths used for transporting raw
mjerice, na nalazitu Kostenki u Rusiji pronaene su materials to their distant destinations. One of these
koljke s obala Crnog mora, udaljenog gotovo 500 paths from the late Pleistocene connected Mora-
kilometara (Hahn 1977). Na gravetijenskom nalazi- via, Slovakia and southern Poland. Sites around the
tu Sprendlingen u Njemakoj koljke su donesene Rhine point to a somewhat different path of raw
s udaljenosti od gotovo 700 kilometara (Bosinski material acquisition, since most of the imported
1979). koljke gornjopaleolitikih slojeva poznatog material originate in the north and west, while,
nalazita Spy u Belgiji najvjerojatnije su donesene on most Upper Paleolithic sites in France, shells
iz Engleske (Otte 1977), a mediteranske koljke, originated from the Atlantic, and less frequently
najvjerojatnije iz Istre, pronaene su na lokalitetu from the Mediterranean (Taborin 1992). Although
Pavlov u ekoj (Otte 1981). Porastom broja nalaza analyses of raw materials, shells and snails provide
i analiza mogue je ukazati na postojanje odreenih firmer basis for reconstructing the possible paths
puteva kojim su sirovine stizale na svoja udaljena of exchange or population shifts, the appearance
odredita. Jedna od takvih veza spajala je u kasnom of certain non-utilitarian objects like the so called
pleistocenu prostore Moravske, Slovake i june Paleolithic Venuses (female figurines with accentu-
Poljske. Nalazita oko rijeke Rajne ukazuju na ne- ated attributes which are common in the Gravettien
to drugaiji put nabave sirovina, budui da vei dio industry, fig. 5) led some scientists to think about
uvezenog materijala potjee sa sjevera i zapada, dok the exchange of ideas. The mentioned figurines are
na veini gornjopaleolitikih nalazita francuske common and spread over a large geographical area
koljke dolaze s obala Atlantika, a u manjem broju of Europe (for a detailed list of finds and sites see
mediteranske obale (Taborin 1992). Iako nam ana- Knecht et al. 1992; Gamble 1986; 1999; Klein 1999;
lize nalaza sirovinskog materijala, koljaka i pueva Jankovi & Karavani 2009; Karavani 2012, and
pruaju sigurnije temelje za rekonstrukciju puteva therein cited bibliography). They were made out of
mogue razmjene ili populacijskih gibanja, pojava different materials (ivory, bone, stone, baked clay
odreenih neutilitarnih predmeta, poput tzv. paleo- and other) and are characterized by stylistic differ-
litikih Venera (enskih figurica naglaenih spolnih ences in form, but the common theme is susceptible
atributa koje su vrlo este u vrijeme gravetijenske to interpretations on a unified worldview and the
industrije, sl. 5) navele su dio znanstvenika na raz- existence of widespread common symbolical con-
miljanje o postojanju razmjena ideja. Spomenute cepts. Without a doubt, this complex socio-cultural
figurice este su i rasprostranjene na velikom geo- system required the use of modern language.
grafskom prostoru Europe (za opiran pregled na-
laza i nalazita vidi pr. Knecht et al. 1992; Gamble
1986; 1999; Klein 1999; Jankovi & Karavani 2009; Genetic research
Karavani 2012 i tamo citiranu literaturu). Izrae-
ne su od najrazliitijeg materijala (bjelokosti, kosti, Numerous breakthroughs were achieved in the
kamena, peene gline i dr.) i odlikuju se stilskim ra- study of language through genetics in the last ten
zlikama u izvedbi, no zajednika tematika pogoduje years. In 2001, Lai et al. (2001) published a paper in
interpretacijama o jedinstvu svjetonazora i posto- which they successfully identified the FOXP2 gene
janju odreenih rairenih i zajednikih simbolinih which is important for developing the predisposi-
predodbi. Nema sumnje da je za ovakav komplek- tion for talking and linguistic abilities in general,
san sociokulturni sustav bio nuan moderni jezik. which was in popular literature somewhat clumsily,
34
called the language gene. How-

ever, although we do not fully
understand the function of this
gene (among other things, this
gene plays a regulatory role in
the activation of other genes and
is involved in different develop-
mental and other processes, e.g.
see Shu et al. 2001; Lieberman &
McCarthy 2007; Marcus & Fish-
er 2003), and the development
of speech and linguistic abilities
is a much more complex process
which is not regulated by a sin-
gle gene, their research yielded
interesting results. Possibly the
most famous study was carried
out on a family which was, for
privacy reasons, called KE, and
which has 15 members suffering
Slika 5: Gornjopaleolitike Venere s lokaliteta Willendorf u
from speech and language ability problems in the
Njemakoj (lijevo) i Dolni Vstonice u Moravskoj (desno). Prema
Jankovi & Karavani (2009:229, crte M. Gali). last three generations (problems with speech ar-
Figure 5: Upper Paleolithic Venuses from Willendorf in ticulation, grammar rules, etc.). All members with
Germany (left) and Dolni Vstonice in Moravia (right); according problems had damage precisely on the FOXP2 gene
to Jankovi & Karavani (2009:229, drawn by M. Gali). (Lai et al. 2000; 2001; Fisher et al. 1998; MacDer-
mot et al. 2005). It is interesting to note that this
gene went through very little change in its long
Genetika istraivanja evolutionary development. For example, although
it codes 715 amino acids, the human variant differs
Posljednjih desetak godina veliki pomaci u proua- from that of a mouse only in the coding of three
vanju jezika napravljeni su na polju genetike. Go- amino acids (Enard et al. 2002). It is even more in-
dine 2001 Lai i suradnici (2001) objavili su rad u teresting that this gene in chimpanzees, our closes
kojem su uspjeno identificirali gen FOXP2 za koji living relative, differs from ours in coding only two
se pokazalo da ima vanu ulogu u razvoju predispo- amino acids (Enard et al. 2002; Zhang et al. 2002).
zicije za govor i jezine sposobnosti uope, te je u In other words, if we suppose this gene and its hu-
popularnoj literaturi ubrzo, pomalo nespretno na- man variant take part in the development of speech
zvan gen za jezik. No, iako nam funkcija ovog gena and modern language, the same should be looked
nije u potpunosti poznata (izmeu ostalog, ovaj gen for in the period after the genetic lines of humans
ima regulacijsku ulogu u aktivaciji drugih gena i diverged from that of chimpanzees (between 6 and
ukljuen je u razne razvojne i druge procese, vidi 5 million years before present), that is, within the
npr. Shu et al. 2001; Lieberman & McCarthy 2007; tribe hominini.
Marcus & Fisher 2003), a razvoj govora i jezinih
The successful isolation of ancient DNA from
sposobnosti puno je sloeniji proces i nije reguliran
Neandertal bones found on the Spanish site of El
samo jednim genom, istraivanja su pokazala vrlo
Sidrn (Krause et al. 2007) showed that this prehis-
zanimljive rezultate. Moda je najbolje poznata stu-
toric population had the same variant of the FOXP2
dija obitelji koja je u literaturi radi zatite privatno-
gene as modern human populations and that the
sti nazvana KE, koja u tri generacije ima 15 pripad-
modern forms of this gene appeared already in
nika oboljelih od tekih potekoa vezanih uz govor
the common ancestor of Neandertal and anatomi-
i jezine sposobnosti (problemi s artikulacijom go-
cally modern humans (before more than 300-400
vora, gramatikim pravilima i sl.). Pokazalo se da svi
000 years ago), and not like it was thought, within
oboljeli imaju oteenje upravo FOXP2 gena (Lai et
the last 200 000 years (Enard et al. 2002; Zhang et
al. 2000; 2001; Fisher et al. 1998; MacDermot et al.
al. 2002).
2005). Zanimljiva je injenica da je ovaj gen doivio
vrlo malo promjena u dugom evolucijskom razvoju.
Primjerice, iako kodira 715 aminokiselina, ljudska
inaica gena se od one kod mia razlikuje samo u
35
kodiranju tri aminokiseline (Enard et al. 2002). Jo Concluding remarks

je zanimljivije da se ovaj gen kod impanze, naeg
najblieg ivueg srodnika, od naeg gena razlikuje Based on different materials and analyses presented
u kodiranju dvije aminokiseline (Enard et al. 2002; in this paper, we feel that it is viable to discard the
Zhang et al. 2002). Drugim rijeima, i ako pretpo- opening hypothesis that contemporary language
stavimo da ovaj gen i njegova ljudska inaica imaju (and speaking abilities) were created through sal-
ulogu u razvoju govora i modernog jezika, istu valja tation and that this evolutionary novelty should be
traiti u razdoblju nakon to su se odvojile evolucij- connected exclusively to modern human popula-
ske linije ovjeka i impanze (izmeu 6 i 5 milijuna tinos from the Upper Paleolithic and the so called
godina prije sadanjosti), dakle unutar plemena ho- cognitive revolution. We feel that the emergence
minini. of speech and language is a result of a long evo-
Uspjena izolacija drevne DNA (ancient DNA) iz lutionary development from some of the earlier
neandertalskih kostiju sa panjolskog nalazita El (gestural?) modes of communication of Miocene
Sidrn (Krause et al. 2007) pokazala je da ova pra- primates into vocalized communication. The evo-
povijesna populacija ima istu inaicu FOXP2 gena lutionary advantages of verbal communication are
kao i suvremene ljudske populacije, te da se mode- discussed through some of the above suggested
ran oblik ovog gena pojavio ve u zadnjeg zajedni- models (e.g. see Tomasello 2008; Riede et al. 2005;
kog pretka neandertalaca i anatomski modernih lju- Zuberbhler 2005, and therein cited bibliography).
di (prije vie od 300-400 000 godina), a ne, kao to After the transition to verbal communication, se-
se to do sada pretpostavljalo, unutar posljednjih 200 lection favored more complex system of commu-
000 godina (Enard et al. 2002; Zhang et al. 2002). nication connected to different factors, including
population increase, spreading into new ecological
zones, more complex cultural systems, emergence
Zakljuna razmatranja of art, burials, symbolic behavior, as well as devel-
oping a geographically wide network of communi-
Na temelju razliite grae i analiza koje su prika- cation in the Later Upper Paleolithic. We feel that
zane u tekstu smatramo da je mogue odbaciti certain preconditions for the development of later
poetnu hipotezu da je suvremeni jezik (i govorne language abilities (based on comparative studies in
sposobnosti) nastao saltacijski te da je tu evolucij- non-human primate communication) were present
sku novinu mogue vezati iskljuivo uz suvremene already before the divergence of the hominins from
ljudske populacije gornjega paleolitika i tzv. kogni- other hominids. Early hominins (Australopithecus)
tivnu revoluciju. Smatramo da je pojava govora i had certain neural structures (increase in Brocas
jezika rezultat dugog evolucijskog razvoja iz nekog and Wernickes areas, although not as much and
od ranijih (gesturalnih?) naina komunikacije mi- morphologically identical to those of later homi-
ocenskih primata u vokalnu komunikaciju. Evolu- nins and anatomically modern humans) which
cijsku prednost vokalne komunikacije mogue je point to selective emphasis and importance of these
promatrati unutar nekih od predloenih modela structures (although the direct role of these in the
(vidi npr. Tomasello 2008; Riede et al. 2005; Zu- emergence of speech and language remains un-
berbhler 2005 i tamo citiranu literaturu). Nakon clear), despite the fact that they did not differ from
to je naglasak preao na vokalnu komunikaciju, se- their predecessors or living apes in brain size and
lekcija e favorizirati sloeniji sustav komunikacije anatomy of the vertebral canal. When the Homo
vezan uz razliite imbenike, ukljuujui poveanje (Homo ergaster/erectus) genus appeared, a change
zajednice, irenje u nove ekoloke zone, naglasak was noted in almost all structures which we link to
na sve sloeniju kulturu, pojavu umjetnosti, ukopa, speaking and language abilities in modern humans
simbolikog ponaanja, kao i stvaranja geografski (although we should stress that the analyzed fos-
rasprostranjene mree kontakata u vrijeme kasnijeg sil material is very sparse) and, additionally, there
gornjeg paleolitika. Nae je miljenje da su odree- was an increasingly complex culture and require-
ni preduvjeti za razvoj kasnijih jezinih sposobnosti ments pertaining to spreading into new geographi-
(na temelju komparativnih istraivanja komunika- cal regions and ecological zones. The Neandertal
cije neljudskih primata) prisutni ve prije odvajanja anatomy related to speech and language does not
plemena hominini od ostalih hominida. Rani ho- differ from those of modern human groups (includ-
minini (rod Australopithecus) posjeduju odreene ing the morphology of the hyoid bone), and their
neuralne strukture (poveanje u dijelovima Brocina culture and behavior (including symbolism and
i Wernickeova podruja, iako ne u mjeri i morfolo- burials) testifies to the adaptability of these people
ki identino kao kod kasnijih hominina i anatomski and their complex social structure, while the struc-
modernih ljudi) koje ukazuju na selekcijski naglasak ture of the FOXP2 gene displays a variant identical
36
i vanost tih struktura (premda je direktna uloga to those of contemporary people. In the so called
istih u pojavi govora i jezika jo nejasna), usprkos Middle Paleolithic of Europe and parts of Asia, that
tome to se veliinom mozga, kao i anatomijom is, in the Middle Stone Age of Africa, certain forms
vertebralnog kanala, ne razlikuju od svojih pret- of symbolic behavior and artistic expression ap-
hodnika, kao ni od ivuih ovjekolikih majmuna. pear on areas where both Neandertals (Eurasia) and
Pojavom roda Homo (Homo ergaster/erectus) vid- early anatomically modern humans (Africa) people
ljiva je promjena u gotovo svim strukturama koje lived. It is not possible to justify the cognitive revo-
kod suvremenih ljudskih populacija veemo uz go- lution hypothesis and the saltational appearance
vorne i jezine sposobnosti (iako valja naglasiti da of the evolutionary package of modern behavior
je fosilna graa na kojoj su provedene analize vrlo hypothesis. Behavioral changes are a result of a long
oskudna), emu moemo dodati i sve sloeniju kul- developmental process, both in Africa (McBrearty
turu te zahtjeve vezane uz irenje u nove geografske & Brooks 2000) and other geographic regions. Rea-
regije i ekoloke zone. Anatomija neandertalaca u sons why certain periods of the Upper Paleolithic
aspektima vezanim uz govor i jezik ne razlikuje se (especially in Europe) yielded finds attesting to ar-
od one kod suvremenih ljudskih skupina (ukljuu- tistic expression and symbolism become a rule and
jui i morfologiju jezine kosti), njihova kultura i not an exception, should be sought for in other as-
ponaanje (ukljuujui i pojavu simbolike i ukopa) pects of human life, culture, relations within the
odraava vrlo prilagodljive ljude i sloenu socijal- community and the like. Undoubtedly, this kind of
nu strukturu, dok struktura FOXP2 gena pokazuje complex behavior and transfer of ideas required the
identian oblik kao i u suvremenih ljudi. U razdoblju use of modern language, but we feel that, based on
tzv. srednjeg paleolitika Europe i dijela Azije, odno- everything stated above, the story about the devel-
sno srednjeg kamenog doba Afrike odreeni oblici opment of speech and different aspects of language,
simbolikog ponaanja i umjetnikog izriaja jav- is a result of a long evolutionary path, and not of
ljaju se i na prostorima gdje obitavaju neandertalci a sudden and relatively recent (in the evolutionary
(Euroazija) i rani anatomski moderni ljudi (Afrika). context) emergence.
Nije mogue braniti tezu o kognitivnoj revoluciji
i saltacijskoj pojavi evolucijskog paketa modernog
ponaanja. Promjene u ponaanju rezultat su du- Acknowledgments
gog razvojnog procesa, kako u Africi (McBrearty &
Brooks 2000), tako i na ostalim geografskim prosto- The authors would like to thank colleagues Ivor
rima. Razloge zato u odreenom razdoblju gornjeg Karavani, Nikola Vukosavljevi, Morana Jarec and
paleolitika (a pogotovo na tlu Europe) nalazi koj Zrinka Premui on reading the paper while in pro-
svjedoe o umjetnikom izriaju i simbolici postaju gress, and on useful suggestions. We would also
pravilo a ne iznimka, valja traiti u drugim aspekti- like to thank anonymous reviewers. The paper is
ma ovjekova ivota, kulture, odnosa u zajednici i partially financed by the Ministry of Science, Edu-
sl. Nesumljivo je da je za ovakvo sloeno ponaanje cation and Sports of the Republic of Croatia (196-
i prijenos ideja bilo nuno koritenje modernog je- 1962766-2740).
zika, no smatramo da je na temelju svega iznesenog
u radu pria o razvoju govora i razliitih aspekata
jezika rezultat dugog razvojnog puta, a ne nagle i re-
lativno nedavne (u evolucijskom kontekstu) pojave.
Zahvale
Autori rada eljeli bi se zahvaliti kolegama Ivoru

Karavaniu, Nikoli Vukosavljeviu, Morani Jarec
i Zrinki Premui na iitavanju rukopisa u radu i
korisnim sugestijama. Takoer smo zahvalni anoni-
mnim recenzentima. Rad je djelomino financiran
iz projekta MZOS RH (196-1962766-2740).
37
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Glavni i odgovorni urednici PROSLOV

THIN-WALLED POTTERY FROM THE SITE

Martina Matijako MARTIJANEC-GAMULICA. ANALIZA NALAZA PRIKUPLJENIH

MARTIJANEC-GAMULICA - ANALYSIS OF FINDS FROM 1950

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ROMAN-ERA FIBULAE FROM THE COLLECTION OF THE

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OPVSC. ARCHOL. VOL. 37/38 STR. / PAGES 1434 ZAGREB 2013/2014.

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Ana Azinovi Bebek & BREVARI IZ LOBORA I DRUGIH NOVOVJEKOVNIH

Marija iaVivek & KERAMIKE LULE S LOKALITETA ZOLJANI - EMEAC I

Tihomila Teak-Gregl STOJANU DIMITRIJEVIU U SPOMEN

Ivor Karavani Stojan Dimitrijevi istraivanja i nastava

Kornelija MINICHREITER PROF. DR. STOJAN DIMITRIJEVI

Bine Kramberger Evaluation of Dimitrijevis definition of the

Maja Krznari-krivanko REZULTATI DIMITRIJEVIEVIH ISTRAIVANJA SOPOTA

OPVSC. ARCHOL. VOL. 37/38 STR. / PAGES 1434 ZAGREB 2013/2014.

Lana Okroa Roi BREZOVLJANI

Marcel Buri Komadii i fragmenti: Bapska nakon

Zorko Markovi STOJAN DIMITRIJEVI I ISTRAIVANJA ENEOLITIKA

Glavni i odgovorni urednici

EVOLUCIJA GOVORA I JEZIKA

THE EVOLUTION OF SPEECH AND LANGUAGE

doi: 10.17234/OA.37.1 Ivor Jankovi

Jezik u evolucijskoj perspektivi

states that, at the time, vocaliza-

called the language gene. How-

kodiranju tri aminokiseline (Enard et al. 2002). Jo Concluding remarks

Autori rada eljeli bi se zahvaliti kolegama Ivoru

interpretation, Current Anthropology 39, Chicago, 1998, 144.

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