Sustainable Building Design

Guideline for Sri Lanka

Green Building Council of Sri Lanka

 Ravihansa Chandratilake

Shiromal Fernando

Green Building Council of Sri Lanka

1. Water Efficiency
1.1 The demand for water

Reducing water consumption and protecting water quality are key objectives in
sustainable building. One critical issue of water consumption is that in many areas of
the country, the demands on the supplying aquifer exceed its ability to replenish itself.
To the maximum extent feasible, facilities should increase their dependence on water
that is collected, used, purified, and reused on-site. The protection and conservation of
water throughout the life of a building may be accomplished by designing for dual
plumbing that recycles water in toilet flushing. Waste-water may be minimized by
utilizing water conserving fixtures such as ultra-low flush toilets and low-flow shower
heads. Bidets help eliminate the use of toilet paper, reducing sewer traffic and
increasing possibilities of re-using water on-site

Freshwater withdrawals have tripled over the last 50 years. The world demand for
freshwater is increasing by 64 billion cubic meters a year (1 cubic meter = 1,000 liters).

The worlds population is growing by roughly 80 million people each year.

Population growth rate of Sri Lanka: 0.904% (2009 est.)
Changes in lifestyles and eating habits in recent years are requiring more water
consumption per capita. (Sri Lankan domestic consumption exceeds 130 liters
per capita)
Energy demand is also accelerating, with corresponding implications for water
demand.
Rectify Leaks

Review
Verify is it really necessary to use water or is there any cost
effective alternative

Reduce
Could water be used more efficiently?
Consider alternative activities or process
which could use water efficiently

Re-use
Consider the possibility of water be
treated/filtered and re-used within
the process/activity

Recycle
Consider the
possibility of water
be recycled and use
for other activity

Fig 01: Water Conservation Hierarchy

1.2 Technical measures of improving water efficiency

1.2.1 Water auditing and metering

a) Water audits

Description

Water audits are a key part of water management. They are essential to gathering the
facts and analysing them so as to provide management with options, costs, savings and
financial returns. Audits form the basis for the sound decision making in the allocation of
always scarce capital.
No standard exists for water audits. They are generally classified as basic and detailed.
A basic level audit is always useful and often a good starting point to help scope
complex buildings and systems that justify a detailed audit. The audit scope should
include:

Recommendations

make a breakdown of usage across the site and site activities, reconciled against total
metered water consumption
inspection of equipment, devices and processes across the site as part of preparing a
usage inventory
investigation of consumption by major equipment, devices and processes
investigation of usage trends and patterns using monitoring as detailed below in this
section
preparation of Performance Indicators (PIs) of consumption (using baseline data) in
relation to an appropriate business activity indicator (such as L/m2/year, or L/Rupees
of product made)
comparison of monthly PIs with industry benchmarks (where available) for baseline
consumption, with consideration of site specific factors (such as climate) where
appropriate
development of a model or flow chart of consumption on the site utilising the
equipment/device inventory and known consumption for the equipment (such as from
suppliers, equipment manuals) and reconciling this with total site consumption
identification and feasibility assessment of water savings measures (note, simple
payback methods may not provide a true assessment, particularly for long-life
measures; whole of life costs may need to be subject to discounted cash flow analysis
to get the true picture).
b) Metering

Description

Investigation of the water consumption in office and public buildings has shown in many
cases that there is inadequate or no metering (such as no submetering for a tenancy).
Water meter data is important to a water management programme. For example, if the
building is multi-tenanted without submetering, it will be necessary to work with the
owners to determine a satisfactory means of apportioning water consumption and costs
following the implementation of water management initiatives.
Apportioning total building water use by the percentage of total net rentable area
occupied by a tenant is one approach that can be used in the absence of tenancy
submetering.
Common metering-related issues which have been found in public sector buildings
include:

Recommendations
Use proper metering system for the building (if no metering at all for a building)
Provide meters (submetering) for sections of buildings (such as base building, cooling
tower or retail services)
Install submetering for individual tenancies
Size the meter for the actual load (in case of oversized meters).

1.2.2 Rectifying leakage (10-30% of water use)

Office and commercial building water supply systems and equipment are prone to
leakage. Leakage losses of 10-30% are not uncommon. Many problems start off small
and can be almost imperceptible (such as a slight leak from a toilet cistern) yet increase
gradually over time. Occupants can become desensitised to leaks and some are not
detected and/or reported for 6-12 months if there is no routine maintenance inspection
programme. Given that such leakage is on a 24x7 basis, even a modest leak of 2
L/minute accounts for 1000000 L over one year. In a large building even just 10 such
small leaks can quickly aggregate into significant losses that are not obvious from the
single meter consumption figure in a monthly water bill.
Common sources of leakage in office and public buildings include cooling towers, taps
(especially in high usage areas where tap washer wear is high), urinals, cistern flapper
and filler ball valves, fire hose reels, underground pipes and control valves. Leakage is
sometimes referred to as unaccounted for water or base flow.
1.2.2.1 Water saving opportunities

Rectifying leaks quite often provides the best return on investment of all water saving
measures. Such maintenance should be completed before any efficiency measures so
that a true baseline of consumption can be established against which to check the
savings from other measures. Possible actions include:

Recommendations

Implement planned maintenance and/or replacement of problematic items regardless

of condition (such as changing discharge flapper valves on cisterns every two years).
Make leak reporting the responsibility of cleaners, maintenance contractors and
security personnel (in addition to staff of course). Install stickers with hotline numbers
to encourage visitors to report problems.
Conduct 6-monthly inspections of grounds and storm water pits to observe damp
areas or unexpected flows to drain.
Regularly inspect and exercise hot water system pressure relief valves.

1.2.3 Cooling towers (30-40% of building consumption)

Many commercial and public buildings, and in particular larger buildings, have cooling
towers. They can account for up to 30-40% of such a buildings water use. These
towers will most likely be roof mounted (out of sight - out of mind) so any water related
problems cannot be easily identified. If towers are provided, they should be regularly
monitored and thoroughly checked as part of a routine maintenance programme.

Cooling towers are used to cool condenser water pumped to the roof from the building
cooling plant (chillers or package units) after it has extracted heat from the building.
They are essentially an open water reservoir or basin inside a vented enclosure with an
extraction fan at the top. Warm condenser water is sprayed down onto internal fill
material while air is drawn through it via vents at the bottom or sides of the tower. Water
that is not lost to evaporation and drift then falls into the tower basin where it is treated
before being returned to the cooling plant. Make up water needs to be supplied to
compensate for water lost due to evaporation (an essential cooling process) and
unnecessary losses.

1.2.3.1 Water use in cooling towers

Water is lost from cooling tower systems for a range of reasons. Figure 2 shows the
typical breakdown of evaporation, bleed/blow-down, drift and splash (these terms are
explained below) in a well-designed tower, which together can account for 30-40% of
total water consumption in buildings with cooling towers. This percentage can be higher
if the system has leakage, water treatment or overfilling problems. These losses are
compensated for by make up water (usually from the potable water supply) which is
added to the basin and regulated via a float valve.

Figure 2: Cooling tower system schematic

1.2.3.1 Cooling tower efficiency and improvement measures

The typical problem areas and suitable response measures are discussed below.

a) Overflow - occurs when the level of water within a cooling tower basin rises above a
predetermined design level. Normally this water flows down an overflow pipe to the
sewer. In some cases it can account for up to 40% of daily make up water.

Recommendations
Avoid wastage due to operational problems or inadequate maintenance such as water
supply ball valve repair or adjustment, overflow pipe repositioning or leak repair,
condenser water pipes not positioned below tower spray head so as to eliminate
backflow or water imbalance between interconnected towers.

b) Leaks - leaks can occur in tower basins or casings, flexible connections, pump gland
seals and control valves. They are usually evident from ponding around the tower.

Recommendations

Rectify leaks in basins or casings, flexible connections, pump gland seals and control
valves.

c) Evaporation - the amount of water consumed through evaporation is dictated by the

temperature difference between the condenser water inlet and outlet of the cooling
tower. Evaporation is an essential and unavoidable part of the water cooling process in
cooling towers.

d) Bleed - to prevent the build up of dissolved and suspended solids (both organic and
mineral) in the water left behind after evaporation, some water must bleed off from the
basin to allow dilution by fresh water. The bleed or blow-down process is normally
automatic and controlled via a sensor that measures Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)
concentrations in the water as indicated by water conductivity. When the conductivity
reaches a predetermined setting, the bleed valve opens and so allows water to flow
from the towers basin to the sewer. Savings measures include:

Recommendations

Conduct monthly cleaning of sensors plus at least a 6-monthly calibration to make

sure it is not causing unnecessary bleed
Fitting automatic bleed lockout to prevent bleed off when the system is being injected
with biocide.
 Maximising the cycles of concentration used (the ratio of the concentration of
dissolved solids in the condenser water to those in the make up water), a ratio that is
reflected by the water conductivity as measured by a sensor. Increasing this ratio from
3 to 9 can reduce bleed water volumes by 25% - ratios of less than 3 are indicative of
very high bleed water losses and hence costs in water, sewer and chemicals.
Bleeding off water may well present a reuse opportunity for landscape irrigation.
However, quantities may be relatively small and treatment may be necessary before
reuse (OH&S issues) so these factors should be carefully considered in any feasibility
analysis.

e) Drift - is the water lost from the cooling tower as liquid droplets entrained in the
exhaust air, excluding condensation. Current standards limit drift to 0.002% of the
circulated flow rate. Measures include the fitting of drift eliminators or arrestors.
Reducing drift also results in chemical cost savings.

f) Splash - is due to water being accidentally lost from a cooling tower due to the
splashing action of falling water within the tower or the effect of a strong wind blowing
through a tower exposed to the elements. This is usually due to poor design.

Recommendations
Fix anti-splash louvres or splash mats, or install wind breaks to reduce splash losses.

g) Plant operation loads and times - reducing the amount of central plant in operation
and/or the time for which it operates also reduces cooling tower water losses (and
saves energy). The Building Management System (BMS) settings should be checked to
ensure that plant is not starting too early, running too late or operating unnecessarily on
weekends. The controls and plant configuration should also be reviewed to make sure
that only the minimum needed is in operation at any time. After hours tenant requests
for service may be bringing on all tower pumps and fans when only one of a multi-tower
bank may be needed. A cooling tower bypass valve can also reduce tower losses for
instances of low heat load (such as mild weather, partial building occupancy). Fitting
variable speed drives to cooling tower fans also helps, they allow system operation to
better reflect actual load requirements and so reduce water consumption. Associated
energy savings may far exceed the water cost savings and so free up funds for
investment in further water efficiency measures.

Recommendations
Install Building Management System (BMS) to regulate the plant operation

h) Plant maintenance - building managers and their maintenance contractors should

consider a range of strategies to achieve optimum cooling tower performance:
Recommendations

Adopt a risk management/performance based maintenance regime rather than routine

periodic (such as every 6 months) programme, as such periodic programmes can lead
to unnecessary chemical and water use.
Targets for water and chemical use and cycles of concentration should be agreed, set
and closely monitored.
Include a system diagnostic check list as part of any routine monthly checks and other
contractor service visits.
If side stream filters are fitted, use bag or cartridge filters in the back wash process,
or at least capture bleed-off water and use it for back washing.
An effective plant scale, corrosion and bio-fouling protection plan will ensure chillers
operate at maximum efficiency and so reduce cooling tower loads and hence water
losses.
Fan belt tightness should be regularly checked. If belts are loose then operating times
may be extended to compensate for loss of tower performance which will result in
greater tower water loss.
Consider non-chemical water treatment options such as ozone and ultraviolet that
usually offer superior performance and reduced maintenance.

i) Water treatment - cooling towers represent a very complex and dynamic water
system. The water must be treated to address constantly changing biological, scale,
erosion, corrosion and sludge issues. A complex mix of corrosion inhibitors,
antiscalants, antifoulants, dispersants, surfactants, biocides and pH control chemicals is
needed. These need to be carefully managed by a treatment expert, as major health
issues and equipment damage can occur in just a couple of days. There is no set and
forget option for water treatment.
Biological treatment eliminates organisms such as bacteria (a major health risk) as well
as viruses, fungi, slime and algae which in such an ideal moist and warm environment
can build up into a biofilm that fouls heat exchangers and attacks components. These
biological treatments also indirectly reduce scale build up as mineral micro-crystals
(calcium and magnesium commonly) adhere especially well to biofilm.
Other treatments (such as acidic compounds) directly reduce the build up in mineral
concentrations (commonly calcium chloride) in the cooling plant. Such minerals are
introduced by the make up water but are left behind by water evaporating from the
system. Left unchecked the mineral concentrations would build up to a point where they
are so concentrated they would begin to settle out of the condenser water to form scale.
Whilst adding make up water can reduce the concentrations, chemicals can allow the
concentration to increase before scaling occurs. This saves bleed water and the loss of
other expensive chemicals.
Chemicals are also added to inhibit corrosion. Typically such chemicals are injected by
dosing equipment. Hexavalent chromium-based (chrome) compounds are among the
most efficient and cheapest corrosion inhibitors available. However, hexavalent
chromium is a suspected carcinogen, and is highly toxic. However, there are now other
non-chemical options at least for biological treatment or disinfection, such as ozone or
ultraviolet based treatment systems.

j) Ozone - is a high energy form of oxygen and the most efficient broad spectrum
microbial control agent available. Correctly applied (some installations and operating
environments are unsuitable), it destroys all bacteria, viruses and cysts. The ozone is
produced electronically in an ozone generator under vacuum conditions. It is drawn into
the cooling water, producing a powerful biocidal effect throughout the cooling tower and
the cooling system. Acting as a biocide throughout the cooling system, it destroys
bacteria, algae and viruses, both in the water and attached to the pipe work and cooling
tower.
Ozone treatment reduces the amount of other biocides needed or can even eliminate
them. Its effectiveness reduces the quantity of dissolved solids and so reduces the
amount of bleed needed. In reducing biofilm, equipment efficiency is improved so tower
operating times are reduced, thereby reducing losses due to leaks, splash and drift.
Case studies indicate that bleed can be reduced by 90%, cycles of concentration ratios
can increase from 5-10 to 30-40 and bacterial counts are reduced by three orders of
magnitude. There can be some corrosion issues, but on balance, no worse than for the
chemicals displaced.

k) Ultraviolet (UV) - treatment systems pass tower basin water through a UV unit which
destroys pathogenic bacteria and viruses. It is a non-corrosive process, so no
chemicals need be stored on site. Also, no biocides are present to be carried off-site in
tower drift and there are no chemicals to adversely impact the system water pH or its
composition. The capital costs and the running costs are low, and the equipment usually
suits retrofit situations. For similar reasons to ozone treatment, UV water treatment
systems save water. In addition, chemical and energy costs are lowered and waste
water quality improved (for chemical treatment systems some authorities may require
treatment of bleed water prior to discharge). However, the UV elements require cleaning
to maintain effectiveness (some newer units are self-cleaning). They must also be
correctly sized to suit the water volume. Therefore, the whole of life cycle costs and
benefits of such alternatives to chemical dosing should be investigated.

l) Tower water filtration - the cooling tower sprays pick up air pollutants and deposit
them into the cooling tower water system. The water supply itself may also carry
sediment. Among other operational problems, this increases both the need for chemical
treatment and the need for blow down.

Recommendation
The fitting of filters can reduce this contamination by 2-10% with 10-20% savings in
chemicals and blow down water possible, depending on ambient air pollution levels.

m) Tower air filtration - some towers can be exposed to larger air borne contamination
(such as leaves, insects, paper) which are drawn into the tower water, especially if wave
type air inlets are fitted. This material also leads to increased treatment and blow down
volumes. The fitting of air intake filters can often be justified purely for operation and
maintenance reasons, with water savings being a bonus - they should be considered as
part of any water efficiency audit. Care must be taken to avoid unneccesary pressure
drops or energy use will have to increase to maintain effectiveness.

n) Heat recovery - it may be feasible for heat from condenser water flows to be
recovered via heat exchangers and used elsewhere in the building (such as pre-heating
the supply to hot water boilers). Energy cost savings can then be made available for
funding water saving measures.

Recommendation
Use any means of heat extraction by the heat exchanger which will reduce the tower
cooling load and thereby directly reduce tower water consumption.

p) Consumption monitoring - fitting sub meters to tower makeup water supply and the
blow down lines, with regular monitoring via the Building Management System (BMS) or
a specialist water monitoring system, is an effective way of keeping a focus on
performance and getting an early warning of problems. Failing this, meter readings
should be recorded weekly. Either way, the consumption should be reviewed weekly, or
performance assessed based on the floor area (m2) cooled, the operating hours and
the climatic conditions. A history of data will allow future anomalies to be quickly
identified and acted on. Towers can also be benchmarked to assess relative
performance. Fitting a sub meter to the bleed off or blow down system is also useful for
two other reasons it allows closer monitoring and control of expensive chemical
dosing and provides data that may support a claim to reduce the site sewerage use
discharge factor and so save on sewerage charges.

Recommendation
Fix sub meters to tower makeup water supply and the blow down lines, with regular
monitoring via the Building Management System (BMS) or a specialist water monitoring
system

1.2.4 Amenities (30-40% of building consumption)

1.2.4.1 Background and standards

Urinals, toilets and taps are all common sources of water waste and maintenance costs
in office and public buildings. Some buildings also provide shower facilities although this
is not common and usage by occupants may be low.

a) Water closets
Water closets (WCs) or toilets can use anywhere from 11 litres per flush for the older
style single flush models to an average of 4-5 litres for the now common 6/3 dual flush
toilet or even less for the just released 4.5/3 litre, dual flush model. A relatively high
utilisation rate of 50 flushes per day will provide total water savings of about 170
litres/day (more than 60000 litres per year) for the replacement of a 11 litre single flush
with a 4.5/3 litre dual flush unit.
Water savings and costs of implementation will vary greatly depending on the level of
use, the specific water savings measures, the type of pan installed, such factors as the
plumbing arrangements and the architectural finishes. It is not unusual for it to be
uneconomic to replace older style WCs except as part of a major building or floor
upgrade.

b) Gravity tank - comprises a bowl or pan with a tank connected by a flush pipe. The
tank is integrated with the pan on modern WCs, older styles can have the tank 2m
above the pan. Gravity tank toilets are relatively inexpensive and are most commonly
found in residential and lower grade commercial and public buildings. They rely on the
volume of water in the tank to flush waste and usually require water pressure of no
more than 70-100 kPa to operate properly. Low pressure just means longer tank refill
periods, although this increase in cycle time can be an issue when utilisation is high as
for museum toilet facilities.
Older style gravity tank toilets use up to 11 litres of water for every flush. The currently
common dual flush toilet suites provide 6 litres for a full flush and 3 litres for a half flush.
However, products just released onto the market have a 4.5/3 L dual flush cistern
reducing water use to 4.5 litres for a full flush.

c) Pressurised tank - a less common and relatively new design uses water line
pressure to achieve a higher flush velocity. Water is not stored inside a cistern, but in a
vessel that compresses a pocket of air and releases pressurised water into the bowl
and out the trapway. They require a minimum water pressure of 175 kPa to operate well
and they may not be suitable for a retrofit installation depending on the nature of the
existing plumbing. They give an excellent and consistent cleaning action, are low
maintenance and are very water efficient. However, like the gravity tank type, they have
a finite cycle time which may make them unsuitable for busy public facilities.

d) Water closet efficiency measures

(I) Gravity tank system:

It is not always feasible to replace old single flush WCs completely but there is a range
of improvement options available:

Recommendations

Cistern replacement - some pans with 11 L cisterns can accept a simple replacement
6/3 cistern and this is usually very cost effective (payback of 2-3 years or less). These
work well in low flush (3 L) mode where the toilet is frequently used as a urinal, such
as in busy public areas. However, some bowls will not clean solid waste properly with
 the reduced 6 L flushing volume. These types require a complete toilet suite
changeover. Costs are very much site dependent.
Flapper valve changeover - many single flush cisterns can be retrofitted with early
closure flapper valves (valves that control the flow of water to the bowl) that reduce
the flush volume. However, some pans will not clean solids properly with the reduced
flushing volume.
Flapper valve maintenance - flapper valves become worn or their seats corroded
causing water to continually leak into the pan. These leaks can be very hard to detect;
however, a few drops of food colouring added to the cistern makes problems more
evident. These valves are problematic and should be replaced every 2 years as part of
programmed maintenance.
Cistern displacement devices - nearly all single flush 11 L cisterns can be fitted with
water displacement devices or water dams to keep 2-4 litres out of the flushing cycle
paybacks of 1 year or less can be expected. Again, some pans will not clean solids
properly with the reduced flushing volume.
Float valves - incorrectly set or water logged ball float valves on the inlet water supply
cause cisterns to continually overflow. This flow can be very hard to detect, especially
if only of the order of litre per minute; however even this small flow rate will waste
more than 250 000 litres per year.
Flush mechanism - worn or damaged flush mechanisms (such as bent control wire)
can also cause water to continually leak into the pan.
Overflow pipe setting - setting the overflow pipe too high causes excess flushing
volume.
Inspection regime - conduct a six- monthly check regime and include leak reporting in
cleaners scope of work. Stickers in prominent positions can urge people to do the
right thing and report leaks to a help desk number.

(II) Flush valve system

These systems do not offer as many opportunities as gravity tank systems as they are
simpler and more reliable. This is why they are often installed in high-use public
buildings such as museums, galleries and hospitals. Measures include:

Recommendations

Timing - check timer adjustment setting (if fitted) to eliminate overly long flushing or
retrofit lower flow diaphragm (if the pan is suitable). A qualified plumber, experienced
in commercial office work, will know how best to adjust the timing to suit the available
pressure and bowl design around 10 seconds would be typical.
Diaphragm replacement - replace worn diaphragm, clean debris from by-pass orifice
or bleed air from the line to stop slow leaks or failure to shut off.
Water seals - rectify relief valve seating and/or control lever water seal to stop slow
leaks.
Inspection regime - conduct a six- monthly check regime and include leak reporting in
the cleaners scope of work. Provide leak reporting stickers.
e) Urinals
Urinals can be a multi-user trough or individual wall hung pods. Flushing mechanisms
can be a manually operated cistern (concealed push button or exposed overhead chain-
pull), lever operated flushometer or a movement sensor controlled solenoid valve.
Consumption depends on usage levels, equipment type and settings it can vary from
50 000 to 100000 litres per year (30-70 flushes of 4 litres each per day). However, there
are still some cyclic fill and dump units installed that operate on a 24x7 basis and these
can waste over 500 000 litres per year.

Waterless urinals
Both wall hung and trough type urinals are now available in a waterless design. Many
incorporate a cartridge that must be replaced after a certain number of uses. However,
some equipment now on the market has the advantage of not requiring a trap cartridge
thereby further reducing operating costs. These use a special liquid filled trap
incorporated into the urinal rather than a replaceable cartridge. The trap lets urine go to
the sewer but acts as a seal to block odours. The biodegradable odour-blocking fluid is
poured into the waste trap and floats on the surface of the urine to create a perfect seal,
blocking any urine odours. The denser urine flows through the liquid and out of the
urinal waste pipe to the sewer. The blocking fluid remains effective for approximately
5000-7000 visits.
Neither type of urinal requires water hence there are no cisterns or flushing
mechanisms to fail or maintain.
For flushing urinals the cost of efficiency measures depends very much on the type of
equipment and the nature of the plumbing installation. Savings depend on the level of
usage and property maintenance practices. The following provides a shopping list of
possibilities which should be costed as part of a water audit or whole of life design
check for new construction and refurbishment works.

Urinals water efficiency opportunities

A range of often simple and cost effective measures are available for what can be very
wasteful installations:

Recommendations

Changeover to waterless - high priority should be given to determining the feasibility of

installing waterless urinals (both wall hung and trough type) as part of new and major
refurbishment works such measures are unlikely to be feasible as stand alone
projects. These units have been successfully used in Europe and the USA for over 10
years with annual water savings of 170 000 L per urinal in some US schools. An
increasing number of local users report good results; however, some odour and
operating cost issues are being reported. If cleaning staff are not given proper
instruction then the special trap fluid can be quickly rendered ineffective. Maintenance
staff need instruction as to when cartridges or the trap solution needs to be changed
early replacement could lead to replacement costs exceeding the water and sewer
 cost savings. For some urinals a replacement mechanical cartridge is available that
uses a synthetic bladder (developed by NASA for use in mens space suits) that takes
the place of a trap. These are maintenance free.
Conversion to waterless some manufacturers have developed materials that allow
any flushing type urinal to be converted to a waterless operation. Small dissolvable
cubes which contain surfactants and microbes that together keep the flush pipe clean
are put in the unit and the water is turned off.
Pipes from urinals have a build up of uric scale, a compound of urine that is practically
insoluble. It is the cause of most of the unpleasant ammonia/urine smells and
blockages in male toilets. The usual response is to flush water down the system which
just makes it worse. The cubes remove existing scale and prevent further build up.
The surfactants and the microbes are an all-natural product and are 100% bio-
degradable. Once the cubes are installed they ultimately eliminate the need for
washing the urinal down with other harsh chemicals like bleach or acid. The Pier Hotel
in Port Lincoln in South Australia recently saved 80 000 litres of water in three months
by using the cubes, which were nominated for an annual SA water industry alliance
award.
Eliminate cyclical flushing - cyclical flushing units are the most water inefficient type of
urinal and should be replaced immediately. Manual pull chain or movement sensor
controlled solenoid valve mechanisms are suitable controls. Savings of 500 000 litres
and $1000 per year are possible with a payback of less than 6 months.
Flush volume reduction - reduce cistern or flushometer volumes to the minimum by
adjustment or replacement of valves. As little as 1-2 litres/flush may well be adequate
versus the 3-6 litres commonly used.
Cistern flapper valve - routine replacement of cistern flapper valves every 2 years.
Movement sensors sensor controlled flushing is marketed as best practice in water
saving; however, as with other so called smart technology, in practice such systems
can in reality use more water than the ones they replace. Areas to address include:
a) adjusting moving or adding movement sensors so as to avoid spurious
activation by passing traffic
b) ensuring each urinal has its own sensor, which only activates water supply to
that urinal
c) reprogramming sensor controls to only flush after multiple uses or increase
time delay to say 15 minutes
d) ensuring battery powered sensors and mechanisms have mains power
charging option fitted
e) minimising flush time, such as to five seconds.

Routine inspections - conduct a six-monthly check regime and include leak reporting
in the cleaners scope of work. Support this with leak reporting stickers or signs visible
to users.

f) Taps
Excessive flows and/or leaks from taps in toilet areas, kitchenettes and cleaners sinks
can be a significant source of water waste. Showers can be another significant source
of water waste although they are not common in most offices and public buildings.
However, a single dripping tap can waste more than 24 000 litres per year. Unregulated
flows can reach 15-20 L/minute (with splashing that wets users and floors causing an
occupational health and safety hazard) when 6 L/minute or even less is enough for
hand washing. Reducing flows from hot water taps has the added benefit of saving
energy. Such savings typically exceed the water cost savings by 2 or 3 to one.

Tap water efficiency measures

Some very simple and inexpensive retrofit measures are available for existing devices
that save water as well as energy whilst improving user amenity and safety. Savings of
20-30% are common with paybacks of less than 2 years. A range of measures is
summarised below:

Recommendations

Fit new water efficient tapware- typical taps discharge 15 to 20 L minute but new low-
flow and aerating models may use as little as 2 L minute, depending on the intended
application.

Fit low flow aerators to basin spouts which may reduce the flow to less than a third (6
L/minute or less). This is an inexpensive option but devices are subject to clogging
and tampering.
Throttling back under-basin control valves (where fitted) to 6 L/minute or less and
removing handles to avoid tampering are cost effective measures. Over throttling can
lead to jumper valve noise and/or tap seat wear problems. In higher use areas it may
be preferable to fit in-tap flow regulators and long life jumper valves to achieve a more
robust and tamper proof solution.
Fit movement-sensor operated basin spouts that automatically turn on but only when
the hands are placed under the spout. Whilst this is arguably the most hygienic and
efficient solution to basin water control, these systems are somewhat expensive and
introduce another level of maintenance complexity. They may only prove feasible in
very high usage areas and in buildings subject to best practice maintenance.
Fit lever or button operated timer taps that allow water to flow for 10-15 seconds after
operation. Some have built-in, adjustable flow regulators. Whilst not as hygienic or
efficient as movement-sensor controlled spouts, they are not so complex and are less
costly.
For showers, fit low flow heads or in-tap regulators to reduce flows from 15-25
L/minute to less than 10 L/minute. Care needs to be taken in choosing shower heads
so as to achieve an acceptable spray pattern. The back pressure produced can
exacerbate leaks from worn tap spindles (such leaks are often hidden as they occur
behind the wall tiles). Taps should be refurbished at the same time as fitting the
shower head or consider fitting in-tap flow regulators instead provided an acceptable
spray pattern can be achieved with the existing shower rose.
Fit long life tap washers (usually with a rubber O-ring and mechanical protection
against over tightening) as insurance against future unreported leaks and to reduce
 maintenance costs. This should be done in conjunction with almost all the above
measures.

g) Kitchens and kitchenettes

Common area kitchenettes present limited opportunities for water savings. The most
common kitchenette bay may well only have a sink, a small under-sink and hot water
storage tank. Some may also have a dishwasher. If a larger tenancy kitchen or canteen
is present then more significant opportunities may present themselves in the form of
commercial kitchen equipment such a large dishwasher with pre-spray rinse trigger
guns and food steamers.

Water efficiency opportunities

Measures that may be available to save water in kitchenettes are:

Recommendations

Tap efficiency measures as above. Flow rates need to be selected to suit the function
hand basins can be limited to 6-8 L/minute while taps and spouts used for pot filling
should not be restricted. All taps should be fitted with high quality, long life jumper
valves.
Dishwasher replacement with water efficient model (2-3 L/cycle maximum), replace
worn, missing or excessively high flow wash nozzles in existing equipment, fit
pressure regulator if pressure is excessive and equipment has no built in control and
ensure racks are effectively stacked and only full loads are run through.
Routine check and exercising of hot water tank expansion valves for water and energy
savings.
Make leak reporting a responsibility for cleaners.

1.2.5 Outdoor and landscaping

Irrigation water use can vary greatly from 1-20% of total building water consumption,
depending on the facility and the amount of open space.

Water efficiency opportunities

Some or all of the following measures may be suitable:

Recommendations

Install efficient irrigation systems such as drip irrigation, soil soakers, and efficient
sprinkler systems.
Check that sprinklers water the garden only, not the street or footpaths and support
with signage.
 Water the lawn only when the ground is dry and preferably no more than once a week.
Adjust watering schedules for the climate.
Water during the coolest part of the day (preferably morning) and never water on
windy days. As much as 30% of water used can be lost to evaporation by watering
lawns at midday.
Remove weeds to decrease competition for water.
Use a mowing height of 50mm to 75mm (2-3 inches) and apply mulch to both reduce
evaporation and prevent weed growth.
Limit grass areas and use native trees, shrubs, and other plants that require less
water). Grass requires 30-50% more water than shrubs and other groundcovers.
Repair or replace leaking hoses and sprinklers.
Always use an automatic shut-off nozzle on hoses.
Use a broom rather than a hose to clean decks, footpaths and paved areas.
Collect rainwater, cooling tower bleed off and/or fire system test water for reuse on
landscaping if higher end uses are not feasible.

1.3 Other water efficiency and conservation measures

1.3.1 Fire system

Recommendations

Capture the bleed off water: Routine fire system testing can require the bleed off of
significant quantities of water. This high quality water normally goes to the storm water
drain. If it can be captured in a closed system prior to going to drain there is no reason it
cannot be reused for the fire system or cooling tower make up water. The feasibility of
piping the test flows to a storage tank should be investigated some sites may well
already have a suitable fire water holding tank. Fire hose reels and hydrants should be
inspected regularly for leaks and unauthorised use.

1.3.2 Rain water harvesting

Recommendations

Capture and store rain water from roofs: in ground floor or basement tanks (20000L
being a useful capacity for an office or commercial entity). If it is to be used to supply
drinking water taps, showers and hand basins, it must be passed through self cleaning
filters. Continuous quality monitoring should only bring on treatment systems (possibly
including chemicals) when required so as to minimise energy costs. Excess water can
flow to the stormwater system as usual or to a grey water system for use in toilet
flushing, irrigation, vehicle washing or other approved uses. Alternatively, rain water
could be used directly for toilet flushing, irrigation and vehicle washing, possibly without
any treatment.
References

Water Use and Conservation a US handbook by Amy Vickers, Section 4.7,

Best Water Use and Conservation a US handbook by Amy Vickers, Section 2.4.
Practice Guide for Clubs by Sydney Water Corporation, Section 2.
Water Use and Conservation a US handbook by Amy Vickers, Section 2.4
Best Practice Guide for Clubs by Sydney Water Corporation, Section 3.
Best Practice Guide for Clubs by Sydney Water Corporation, Section 7 Outdoor Areas
The Water Efficient Garden a guide by Wendy van Dok
Water Use and Conservation a US handbook by Amy Vickers, Chapter 3.
2. Energy Efficiency
2.1 Why Energy Matters

Buildings, as they are designed and used today, contribute to serious environmental
problems because of excessive consumption of energy and other natural resources.
The close connection between energy use in buildings and environmental damage
arises because energy-intensive solutions sought to construct a building and meet its
demands for heating, cooling, ventilation, and lighting cause severe depletion of
invaluable environmental resources.

However, buildings can be designed to meet the occupants need for thermal and visual
comfort at reduced levels of energy and resources consumption. Energy resource
efficiency in new constructions can be effected by adopting an integrated approach to
building design. Energy efficiency in buildings can be achieved through a multipronged
approach involving adoption of bioclimatic architectural principles responsive to the
climate of the particular location; use of materials with low embodied energy; reduction
of transportation energy; incorporation of efficient structural design; implementation of
energy-efficient building systems; and effective utilization of renewable energy sources
to power the building.

Thus, in brief, an energy-efficient building balances all aspects of energy use in a

building lighting, space-conditioning, and ventilation by providing an optimized mix
of passive solar design strategies, energy efficient equipment, and renewable sources
of energy. Use of materials with low embodied energy also forms a major component in
energy efficient building designs.

Figure 3: Embodied energy is swamped by operational energy in almost all building

types (based on Cole & Kernan, Bldg & Environ, 1996)
2.1 Embodied Energy

Embodied energy in building materials has been studied for the past several decades
by researchers interested in the relationship between building materials, construction
processes, and their environmental impacts.

What is embodied energy?

There are two forms of embodied energy in buildings:

Initial embodied energy; and

Recurring embodied energy

The initial embodied energy in buildings represents the non-renewable energy

consumed in the acquisition of raw materials, their processing, manufacturing,
transportation to site, and construction. This initial embodied energy has two
components:

Direct energy the energy used to transport building products to the site, and then to
construct the building; and

Indirect energy the energy used to acquire, process, and manufacture the building
materials, including any transportation related to these activities.

The recurring embodied energy in buildings represents the non-renewable energy

consumed to maintain, repair, restore, refurbish or replace materials, components or
systems during the life of the building.

As buildings become more energy-efficient, the ratio of embodied energy to lifetime

consumption increases. Clearly, for buildings claiming to be "zero-energy" or
"autonomous", the energy used in construction and final disposal takes on a new
significance.
 Description Qty Average Embedded Energy
(MJ/Qty)
3
Aggregates 1m 99
3
Air-dry timber purlin 1m 1429
3
Air-dry timber planks 1m 1722
Aluminium extrusions 1 MT 147478
Asbestos fibre 1 MT 15680
2
Beam formwork 1m 45
Blocks (4X8X16) 1000 Nos 3855
Blocks (6X8X16) 1000 Nos 6138
2
Blockwork (4) 10 m 558
2
Blockwork (6) 10 m 880
Bricks 1000 Nos 8576
2
Brickwork (9) 10 m 10893
2
Brickwork (4 1/2) 10 m 5452
Calicut tiles 1000 Nos 25576
Cement 1 MT 4282
3
Clay 1m 4
3
Concrete (1:1:2) 1m 2641
3
Concrete (1:2:4) 1m 1664
3
Concrete (1:1:2) 1m 1284
Glass 1 MT 8342
2
Glazing (3mm) 1m 64
Lime stone 1 MT 34
3
Logs 1m 166
Paints - emulsion 1l 54
Paints - primer 1l 125
3
Plywood 1m 12090
PVC - MT 1 MT 95685
PVC EL Condutes 1m 8
PVC - Resin 1 MT 92000
PVC- 110- T400 1m 135
PVC- 20- T1000 1m 11
PVC- 32- T1000 1m 28
PVC down pipe 1m 44
PVC - gutters 1m 57
3
Random rubble 1m 712
2
Render 5/8 (1:1:5) 10 m 945
2
Render 1/2 (1:3) 10 m 284
2
Render 3/4 (1:3) 10 m 428

Table 01: embodied energy valuse for some of the Sri Lankan construction materials
and components
2.1.1 Measuring embodied energy

Typically, embodied energy is measured as a quantity of non-renewable energy per unit

of building material, component or system. For example, it may be expressed as Mega
Joules (MJ) or Giga Joules (GJ) per unit of weight (kg or tonne) or area (square metre).
The process of calculating embodied energy is complex and involves numerous sources
of data.

Implicit in the measure of embodied energy are the associated environmental

implications of resource depletion, greenhouse gases, environmental degradation and
reduction of biodiversity. As a rule of thumb, embodied energy is a reasonable indicator
of the overall environmental impact of building materials, assemblies or systems.
However, it must be carefully weighed against performance and durability since these
may have a mitigating or compensatory effect on the initial environmental impacts
associated with embodied energy.

2.1.2 How much embodied energy is typically found in buildings?

The amount of embodied energy in Proportion (%)

Element
buildings varies considerably. Initial approximately
embodied energy consumption depends
on the nature of the building, the materials 16
Substructure
used and the source of these materials
Superstructure 18
(this is why data for a building material in
one country may differ significantly from Roof 7
the same material manufactured in another
country). The recurring embodied energy is External walls 13
related to the durability of the building
materials, components and systems External features 8
installed in the building, how well these are
maintained, and the life of the building (the Internal walls 8
longer the building survives, the greater
Finishes and fixtures 5
the expected recurring energy
consumption). Services 20

The initial embedded value for Sri Lankan External works 3

residential buildings lies between 2.4 and
4.9 GJ/m2 for single storied houses and Miscellaneous 2
between 3.5 and 5.7 GJ/m2 for two storied
TOTAL 100
houses. The initial embodied energy value
for Sri Lankan multi-storied office buildings
lies between 6 and 10.0 GJ/m2. This is
Table 2: Estimate of embodied energy
shown in more detail in Table 2.
of office buildings in Sri Lanka.
The embodied energy intensity can be compared with other researchers by looking at
the some of the data assembled by Cole and Kernan (1996) for commercial buildings as
shown in Table 3.

Researcher GJ/m2

Stein et al, (1976) 18.6

Oka et al, (1993) 8.0 12.0

Tucker & Treloar (1994) 8.2

Honey & Buchanan

3.4 6.5
(1992)

Cole & Kernan (1996) 4.3 5.1

Table 3: Embodied energy intensities for commercial buildings (from Cole & Kernan,
1996).

2.1.3 Is embodied energy a useful measure?

Embodied energy can be a very useful measure provided it is not viewed in absolute
terms. The initial embodied energy of various materials, components and systems can
vary between projects, depending on suppliers, construction methods, site location
and the seasonality of the work. The recurring embodied energy is difficult to estimate
over the long term since the non-renewable energy contents of replacement materials,
components or systems are difficult to predict. However, as buildings become more
energy efficient and the amount of operating energy decreases, embodied energy
becomes a more important consideration. There also exist strong correlations
between embodied energy and environmental impacts. But it is widely acknowledged
today that embodied energy represents one of many measures and should not be
used as the sole basis of material, component or system selection.

2.1.4 Reducing the Embodied Energy of Buildings

One of the major uses for energy is building construction and operation. According to
the Environmental Resource Guide, produced by the American Institute of Architects,
more than 30% of the energy consumed in the United States goes to making and
maintaining buildings. This includes both operating energy--the energy required for
space heating and cooling, lighting, refrigeration, water heating and other building
functions--and energy embodied in the physical structure.
Most people are familiar with the concept of improving the energy efficiency of buildings
by reducing the operating energy. It's a common claim that energy-efficiency measures
can reduce the operating energy of an individual building by 60% or more.
Comparatively little attention has been focused, however, on recognizing or reducing
the embodied energy of structures.

Embodied energy, or "embedded energy," is an assessment that includes the energy

required to extract raw materials from nature, plus the energy used in primary and
secondary manufacturing activities to provide a finished product. There is embodied
energy in any processed product, from a drinking cup to a car. In embodied energy
terms, buildings represent a huge, relatively long-duration energy investment.

Every building is a complex combination of many processed materials, each of which

contributes to the building's total embodied energy. The energy required to extract and
process the raw material for an individual component, as well the energy used to
transport the finished product to the job site and install it, all become part of the
embodied energy cost of the completed structure. Furthermore, energy involved in
maintaining an individual building component, and finally removing it and recycling it or
otherwise disposing of it at the end of its useful life, can all be part of the embodied
energy equation for a particular building material, depending on how the embodied
energy is quantified.

As the operating energy required for buildings declines, the embodied energy they
represent becomes a more significant percentage of the total energy buildings use. In
coming years more efforts will probably be directed toward measuring and reducing the
amount of embodied energy in buildings.

2.1.5 Comparing Apples and Oranges

Even with computer programs and sample data, embodied energy of entire buildings--or
even of individual materials--is difficult to quantify, since production and installation of
building components is a lengthy and complex process involving many variables. No
measurement standards exist, either. In practice, each individual researcher studying
embodied energy has a different methodology for quantifying the embodied energy of
materials. Some calculations fail to take disposal costs of a material into account, and
little is known about the long-term disposal costs for many materials. Some
measurements don't include transportation, or consider only part of the extraction
energy involved in producing a material.

Some researchers differentiate between the embodied energy of the house "as built"
and "life-cycle embodied energy" that includes the maintenance, repair, demolition and
disposal of the structure. (This life-cycle embodied energy is not the equivalent of life-
cycle analysis, which includes environmental costs such as resource depletion and
pollution as a way of internalizing the costs of present externalities. Life-cycle embodied
energy only measures energy use, not energy costs or other environmental costs.)
Comparing the various figures provided on different materials is akin to comparing the
proverbial apples and oranges. And as though the figures for materials weren't
confusing enough, calculations of embodied energy will be different for each job site.
Factors such as distance of the site from manufacturer, and even the distance that
trades people must travel to and from the site during construction, are all part of the
embodied energy equation. Furthermore, the type of fuel used in processing and
transporting materials can affect the amount of embodied energy contained in the final
product. Two products of identical appearance may have different embodied energies,
depending on where and how they were made, and where and how they will finally be
used.

Given these complexities, builders bent on reducing energy consumption should learn
as much as possible about materials options, and consider the probable relative
embodied energies of these materials. Fortunately, a few general rules of thumb apply:

The embodied energy in recycled building materials is generally less than that
contained in new materials. Recycling provides easily obtainable manufacturing
feedstock. There is very low extraction energy associated with recycled materials.
Although manufacturing with recycled feedstocks can involve transporting, cleaning,
and sorting the recycled materials, this often requires far less energy than
manufacturing from a virgin resource that must be extracted and refined before use
(see Table 4).

Energy saved
Energy required to
by using
produce from
recycled
virgin material
materials
(million Btu/ton)
(percentage)
Aluminum
250 95

Plastics
98 88

Corrugated
Cardboard 26.5 24

Glass
15.6 5

Source:Roberta Forsell Stauffer of National Technical Assistance

Service (NATAS), published in Resource Recycling, Jan/Feb 1989).

Table 4. Potential Production Energy Savings of Recycled Materials

While these figures will vary with the quality and quantity of recycled feedstock, as well
as with the efficiency of the processing equipment used, they show that using recycled
materials as raw material for manufacturing can result in substantial energy savings for
at least a few frequently used materials.
2.1.6 Measures of reducing embedded energy in buildings

Recommendations

a) Reusing materials

Reusing materials or even reusing entire buildings by retrofitting them, reduces the total
amount of embodied energy even more than using recycled materials. Although reusing
materials often requires intensive cleaning, and frequently entails repair, it represents a
means of attaining substantial embodied energy savings. Builders can save embodied
energy by incorporating as many salvaged and reused building components as
practical.

b) Reducing the energy required at any stage of production

The embodied energy of a manufactured material can be lowered by reducing the

energy required at any stage of production. For instance, the energy of lumber is greatly
reduced by air drying it instead of kiln-drying it. Even if the lumber is harvested, milled,
and transported by the same means, lumber that is air-dried has only about one-third as
much embodied energy as kiln-dried lumber, measured in millions of Btu per thousand
square feet.

c) Choose durable, long-lived building materials.

Durable materials, especially those with low maintenance requirements, tend to have a
lower embodied energy than disposable or short-lived materials. Although less-durable
materials may not involve as much energy in their manufacture, the need for frequent
replacement, combined with the need to dispose of the product following removal,
results in a higher total embodied energy over the life of the structure.

d) Use indigenous, or local, materials.

Besides lower transportation energy costs, indigenous materials usually involve less
processing energy than conventional construction materials. Using materials such as
local stone for a foundation involves less embodied energy than using concrete or
rubble imported from a remote area. Some structures were built out of indigenous
materials, such as adobe, wattle and daub, straw bales, or rammed earth.

e) Common Sense Decisions

After all the rules of thumb have been applied, the best hope of reducing embodied
energy in buildings comes down to the reasoned actions of responsible individuals.
Designers, builders, homeowners, manufacturers and policy makers can act to reduce
the level of embodied energy in building materials in a number of ways.
First, encourage improved efficiency in manufacturing, transportation and installation.
Second, look for additional and updated research on the embodied energy of building
materials. Only with more current and standard information can materials be compared
with one another to determine the most energy-efficient alternative. Beware of
comparing results from studies that may have different parameters for measuring
embodied energy. Finally, even before final evaluations of embodied energy are
available for all materials, identify building products with relatively lower embodied
energy.

2.2 Operational energy

Operating energy is a significant measure of sustainability which enables

straightforward comparisons between alternative building technologies. Buildings
consume energy for cooling, ventilation, lighting, equipment and appliances. Passive
energy systems rely on the building enclosure or envelope to take advantage of natural
energy sources such as sunlight, wind, and water.

Before going into details of the factors affecting energy use, some method of comparing
energy use - the energy use indices will be explained. The index selected would
depend on the intended application of the index and the normalizing factor. Among
architects the normalizing factor for comparing buildings is the gross floor area. The
most commonly used index for comparing energy use in buildings is therefore the
Annual Area Energy Use Index - AEUI. This is usually expressed as kWh/m2/year
which measure the total energy used in a building for one year in kilowatts hours divided
by the gross floor area of the building in square meters.

Renewable Versus Non-Renewable Energy

Primarily buildings in Sri Lanka rely heavily on two energy sources namely hydropower
and diesel, where later is a non-renewable. Renewable Energy (RE) is defined as
energy that is renewable within the time of its use. Solar, wind and water energy
sources are not normally depleted within the time of their use. Another aspect of the
distinction between renewable and non-renewable energy sources involves the nature
of the energy conversion technology. Hydroelectric power may imply extensive
environmental impacts, as lands are flooded to create reservoirs, displacing indigenous
peoples and animal species

Some of these RE resources are widely used and developed to supply the energy
requirements of the country. Others have the potential for development when the
technologies become mature and economically feasible for use. Following are the main
RE resources available in Sri Lanka.

- Biomass
- Hydro Power
- Solar
- Wind
Energy Use in Sri Lankan Buildings

Energy use in buildings may be defined as the non-renewable energy used to cool,
humidify/dehumidify, ventilate, illuminate and operate buildings, and the equipment and
appliances they contain.

In Sri Lanka, buildings can be classified into two broad categories:

Commercial buildings - including offices, schools, hospitals, shopping malls, shops,
restaurants, hotels, and recreational facilities; and

Residential buildings - including single and multi-family, low and high-rise

developments.

According to an energy survey (Chandratilake and Kothalawala, 2010) carried out for
selected 23 multi-storey office buildings in Sri Lanka, air-conditioning systems are
accountable for more than 49 percent of the total electricity consumption. The second
major electricity consumer is lighting system, which is accountable for 24 present, office
equipments are accountable for 17 present. The lifts and escalators consume 4 present
of the total consumption and rest 6 present of the total electricity is consumed by other
operations (Figure 04).

Figure 4: Eenergy consumption breakdown of multi-storied office buildings in Sri lanka

2.2.3 Operational energy efficiency opportunities

Following are the energy efficiency opportunities available to the building designer.

2.2.3.1 Architectural Building Envelope Opportunities

a) Orientation and Shape

The intensity of solar radiation depends on the direction of sunrays. The temperature of
a structure and living space increases due to sun radiation and affects environment of
the building. Solar radiation acts in two ways.

Sunrays directly come to the building through openings

Radiation comes indirectly through walls and roof of building by absorbing heat.

Building orientation provides natural ventilation and light which is beneficial to the health
of inhabitants of the house.

b) Thermal efficiency of envelope

The size, location, shape and orientation of glazed areas in a building will have a critical
effect on both the heat gains and solar gains of a building because glazed areas have
the highest heat gain per unit area and the major proportion of solar gains are also
through windows.

Recommendations
Improve the Thermal Resistivity of the building envelope
Select materials with low absorptivity and high reflectivity for the building envelope

c) Shading and High performance glazing

High-performance glazing systems can significantly reduce solar heat gain while still
admitting daylight. Exterior shading devices can further reduce solar heat gain, control
glare and permit a wider choice of glazing options. The crucial design issue is to
achieve a balance between solar control and daylighting. Canopies and overhangs are
the most effective means of solar control since they prevent sunlight from striking the
windows.
Window design is the most important building envelope consideration for energy
conservation. The design should maximize daylighting, views to the exterior and
ventilation, while minimizing traffic noise and solar heat gain during operation. Specify
high-performance low-emissivity glazing with visible transmissivity greater than 0.6 and
solar transmissivity less than 0.4.
Maximize the information content of views. Include skyline, upright middle objects
(trees, buildings) and horizontal foreground objects (streets, lawns). Tall vertical
windows typically provide the best range of views. Select glazing with visible
transmissivity greater than 0.6 to avoid distortion

Recommendations
Use high-performance glazing systems for the faade
Use exterior shading devices to reduce solar heat gain

d) Daylight possibilities

The depth of daylight distribution is a function of window height relative to the working
plane. Increased ceiling height gives more flexibility, allowing devices such as light
shelves to bounce light deeper into the interior.

Recommendations

Design ceiling heights 9 ft. 6 in. or greater to permit the use of taller windows.

Separate the window into upper and lower portions, to independently control daylight,
natural ventilation and view.
Use splayed, light-colored window sills and reveals to reduce contrast and glare.
Align interior partitions perpendicular to windows to avoid blocking daylight.
Shape the ceiling and use secondary reflecting surfaces to further diffuse daylight

e) Natural ventilation possibilities

Windows should be designed to admit natural ventilation. The most important design
issue is whether the windows provide single-sided or cross-ventilation to interior spaces.
The amount of air that flows through a window (ventilation capacity) depends on the
area and vertical distribution of openings. These depend on the way the window opens.

Horizontal pivot windows offer the highest ventilation capacity: For single-sided
ventilation, place them as high as possible to exhaust warm air at ceiling level.

Center vertical pivot windows have less ventilation capacity than horizontal pivot
windows, but can act as wind scoops when wind direction is parallel to the building face.

Air entering through the upper opening is directed toward ceiling, making night-time
cooling more effective.

Articulate the building facade (e.g., with bay windows) to create localized pressure
differences.
Recommendations

Select the type of windows considering the wind direction

Create localized pressure differences in opposite sides of the building where the wind
inlets and outlets are placed
Place windows on adjacent or opposite faces of the protrusion as inlets and outlets.

f) Reflectance of internal surfaces

Recommendations

Use light colors on interior surfaces, especially walls and ceilings, to increase the
daylight that reaches areas remote from windows.

2.2.3.2 Infiltration

In the last few years, researchers have recognized that infiltration (the flow of air
through leaks in the building envelope) is a critical factor in energy loss in air
conditioned buildings. For example, that the energy loss due to infiltration is between
6% and 9% of the total energy budget for a building.

The infiltration rate is the volumetric flow rate of outside air into a building, typically in
cubic feet per minute (CFMs) or liters per second (LPSs). The air exchange rate, (I), is
the number of interior volume air changes that occur per hour, and has units of 1/h. The
air exchange rate is also known as Air Changes per Hour (ACHs).

Because infiltration is uncontrolled, and admits unconditioned air, it is generally

considered undesirable except for ventilation air purposes. Typically, infiltration is
minimized to reduce dust, to increase thermal comfort, and to decrease energy
consumption.

Recommendations

Seal all cracks in a building's envelope, and for new construction or major renovations,
by installing continuous air retarders.

2.2.3.3 Lifts and escalators

Lifts, escalators & moving walks at this time, typically represent 3 to 8 % of the energy
consumption of buildings, depending on the structure and usage of the building, the
type and number of lifts and escalators used. As technological improvements are made
to save energy in other building systems, the proportion of energy consumed by lifts &
escalators will increase if nothing is done.
Recommendations
Use stairs (No cost): Encourage people to use stairs instead of lifts/escalators for
small distances. Highlight energy savings and health to staff and put up reminder
posters and signs in appropriate areas.
Shut down some lifts during off-peak hours (No cost): Shutting down some of the lifts
in the same lift bank during off-peak hours increases Interior lighting and ventilation
may also be switched off for lifts in standby mode. On the lift operation energy aspect
one lift should return to the main lobby to wait further call while the other lifts (free
cars) shall park at the floor of the last call.
Install energy savings systems (Medium cost): Install energy saving systems for
lifts/escalators. These include:
Variable voltage variable frequency (VVVF) drives and direct current motor
controlled by solid-state elements for lifts.
VVVF drive systems and high gear systems for escalators.
Optical sensors to allow escalators to be stopped or slowed down when there are
no users.
Modernize existing low energy efficiency lift systems (Medium to high cost): Install the
latest energy saving components such as DC variable voltage variable frequency drive
(DCVF) and advance management control systems. The latest technology can reduce
stand-by power consumption as well as reducing heat dissipation in the machine
room, which will also require less cooling power.
The interior finishes of the lift car has to be selected carefully to reduce the dead
weight of the cars.
Use low heat emission lighting: Low heat emission lighting used inside a lift cab can
eliminate the need for an airconditioner (use LEDs). Air-conditioning is recommended
only for panorama lifts with direct sunlight onto the shaft

2.2.3.4 Landscaping

Careful landscaping can save up to 25% of a households energy consumption for

cooling. Trees are wonderful for natural shading and cooling. In addition to contributing
shade, landscape features combined with a lawn or other ground cover can reduce air
temperatures as much as 5 degrees Celsius in the surrounding area when water
evaporates from vegetation and cools the surrounding air.

Recommendations

Design landscaping considering the possibility of providing shading for the building
and means of reducing air temperature

2.2.3.5 Mechanical HVAC Opportunities

HVAC controls
Determine if the following opportunities exist for a given location. Each aspect
represents an opportunity for energy savings. The indoor conditions should be designed
for a dry bulb temperature of 25C 1.5Cand relative humidity of 55% 5%
Recommendations
a) Reduce HVAC system operation when building or space is unoccupied.

Reduce HVAC operating hours to reduce cooling requirements.

Eliminate HVAC usage in vestibules and unoccupied space.

Turn fans off.

Close outdoor air dampers.

Install system controls to reduce cooling of unoccupied space.

b) Reduce HVAC operating hours.

Turn HVAC off earlier.

Install HVAC night-setback controls.

Shut HVAC off when not needed.

Adjust the housekeeping schedule to minimize HVAC use.

Schedule off-hour meetings in a location that does not require HVAC in the entire
facility.

Install separate controls for zones.

Install local cooling equipment to serve seldom-used areas located far from the center
of the HVAC system.

Use variable speed drives and direct digital controls on water circulation pumps
motors and controls.
c) Adjust areas that are too cold.

Adjust air duct registers.

Use operable windows for ventilation during soft weather.

Use window coverings such as blinds or awnings to avoid heat gain.

Use light-colored roofing material and exterior wall covering with high reflectance to
reflect heat.

Incorporate outside trees to create shade.

Install ceiling fans.

Create zones with separate controls.

 Reduce unnecessary cooling.

Adjust air supply from the air-handling unit to match the required space conditioning.
d) Minimize exhaust and make-up air.
Makeup air depends on the needs of ventilation for personnel, exhaust air from
workspaces, overcoming infiltration, machine air needs, and federal, state and local
requirements.

Seal ducts that run through unconditioned space (up to 20 percent of conditioned air
can be lost in supply duct run).

Keep doors closed when air conditioning is running.

Properly insulate walls and ceilings.

Insulate air ducts and chilled water pipes.

Rewire fans to operate only when lights are switched on.

Check for damper leakage/ensure tight seals.

Shut off unneeded exhaust fans and reduce use where possible.

Reduce air volume lost by reducing exhaust rates to the minimum.

Review process temperatures.

Install thermal windows to minimize cooling loss.

e) Implement a regular maintenance plan.

Inspect to ensure dampers are sealed tightly.

Ensure doors and windows have tight seals.

Check fans for lint, dirt or other causes of reduced flow.

Schedule HVAC tune-ups (the typical energy savings generated by tune-up is 10

percent).

Check and calibrate thermostat regularly.

Replace air filters regularly.

Inspect ductwork.

Repair leaks.
f) Appoint an expert for the maintenance
 Reduce fan speeds and adjust belt drives.

Check valves, dampers, linkages and motors.

Repair, calibrate or replace controls.

g) Cooling system maintenance

Clean the surfaces on the coiling coils, evaporators and condensing units regularly so
that they are clear of obstructions.

Adjust the temperature of the cold air supply from air conditioner or the cold water
supplied by the chiller (a 2 to 3F adjustment can bring a three to five percent energy
savings).

Test and repair leaks in equipment and refrigerant lines.

Upgrade inefficient chillers.

h) Evaluate thermostat controls and location.

Install programmable thermostats.

Lock thermostat to prevent tampering.

Ensure proper location of thermostat to provide balanced space conditioning.

Note the proximity of the cooled air producing equipment to thermostat.

Install water meters on cooling towers to record makeup water usage.

Install a variable air volume system (VAV) with variable speed drives on fan motors. A
VAV system is designed to deliver only the volume of air needed for conditioning the
actual load.
Upgrade to premium efficiency models when available. Always consider purchasing
equipment that exceeds the standards.

2.2.3.6 Electrical Electric lighting possibilities

Layout and zoning

Recommendations

a) Use Zone Switching In areas that are unoccupied or are illuminated by windows
or other sources, entire lighting zones can be switched off for energy saving purposes.
In some cases, this strategy can be applied to common spaces such as lobbies,
corridors, and cafeterias.
b) Install Fixture/Lamp Switching - Fixture or lamp switching can be done by bi-level
switching.. With bi-level switching, each office occupant is provided with two wall
switches near the doorway to control their lights. In a typical installation, one switch
would control 1/3 of the fluorescent lamps in the ceiling lighting system, while the other
switch would control the remaining 2/3 of the lamps. This allows four possible light
levels: OFF, 1/3, 2/3 and FULL lighting. The 2001 standards state that bi-level switching
can be achieved in a variety ways such as:
Switching the middle lamps of three lamp fixtures independently of outer lamps
(lamp switching).
Separately switching on alternative rows of fixtures (fixture switching)
Separately switching on every other fixture in each row (fixture switching)
Separately switching lamps in each fixture (lamp switching)

c) Install Step Dimming Through the use of ON/OFF switches, controls to regulate
the level of electrical light, step dimming is a popular energy-saving retrofit solution for
applications where existing fixtures are not equipped with dimming ballasts. Stepped
dimming is often called bi-level dimming because the strategy often involves two levels
of light output, usually 100% and 50%. However, if more flexibility is required, stepped
dimming can involve three levels of light output.

d) Install Continuous Dimming Continuous dimming ballasts allow light output to be

gradually dimmed over the full range, from 100% to 10% (fluorescent) or 100% to 50%
(HID). These lighting systems provide an excellent resource for demand response
purposes. These systems allow the lighting load to be reduced so gradually that modest
changes may not even be noticed by building occupants (Akashi et al., 2003). Since the
amount of reduction is continuously variable, specific Daylight Ratio (DR) shed goals
can be achieved using straightforward strategies. As with global temperature
adjustment, shed strategies using continuously dimming lighting can be implemented in
an absolute (building-wide) or relative fashion.
In addition, to their use for demand response, dimmable ballasts can be used in the
design of energy efficient systems that reduce electric light requirements when daylight
is available. Also, when dimming is available, for many tasks occupants often prefer
light levels that are less than 100%.

e) Evaluate lighting for DR: The great potential for widespread use of lighting for DR
will only be realized if more lighting systems are installed or upgraded to have the
following features:
Use centralized controls.
Create zones that allow light levels to be reduced with some degree of resolution
that is minimally disruptive to building occupants.
Make flexibility for various end-use scenarios.
f) Lamps and luminaires
g) Lighting controls / dimmers / sensors
h) Sub metering
i) Green power

2.2.3.7 Hydraulics Water Opportunities

a) Domestic solar hot water

b) Water conservation

2.2.4 Undertaking Energy Management

An energy management program can best and alone or integrated with other good
management programs. The management of energy use represents a process of
continual improvement. As such, programs should contain short and long-term goals
and be integrated into an organisations overall planning and management structure.

Recommendations
a) Identify and adopt a strategic corporate approach
This is the starting point and includes the organisation of management resources.
Which components of energy management can be incorporated into current reviews
and programs and what are the resources required? Establish clear accountability and
commitment from the entire organisation for the program - this is essential for success.

b) Appoint an energy manager

This should be a member of senior management who is responsible for overall program
coordination and reporting.

c) Set up an energy monitoring and reporting system

This system should allow the consistent collection, analysis and reporting of the
organizations historical and ongoing energy costs and consumption. To be an effective
energy management program, sustained monitoring is required to increase
understanding of energy needs and how to fulfill them.

d) Conduct energy audits

This establishes where and how energy is used, and the potential for energy savings. It
includes a walk-through survey, a review of energy using systems, analysis of energy
use and the preparation of an energy budget these provide a baseline from which to
assess energy consumption over time. The audit also provides recommendations for
actions to save energy and associated costs. The process can be conducted in-house
or by a specialist energy auditing firm.
e) Formalise an energy management policy statement
A written policy formalises commitment from senior management, provides specific
targets and priority actions and guides staff in meeting aims and objectives.

f) Implement a staff awareness, training and motivation program

This is integral to the success of the program, implementation and can be achieved in a
number of ways according to the organisation.

g) Annual Review
This is used as the basis for reviewing results and developing the next annual
implementation plan.

References
American Physical Society, 2008. International energy outlook 2008. Washington: Department of Energy.
Anink, D., Boonstra, C. and Mark, J., 1996. Handbook of sustainable buildings. London: James and
James
Chandratilake, S. R. And Dias W. S. P., 2010. Sustainability rating systems for buildings: companies and
correlations. Unpublished Article. University of Moratuwa.
Chen, T.Y., Burnett, J. and Chau, C.K., 2001. Analysis of embodied energy use in the residential building
of Hong Kong. Energy and building, 26, 323-340.
Chung, W., Hui, Y.V. and Miu Lam, Y., 2006. Benchmarking the energy efficiency of commercial
buildings. Applied energy, 83, 1-14.
Energy Information Administration, 2010. International energy outlook 2010. Washington: U.S.
Department of Energy.
GBC. (2006). Green star custom PILOT [online]. Available from: http://www.greenstar.org [Accessed 9
April 2010].
International Energy Agency, 2007. Key world energy statistics, Paris
Lombard, L.P., Ortiz, J. and Pout, C., 2007. A review on buildings energy consumption information.
Energy and buildings, 40, 394398.
Sri Lanka Sustainable Energy Authority website, http://www.energy.gov.lk [Accessed 12 May 2009].
3. Waste and Pollution
Construction waste

Construction, demolition and landclearing debris (CDL) is all non-hazardous solid waste
resulting from construction, demolition and landclearing (CDL) activities.

3.1 Importance of prevent waste and recycle

3.1.1 Reduce Costs

Recycling, reusing salvaged building materials and minimizing materials and packaging
reduces the waste disposal costs and material expenses.

3.1.2 Reduce the Buildings Environmental Impact

Preventing and recycling wastes:

reduces depletion of natural resources such as trees, oil and minerals.

creates less pollution by reducing manufacturing and transportation-related
emissions.
uses less energy and water compared to many virgin material product
manufacturing processes.
reduces greenhouse gasses by using less energy for manufacturing and
transportation.

3.1.3 Facility managers, property owners and managers and developers role in
the process

Property owners, property managers or developers are in the best position to create a
successful waste reduction program for a project.

Recommendations
Establish requirements for waste reduction. Begin with making waste reduction a
priority from the start of the project and planning for it throughout all phases of design,
construction, installation, and occupancy.

Set goals. Set specific waste reduction goals for each project and assemble a team of
qualified professionals experienced in environmentally sound design and construction
practices. Include these goals and requirements for experience in requests for
proposals and other contract documents. Identify materials that can be salvaged and
reused.

Monitor and support the program. Monitor the progress of waste reduction efforts
by requiring contractors to submit the waste management plan and waste
 management progress reports. Support these efforts by identifying locations to collect
and store recyclables on-site.

3.1.4 Role of architects, designers and specification writers

Recommendations
Identify opportunities for waste reduction. Work with owners and developers to
identify opportunities for waste reduction and public relation benefits.

Select a contractor with proven waste reduction experience. An experienced

contractor will keep the bid the same or may even lower the bid. If the contractor is
inexperienced, they may increase the bid.

Use a Construction Waste Management Specification. A Construction Waste

Management Specification written with legally enforceable language is the most
effective tool to ensure waste reduction happens successfully on a project.

Monitor the waste reduction program. The architect and designer play an important
role in assuring the contractors compliance with the waste reduction program by
requiring and reviewing waste management progress reports and invoices from
recycling and garbage haulers and recycling facilities. Monitor the success of the
program and potential barriers by including a discussion about the waste reduction
program during the project meetings.

There are three strategies to reduce a projects waste and this is the order in which it
has to be addressed:

1. Reduce. Look for ways waste can be prevented in the first place by identifying
potential wastes early in the design process.
2. Reuse. After figuring out how to prevent waste, it is necessary to identify waste
that can be salvaged for reuse on the current project, on another project or
donated.
3. Recycle. Lastly, figure out which waste materials can be recycled.

3.1.5 Methods of preventing waste from construction

Waste prevention is more beneficial than recycling. Identifying potential waste early in
the design process decreases waste generated during construction.

Recommendations
Design with standard sizes for all building materials. This avoids creating waste
when standard sized materials are cut to unusual lengths.

Design spaces to be flexible and adaptable to changing uses. This avoids

creating waste during remodels.
 Design for deconstruction. Some of the principles include: the dis-entanglement of
systems, materials bolted together instead of glued, a construction and deconstruction
blueprint, built-in tie-offs and connection points for workers and machinery, no
hazardous materials and highly recyclable materials

3.1.6 Methods of salvage and reuse building materials

To choose the best option for managing a projects waste, consider the value of the
various materials. For instance, there may be materials on a project that have a greater
value as is for salvage compared to their value as material for recycling. Some of
these materials may be valuable to reuse on-site; others may be donated or sold to a
used building material retailer. The initial costs for deconstruction services may be offset
by returns from salvaged materials or reduced purchasing costs. In some cases, reused
materials may also provide functional or aesthetic features not available in new
materials. For example, salvaged wood is often of a quality and a variety of species that
is difficult to find in the market place.

There are two ways to recover materials for salvage and reuse: Deconstruct the building
or conduct a selective salvage operation prior to demolition. Deconstruction involves the
careful dismantling of a whole structure in reverse order of assembly, usually by hand,
to re-harvest materials for reuse. Salvage is the removal of certain valuable reusable
building materials before demolition.

3.1.7 Deconstruction

For demolition projects that involve removing a large portion of a structure or an entire
building, deconstruction may be the best option. Deconstruction is a specific type of
demolition work that is growing in popularity and that poses the greatest potential for
waste recovery on a wide range of construction projects. Deconstruction contractors
take apart the entire structure, separating out resources that can be salvaged, recycled
or reused.
The feasibility and cost-effectiveness of deconstruction is determined by how the
building was constructed and what building materials were used. Deconstruction can be
used in most woodframe and some metal-frame buildings. The building components,
their condition and the manner in which they are secured to the structure can affect the
cost-effectiveness of salvaged materials.
Another factor to consider is whether site conditions allow for mechanical versus
demolition by hand, which will add labor costs. To be cost-competitive with conventional
demolition, the added costs of deconstruction (primarily, the extra labor of disassembly
and removal) must be offset by the value of the salvaged building material and the
avoided cost of disposal.

The following are tips for making deconstruction happen:

Recommendations
Review the Yes-No list of materials that are desirable for reuse for what you have to
offer from your project.
Call a salvage company or contractor to assess the building. It may not look like much
to the owner, but he will be surprised by what still has value in the reuse market. Of
course, truckload quantities are most desirable, but even a single cabinet may be
worth a pick up.
Do call at least two weeks before the project start date (bidders need to schedule an
on-site evaluation, complete their responses, and schedule crews to do the work). If
owner can call earlier, salvage crews may be able to save time by doing some work
before demolition planning is finalized.
Include a Deconstruction Specification in the bid package.

3.1.8 Building materials commonly reused in Sri Lanka

Recommended
Architectural features
Bath fixtures
Bathtubs
Bath vanities
Bookcases, files, library shelves
Brick and paving stones
Cabinetrywood
Columns, pillars, and posts
Concrete blocks and products
Corbels
Countertops
Displays and display fixtures
Doors, especially solid wood doors
Electrical and HVAC supplies
Faucets and plumbing fixtures
Fencing
Flooringcarpet and vinyl (new)
Flooringwood
Glass, sheet and plexiglass
Gutters
Hinges and other hardware
Insulation, new or gently used
Kitchen cabinet sets
Kitchen fixtures
Lighting fixtures
Lockers
Mirrors
Plywood and chipboard
Roof tiles
 Sandstone
Shelving and racking
Sinkskitchen/bath (no chips)
Slate, granite and marble
Stained glass
Store fixtures
Tile (most types and quantities)
Trim and molding
Tubs (mainly white or neutral color)
Windowswood and vinyl, especially newer
Wood beams, rafters

Not recommended

Appliances older than 5 years

Ceiling fans
Commercial bath fixtures
Commercial ducting and vent covers
Commercial flashing
Commercial shelving missing parts
Doorsdamaged, commercial or hollow
Fluorescent light fixtures, bulbs
Gutters: leaking, rotted
Mini-blinds
Tile with heavy grout
Used carpet
Windowsaluminum

3.1.9 Salvage

Salvage is the removal of reusable building materials before demolition. In many cases,
it may not be feasible or cost-effective to fully deconstruct a building, but there may be
materials on a project that can be salvaged instead of recycled or discarded. This is
also a very good costsaving strategy for a remodeling or tenant improvement project.
Most demolition contractors are practicing some level of salvage on selected buildings.
In many cases, demolition contractors will sub-contract with deconstruction contractors
or specialty sub-contractors to conduct salvage operations before demolishing specific
components or materials.

3.2 Strategies for reusing and salvaging building materials

Recommendations

a) Assess the potential

Advanced planning for deconstruction or salvage before demolition is crucial for
success.
 Conduct a inspection with the owners representative and a deconstruction contractor
to determine the feasibility and level of salvage possible. Identify materials and job
phases where recovery, recycling and salvage opportunities are the greatest. The
inspection also can identify materials that could be salvaged and reused on-site.
To compare costs, require estimates for full deconstruction of the structure, targeted
salvage prior to demolition, and traditional demolition.
Based on the inspection and cost comparison, determine if full deconstruction of the
structure is an option or if salvage prior to demolition would be more effective.

b) Establish goals
Establish goals for deconstruction salvage and recycling and include these goals in
specifications.

e) Identify materials
Based on the walk-through, develop a list of materials to be salvaged.
Identify materials to be reused on-site. For materials that will be sold or donated off-site,
contact salvage companies that accept reused building materials.

f) Use specification language

Use specification language in the construction waste management spec to address
deconstruction or salvage prior to demolition. The language should include goals or
measurable standards for the level of salvage and/or a list of materials to be salvaged.

g) Allow adequate time

Deconstruction and salvage prior to demolition are usually more time-consuming than
traditional demolition. It is important that sufficient time is allowed to dismantle the
building or to salvage reusable items before demolition.

Determine in advance how much time is available to complete the demolition phase of
the project. The bid and contract process is the best place to assure that adequate
time is available. Contracting mechanisms include decoupling demolition from the
design/build phase of construction contracts. The demolition aspect of the project can
be delayed while the terms of the larger design/build agreement are worked out, thus
allowing time for deconstruction and salvage prior to completing demolition.
Other alternatives to ensure enough time to complete deconstruction and salvage
include issuing an early notice to proceed for the demolition phase of the project or
creating a separate request for proposal or bid and contract for deconstruction and
demolition.

h) Remove barriers to salvage

It also is important for the architect to identify and remove barriers to salvage and reuse
by eliminating language in contracts that prohibit rather than control activities such as
on-site salvage, storage of salvaged materials, or processing operations that might
create noise pollution like on-site concrete crushing.
i) Require a plan
Require the contractor to develop a reuse and salvage plan as part of the waste
management plan for the project by including this requirement in the specification
language.
The reuse and salvage plan should include a list of items being reused in place or
elsewhere on-site; a list of items for reuse off-site through salvage, resale or donation;
a plan for protecting, dismantling, handling, storing and transporting the reused items;
and a communications plan describing the salvage plan to all players.

j) Communicate the priorities

Require the contractor to provide clear and consistent communication at the job site to
be sure the crew is informed of the salvage plans, procedures and expectations.
Careful removal and handling of the reuse and salvage materials is crucial to their
usability and marketability - the key to success is communicating the priorities, making
detailed plans and carefully monitoring the progress to insure success.

References
Characterization of Building-Related Construction and Demolition Debris in the United States, EPA530-R-
98-010, June 1998.

Kincaid, Judith E., Cheryl Walker, and Greg Flynn, WasteSpec: Model Specifications for Construction
Waste Reduction, Reuse, and Recycling, Triangle J Council of Governments, July 1995;
www.tjcog.dst.nc.us.

Yost, Peter, and Eric Lund, On-site Grinding of Residential Construction Debris: The Indiana Grinder
Pilot, NAHB Research Center, Upper Marlboro, MD, July 1999.

Yost, Peter, and Eric Lund, Residential Construction Waste Management: A Builders Guide, NAHB
Research Center, Upper Marlboro, MD, 1996.
4. Materials
Green building materials

The use of green building materials and products represents one important strategy in
the design of a building. Green building materials offer specific benefits to the building
owner and building occupants:

Reduced maintenance/replacement costs over the life of the building.

Energy conservation.
Improved occupant health and productivity.
Lower costs associated with changing space configurations.
Greater design flexibility.

Building and construction activities worldwide consume 3 billion tons of raw materials
each year or 40 percent of total global use (Roodman and Lenssen, 1995). Using green
building materials and products promotes conservation of dwindling nonrenewable
resources internationally. In addition, integrating green building materials into building
projects can help reduce the environmental impacts associated with the extraction,
transport, processing, fabrication, installation, reuse, recycling, and disposal of these
building industry source materials.

4.1 Composition of green building product or material

Green building materials are composed of renewable, rather than nonrenewable

resources. Green materials are environmentally responsible because impacts are
considered over the life of the product (Spiegel and Meadows, 1999). Depending upon
project-specific goals, an assessment of green materials may involve an evaluation of
one or more of the criteria listed below.

4.2 Overall material/product selection criteria:

Resource efficiency
Indoor air quality
Energy efficiency
Water conservation
Affordability
Recommendations

a) Maximize Resource Efficiency: can be accomplished by utilizing materials that

meet the following criteria:

Recycled Content: Use products with identifiable recycled content, including

postindustrial content with a preference for postconsumer content.
Natural, plentiful or renewable: Use materials harvested from sustainably managed
sources and preferably have an independent certification (e.g., certified wood) and are
certified by an independent third party.
Resource efficient manufacturing process: Use products manufactured with
resource-efficient processes including reducing energy consumption, minimizing
waste (recycled, recyclable and or source reduced product packaging), and reducing
greenhouse gases.
Locally available: Use building materials, components, and systems found locally or
regionally saving energy and resources in transportation to the project site.
Salvaged, refurbished, or remanufactured: Maximize the use of salvaged,
refurbished, or remanufactured materials, includes saving a material from disposal
and renovating, repairing, restoring, or generally improving the appearance,
performance, quality, functionality, or value of a product.
Reusable or recyclable: Select materials that can be easily dismantled and reused or
recycled at the end of their useful life.
Recycled or recyclable product packaging: Use products enclosed in recycled
content or recyclable packaging.
Durable: Use materials that are longer lasting or are comparable to conventional
products with long life expectancies.

b) Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) is enhanced by utilizing materials that meet the following
criteria:

Low or non-toxic: Use materials that emit few or no carcinogens, reproductive

toxicants, or irritants as demonstrated by the manufacturer through appropriate
testing.
Minimal chemical emissions: Use products that have minimal emissions of Volatile
Organic Compounds (VOCs). Products that also maximize resource and energy
efficiency while reducing chemical emissions.
Low-VOC assembly: Use materials installed with minimal VOC-producing
compounds, or no-VOC mechanical attachment methods and minimal hazards.
Moisture resistant: Use products and systems that resist moisture or inhibit the
growth of biological contaminants in buildings.
 Healthfully maintained: Use materials, components, and systems that require only
simple, non-toxic, or low-VOC methods of cleaning.
Systems or equipment: Use products that promote healthy IAQ by identifying indoor
air pollutants or enhancing the air quality.

c) Energy Efficiency can be maximized by utilizing materials and systems that meet
the following criteria:

Select materials, components, and systems that help reduce energy consumption in
buildings and facilities.

d) Water Conservation can be obtained by utilizing materials and systems that meet
the following criteria:

Select products and systems that help reduce water consumption in buildings and
conserve water in landscaped areas.

e) Affordability can be considered when building product life-cycle costs are

comparable to conventional materials or as a whole, are within a project-defined
percentage of the overall budget.

4.2 Three basic steps of product selection

Product selection can begin after the establishment of project-specific environmental

goals. The environmental assessment process for building products involves three basic
steps. (Froeschle, 1999)

1. Research
2. Evaluation
3. Selection

4.2.1. Research. This step involves gathering all technical information to be evaluated,
including manufacturers' information such as Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS),
Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) test data, product warranties, source material characteristics,
recycled content data, environmental statements, and durability information. In addition,
this step may involve researching other environmental issues, building codes,
government regulations, building industry articles, model green building product
specifications, and other sources of product data. Research helps identify the full range
of the projects building material options.

4.2.2. Evaluation. This step involves confirmation of the technical information, as well
as filling in information gaps. For example, the evaluator may request product
certifications from manufacturers to help sort out possible exaggerated environmental
product claims. Evaluation and assessment is relatively simple when comparing similar
types of building materials using the environmental criteria. For example, a recycled
content assessment between various manufacturers of medium density fiberboard is a
relatively straightforward "apples to apples" comparison. However, the evaluation
process is more complex when comparing different products with the same function.
Then it may become necessary to process both descriptive and quantitative forms of
data.

A life cycle assessment (LCA) is an evaluation of the relative "greenness" of building

materials and products. LCA addresses the impacts of a product through all of its life
stages. Although rather simple in principle, this approach has been difficult and
expensive in actual practice.

4.2.3 Selection. This step often involves the use of an evaluation matrix for scoring the
project-specific environmental criteria. The total score of each product evaluation will
indicate the product with the highest environmental attributes. Individual criteria included
in the rating system can be weighted to accommodate project-specific goals and
objectives.

References

Lynn M. Froeschle, "Environmental Assessment and Specification of Green Building Materials," The
Construction Specifier, October 1999, p. 53.
D.M. Roodman and N. Lenssen, A Building Revolution: How Ecology and Health Concerns are
Transforming Construction, Worldwatch Paper 124, Worldwatch Institute, Washington, D.C., March 1995,
p. 5.
Ross Spiegel and Dru Meadows, Green Building Materials: A Guide to Product Selection and
Specification, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1999.
5. Indoor Environmental Quality
In the struggle to build cost-effective buildings, it is easy to forget that the ultimate
success or failure of a project rests on its indoor environmental quality (IEQ). Healthy,
comfortable employees are invariably more satisfied and productive. Unfortunately, this
simple, compelling truth is often lost, for it is simpler to focus on the first-cost of a project
than it is to determine the value of increased user productivity and health. Facilities
should be constructed with an appreciation of the importance of providing high-quality,
interior environments for all users.

During the facility/renovation design and development process, construction projects

must have a comprehensive, integrated perspective that seeks to:

Facilitate quality IEQ through good design, construction, and operating and
maintenance practices;
Value aesthetic decisions, such as the importance of views and the integration of
natural and man-made elements;
Provide thermal comfort with a maximum degree of personal control over
temperature and airflow;
Supply adequate levels of ventilation and outside air to ensure indoor air quality;
Prevent airborne bacteria, mold, and other fungi through heating, ventilating, air-
conditioning (HVAC) system designs that are effective at controlling indoor
humidity, and building envelope design that prevents the intrusion of moisture;
Avoid the use of materials high in pollutants, such as volatile organic compounds
(VOCs) or toxins;
Assure acoustic privacy and comfort through the use of sound absorbing material
and equipment isolation;
Control disturbing odors through contaminant isolation and careful selection of
cleaning products;
Create a high performance luminous environment through the careful integration
of natural and artificial light sources; and
Provide quality water.
Note: IEQ encompasses indoor air quality (IAQ), which focuses on airborne
contaminants, as well as other health, safety, and comfort issues such as aesthetics,
potable water surveillance, ergonomics, acoustics, lighting, and electromagnetic
frequency levels. IEQ improvements to an existing building can occur at any point
during the use of a building.

5.1 Facilitate Quality IEQ through Good Design, Construction, and O&M Practices

Recommendations
Practice source control"- Acceptable IEQ is often easiest to achieve if "source
control" is practiced, not only during building construction, but also over the life of the
building. For example, the designer may select building products that do not produce
noxious or irritating odors; and design exterior entrances with permanent entryway
systems to catch and hold dirt particles.
Instruct Operations & Maintenance (O&M) Staff - The (O&M) staff and cleaning
staff can also avoid creating IEQ problems by choosing less noxious materials during
repair and cleaning activities. While HVAC systems may be designed to isolate
operations (kitchens, dry cleaners, etc.) from other occupancies, the O&M staff
ensures that pressure differentials are maintained to avoid the undesirable flow of
contaminants from one space to another.

5.2 Value Aesthetic Decisions

Recommendations
Appreciate the importance of providing windows in all occupied spaces for view and
natural ventilation.
Design spaces around basic human needs, ancient preferences, and connections to
the patterns of nature and the mind.
Demand that individual buildings or facilities are consciously integrated into their
natural and man-made context.

5.3 Provide Thermal Comfort

Recommendations
Evaluate the use of access floors with displacement ventilation for flexibility, personal
comfort control, and energy savings.
Understand moisture dynamics as key criteria in the selection of wall and roof
assemblies.
5.4 Supply Adequate Levels of Ventilation and Outside Air

Recommendations
Implement a construction management program that ensures key ventilation
components are protected from contamination during construction.
Commission HVAC systems to ensure they operate and perform as designed. This will
ensure that adequate ventilation rates have been achieved prior to initial occupancy.
Investigate the use of separate outside air and conditioned air distribution systems. A
good description of various types of ventilation systems can be found at: WBDG High-
Performance HVAC and Natural Ventilation.
Ensure fresh air intakes are located away from loading areas, exhaust fans, and other
contamination points.
Ensure parking lot/garage usage cannot generate pollutants that affect fresh air intake
or pedestrian traffic. Prevent vehicles idling near the facility during normal operations.
Investigate the use of a permanent air quality monitoring system. Acceptable level of
carbon dioxide (CO2) for an indoor office environment is 1000 ppm ("normal" CO 2
outside level is about 300 to 400 ppm). Carbon monoxide (CO) levels in office
environments should be below 2 ppm.
Coordinate ventilation and air filtration with chemical, biological, and radiological
concerns and locate outside air intakes so they do not conflict with physical security
requirements.
During operation, replace filters on periodic basis.

5.5 Prevent Airborne Bacteria, Mold, and Other Fungi

Prevention of mold and fungi is dependent upon effective HVAC and building envelope
design and construction. The HVAC system must be able to control interior humidity
conditions over a wide range of outdoor conditions. The system must be designed to
have the capacity to dehumidify at the 1% Humidity Ratio and mean coincident dry bulb
temperature, and control interior humidity at both extreme and low load conditions. The
building envelope must be carefully designed to prevent intrusion of water and to dry if
intrusion should occur. It must also incorporate barriers that control vapor and air
infiltration.

Recommendations
Carefully consider the envelope of the building to prevent moisture infiltration.
Investigate immediately when there is a moisture condition, either from a leak or flood.
 Ensure the number of spores in the indoor air is less than the outdoor air. It is
recommended that there should be less than 700 spores in a cubic meter of air.
.

5.6 Avoid the Use of Materials High in Pollutants

Recommendations
Limit the use of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in such products as cleaners,
paints, sealants, coatings, and adhesives.
Avoid products containing formaldehyde, i.e., carpet, wall panels, cabinetry.
Remove asbestos-containing material or contain it in a manner that precludes the
possibility of future exposure.
In areas where it is prevalent, include measures to control and mitigate radon buildup.
Create safe, convenient, and secure storage spaces for housekeeping chemicals.
If an area in an occupied building is being renovated, consider isolating and negatively
pressurizing the construction area if work is being performed that would result in dust,
fumes, or odors. If conditioned air is required due to high end finishing work, the air
should be directly exhausted to the exterior environment and not returned to the fan.
Ensure office equipment installed emit minimal odors or pollutants.

5.7 Assure Acoustic Privacy and Comfort

Recommendations
Minimize noise through the use of sound-absorbing materials, high sound
transmission loss walls, floors, and ceilings, and equipment sound isolation.
Consider sound masking systems. These systems introduce an unobtrusive
background sound that reduces interference from distracting office noise.
Avoid the use of small diameter ducts with high velocity airflow.

5.8 Control Disturbing Odors through Contaminant Isolation and Product

Selection

Recommendations
Directly exhaust copying and housekeeping areas, and provide added return air grills
in these areas. This will help limit lower atmosphere ozone generation, commonly
associated with duplicating and printing processes. Ozone acts as a power oxidant. It
can attack surfaces of certain elastomers, plastics, paints, and pigments; and aid in
sulfide and chloride corrosion of metals. Possible health hazards caused by ozone
include eye and mucous membrane irritation as well as chronic respiratory disease.
 Minimize disturbing odors through contaminant isolation and careful selection of
cleaning products.
Ensure maintenance procedures are in place to remove all trash and recyclables from
the building on a regular basis rather than storing them within the building for
prolonged periods of time.
Prohibit smoking in all areas of the building. Environmental Tobacco Smoke (ETS) is a
known carcinogen.
In special cases where smoking is permitted, ensure that the spaces:
- Have lower pressure than adjacent areas;
- Comply with proper ventilation standards
- Are isolated from the return air system of surrounding areas to prevent
pollutants from spreading to other areas.

5.9 Create a HighPerformance Luminous Environment

Recommendations
Use daylighting for ambient lighting wherever feasible.
Supplement natural light with integrated, high-performance ballasts, lamps, fixtures,
and controls.
Substitute magnetic fluorescent lamps with high-frequency electronic ballasts to
reduce flickering.
Reduce direct glare from both natural and man-made sources in the field of view
particularly in spaces with highly reflective surfaces.
Use task/ambient systems that provide reduced levels of diffuse, general illumination,
and supplement with task lighting. Most people do not need lighting in excess of 300
lux.
Use light color on walls and locate windows properly.

5.10 Provide Quality Water

Recommendations
Comply with standards for the levels of various metals and bacteria in potable water
systems.
For newly installed or temporarily suspended domestic water systems, follow "start-
up" procedures by flushing all down stream outlets.
Conduct periodic 'maintenance flushing' to proactively control drinking water issues.
 Design cooling tower and building air intake placement so air discharged from the
cooling tower or evaporative condenser is not directly brought into the facility's air
intake.
Consider a closed loop system instead of an open system to reduce the potential of
exposure at the cooling tower.

References
How IEQ Affects Health, Productivity (PDF 220 KB, 3 pgs) by William J. Fisk, P.E., Member ASHRAE.
ASHRAE Journal, May 2002.

HVAC Characteristics and Occupant Health (PDF 430 KB, 4 pgs) by W.K. Sieber, M.R. Petersen, L.T.
Stayner, R. Malkin, M.J. Mendell, K.M. Wallingford, T.G. Wilcox, M.S. Crandall, and L. Reed. ASHRAE
Journal, September 2002.

IEQ and the Impact on Building Occupants (PDF 105 KB, 3 pgs) by Satish Kumar, Ph.D., Member
ASHRAE and William J. Fisk, P.E., Member ASHRAE. ASHRAE Journal, April 2002.

IEQ and the Impact on Employee Sick Leave (PDF 105 KB, 3 pgs) by Satish Kumar, Ph.D., Member
ASHRAE and William J. Fisk, P.E., Member ASHRAE. ASHRAE Journal, July 2002.

Ventilation Rates and Health (PDF 115 KB, 5 pgs) by Olli Seppnen, Fellow ASHRAE, William J. Fisk,
P.E., Member ASHRAE, and Mark J. Mendell, Ph.D. ASHRAE Journal, August 2002.
6. Optimize Site Potential
Creating sustainable buildings starts with proper site selection. The location of a
building affects a wide range of environmental factors as well as other factors such as
security, accessibility, and energy consumption, as well as the energy consumed by
transportation needs of occupants for commuting, the impact on local ecosystems, and
the use/reuse of existing structures and infrastructures. If possible, locate buildings in
areas of existing development where infrastructure already exists, and consider
conserving resources by renovating existing buildings including historic properties. It is
imperative that building owners and developers maximize the restorative impact of site
design and building infrastructure while meeting the project's other requirements

Sustainable site planning should consist of a whole system approach that seeks to:

Minimize development of open space through the selection of disturbed land, re-
use of brownfield sites, and retrofitting existing, buildings;
Consider energy implications in site selection and building orientation;
Control erosion through improved grading and landscaping practices;
Reduce heat islands through building design methods, minimizing impervious
surfaces, and using landscaping;
Minimize habitat disturbance;
Restore the health of degraded sites by improving habitat for indigenous species
through appropriate native plants, climate-adapted plants, and closed-loop water
systems;
Incorporate transportation solutions along with site plans that acknowledge the
need for bicycle parking, car parking, and proximity to mass transit. Encourage
alternatives to traditional commuting (eg: park and ride); and
Consider site security concurrently with sustainable site issues. Location of
access roads, parking, vehicle barriers, and perimeter lighting, among others are
key issues that must be addressed.

6.1 Minimize development of open space

Recommendations
Retrofit an existing building. When planning to reuse an existing building, there are
things to consider like relocating personnel for major renovations, which may include
 stripping out all interior finishes and insulation, doing energy audits, and replacing
lights, HVAC and windows.
Use disturbed land or already developed sites.

6.2 Control erosion through improved landscaping practices

Recommendations
Use vegetation, grading, and stabilization techniques to prevent erosion.
Try to maintain the site impermeability factor less than 50%.
Capture storm water runoff on site; design for storm water retention features on site.
Landscaped infiltration basins for storm-water retention should have flow directed
toward them with curbs, berm, or similar structures, and slightly concave to retain
surface water until it infiltrates.
Direct rain gutters to landscaped areas, drywells and infiltration basins where water
can seep into the ground.
Placing landscaped areas directly below eaves allows roof runoff to infiltrate into the
sub-soil. Plants should be sturdy enough and provide a subsurface matrix of roots to
tolerate heavy sheet flow runoff and periodic saturation.
Use sediment traps if possible that intercept runoff from drainage areas, and slowly
release it while trapping sediments.

6.3 Consider energy implications in site selection and building orientation

Recommendations
Take advantage of natural ventilation and prevailing wind patterns: building form and
orientation must be shaped to take advantage of natural cooling opportunities. First,
the building must be located and shaped considering the prevailing wind. Air inlets are
best placed in upwind exposures, where the pressure is highest. Air outlets are best
placed in downwind, low-pressure exposures. Spaces with single-sided natural cooling
must be narrow; cross-ventilation requires paths for air to move through one or more
rooms in the building. Interior walls are best placed where they dont block airflow. As
well, natural cooling is enhanced by tall spaces, that allow heated air to rise out of the
occupied zone and out of the building.
Maximize daylight use: Daylighting design has a major impact on the form and
orientation of buildings. The building and its openings - windows and skylights - must
be oriented to allow light to enter interior spaces, without causing glare or visual
discomfort.
Investigate the potential impact of future adjacent developments to the site (e.g., wind
exposure, daylighting, ventilation, etc.).
6.4 Reduce Heat Islands Using Landscaping and Building Design Methods

Recommendations
Maximize the use of existing trees and other vegetation to shade walkways, parking
lots, and other open areas. Ensure that site work and landscaping are integrated with
security and safety design.
Consider covering walkways, parking lots, and other open areas that are paved or
made with low reflectivity (i.e. dark) materials.
Finish the facility's roof with light-colored materials to reduce energy loads and extend
the life of the roof. Use a roofing product that meets relevant energy standards.
Consider incorporating green roofs into the project, which bring additional site
benefits, including controlling stormwater runoff and improving water quality.

6.5 Minimize Habitat Disturbance

Recommendations
Keep land disturbance to a minimum and retain prime vegetation features to the
extent possible.
Reduce building and paving footprints. It is desirable to reduce the foot print of the
building less than 50% of the site area.
Limit site disturbance to a minimal area around the building perimeter, including
locating buildings adjacent to existing infrastructure.
Plan construction staging areas with the environment in mind.

6.6 Restore the Health of Degraded Sites

Recommendations
Focus on restoration of degraded areas, increasing the existence of healthy habitat for
native species.
Conserve water use through landscaping with native plants.

6.7 Design for Sustainable Transportation

Recommendations
Site the building with public transportation access in mind and limit on-site parking.
Use porous (pervious) alternatives to traditional paving for roads and walkways.
Cement stabilisation of soil roads would be a better option.
Make provisions for bicycling, walking, carpool parking, and telecommuting.
6.8 Balance Site Sustainability with Site Security/Safety

Recommendations
Consider installing retention berms to control erosion, manage stormwater, and
reduce heat islands while also serving as physical barriers to control access to a
building and to deflect blast effects.
Use native or climate tolerant trees to improve the quality of the site as well as provide
protection by obscuring assets and people.
Implement erosion control measures to stabilize the soil. These help to reduce the
negative impacts on water and air quality as well as mitigate potential damage to a
building's foundation and structural system due to floods, mudslides, heavy
rainstorms, and other natural hazards.

References

Ali, H.H. and Nsairat, S.F.A., 2009. Developing a green building assessment tool for developing countries
case of Jordan. Building and environment, 44, 1053-1064.
American Public Transportation Association, 2006. Facts on public transportation. Washington: American
Public Transportation Association.

CASBEE Rating System Japan. (2007). CASBEE for new construction [online]. Available From:
http://www.ibec.or.jp/CASBEE/english/download.htm [Accessed 05 October 2010].
Estes Valley Planning Commission, 2010. Impervious surfaces and lot coverage definitions. Estes Park:
Colarado
Goonetilleke, A., Thomas, E., Ginn, S. and Gilbert, D., 2004. Understanding the role of land use in urban
storm water quality management. Journal of environmental management, 74(1), 31-42.
Greenburg, M., Loerie, K., Mayer, H., Miller, K. T. and Solitare, L., 2001. Brownfield redevelopment as a
smart growth option in the United States. The environmentalist, 21, 129-143.

Keeble, E.J., Collins, M. and Ryser, J., 1991. The potential of land-use planning and development control
to help achieve favourable microclimates around buildings: A European review. Energy and buildings, 16
(3-4), 823-836.

Malarthamil. (2009). The concept of green buildings [online]. Available from:

http://truthdive.com/2009/06/05/the-concept-of-green-buildings/ [Accessed 03 July 2009].
Nath, B., Hense, L. and Pimentel, D., 1999. Environment, development and sustainability. Environment,
development and sustainability, 1, 99104
Reichel, D. (2005). Site planning is a critical phase of green construction projects [online]. Available from:
http://www.facilitiesnet.com/ [Accessed 29 July 2010].
Romero, M. and Hostetler, M. E., 2006. Policies that address sustainable site development. University of
Florida IFAS extension
United Nations, 1987. Our common future-report of the world commission on environment and
development. Oxford: Oxford University Press.