eat ore hat a | UP Re le aTCONTENTS 1 WHAT IS ADAPTIVE CONTROL? 1 1.7 Introduction 1 Linear Feedback 3 Effects of Process Variations 9 Adaptive Schemes 19 The Adaptive Control Problem 24 Applications 27 Conclusions 33 Problems 34 References 38 2 REAL-TIME PARAMETER ESTIMATION 41 2.7 Introduction 41 Least Squares and Regression Models 42 Estimating Parameters in Dynamical Systems 56 Experimental Conditions 63 Simulation of Recursive Estimation 71 Prior Information 7& Conclusions 82 Problems 82 References 87 3 DETERMINISTIC SELF-TUNING REGULATORS 90 3.4 3.2 3.3 Introduction 90 Pole Placement Design 92 Indirect Self-tuning Regulaters 102 xiiixiv Contents 3.4 Continucus-Time Self-tuners 109 3.5 Direct Self-tuning Regulaters 112 3.6 Disturbances with Known Characteristics i121 3./ Conclusions 128 Problems 129 References 135 STOCHASTIC AND PREDICTIVE SELF-TUNING REGULATORS = 137 4.1 Introduction 137 4.2 Design of Minimum-Variance and Moving-Average Controllers 137 4.3 Stochastic Self-tuning Regulators 146 4.4 Unification of Direct Self-tuning Regulators 156 4.5 Linear Quadratic STR 164 4.6 Adaptive Predictive Control 168 4,7 Conclusions 178 Froblems 179 References 181 MODEL-REFERENCE ADAPTIVE SYSTEMS. 185 5.1 Introduction 185 5.2 The MIT Rule 186 5.3 Determination of the Adaptation Gain 194 5.4. Lyapunov Theory 199 5.5 Design of MRAS Using Lyapunov Theory 206 5.6 Bounded-Input, Bounded-Output Stability 215 5.7 Applications to Adaptive Control 230 5.8 Output Feedback 235 5.9 Relations between MRAS and STR 243 5.10 Nonlinear Systems 245 5.11 Conelusions 255 Problems 256 References 260 PROPERTIES OF ADAPTIVE SYSTEMS 263 6.1 Introduction 263 6.2 Nonlinear Dynamics 265 6.3 Adaptation of a Feedforward Gain 274 6.4 Analysis of Indirect Discrete-Time Self-tuners 280 6.5 Stability of Direct Discrete-Time Algorithms 293 6.6 Averaging 299 6.7 Application of Averaging Techniques 306 6.8 Averaging in Stochastic Systems 3199 10 6.9 Robust Adaptive Controllers 327 6.10 Conclusions 338 Problems 338 References 343 STOCHASTIC ADAPTIVE CONTROL 348 7.1 Introduction 348 7.2 Multistep Decision Problems 3850 7.3 The Stochastic Adaptive Problem 352 7.4 Dual Control 354 7.5 Suboptimal Strategies 362 7.6 Examples 365 7.7 Conelusions 370 Problems 371 References 372 AUTO-TUNING = 375 8.1 Introduction 375 8.2 PID Control 376 8.8 Auto-tuning Techniques 377 8.4 Transient Response Methods 9378 8.5 Methods Based on Relay Feedback 380 8.6 Relay Oscillations 385 8.7 Conclusions 388 Problems 388 References 389 GAIN SCHEDULING 390 9.1 Introduction 390 9.2 The Principle 391 9.3 Design of Gain-Scheduling Controllers 392 9.4 Nonlinear Transformations 398 9.5 Applications of Gain Scheduling 402 9.6 Conclusions 416 Problems 416 References 417 ROBUST AND SELF-OSCILLATING SYSTEMS 419 10.1 Why Not Adaptive Control? 419 10.2 Robust High-Gain Feedback Contral 419 10.8 Self-oscillating Adaptive Systems 426 Contents EVxvi 11 12 3 Contents 10.4 Variable-Structure Systems 436 10.5 Conelusions 442 Problems 442 References 445 PRACTICAL ISSUES AND IMPLEMENTATION 448 11.1 Introduction 448 11.2 Controller Implementation 449 11.3 Controller Design 458 11.4 Solving the Diophantine Equation 462 11.5 Estimator Implementation 465 11.6 Square Root Algorithms 480 11.7 Interaction of Estimation and Control 487 11.8 Prototype Algorithms 490 11.9 Operational Issues 493 11.10 Conclusions 494 Problems 496 References 497 COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS AND APPLICATIONS 499 12.1 Introduction 499 12.2 Status of Applications 500 12.3 Industrial Adaptive Controllers 503 12.4 Some Industrial Adaptive Controllers 506 12.5 Process Control 517 12.6 Automobile Control 527 12.7 Ship Steering 529 12.8 Ultrafiltration 534 12.9 Conclusions 544 References 542 PERSPECTIVES ON ADAPTIVE CONTROL = 545 18.1 Introduction 645 18.2 Adaptive Signal Processing 0546 13.3 Extremum Control] 550 13.4 Expert Control Systems 554 13.5 Learning Systems 557 13.6 Future Trends 559 13.7 Conelusions 561 References 562 INDEX 565CHAPTER 1 WHAT IS ADAPTIVE CONTROL? 11 INTRODUCTION In everyday language, “to adapt” means to change a behavior to conform to new circumstances. Intuitively, an adaptive controller is thus a controller that can modify its behavior in response to changes in the dynamies of the process and the character of the disturbances. Since ordinary feedback also attempts to reduce the effects of disturbances and plant uncertainty, the question of the difference between feedback control and adaptive control immediately arises. Over the years there have been many attempts to define adaptive control formally. At an early symposium in 1961 a long discussion ended with the following suggestion: “An adaptive system is any physical system that has been designed with an adaptive viewpoint.” A renewed attempt was made by an IEEE committee in 1973. It proposed a new vocabulary based on notions like self-organizing control (SOC) system, parameter-adaptive SOC, performance- adaptive SOC, and learning control system. However, these efforts were not widely accepted. A meaningful definition of adaptive control, which would make it possible to look at a controller hardware and software and decide whether or not it is adaptive, is still lacking. However, there appears to be a consensus that a constant-gain feedback system is not an adaptive system. In this book we take the pragmatic attitude that an adaptive controller is a controller with adjustable parameters and a mechanism for adjusting the parameters. The controller becomes nonlinear because of the parameter adjustment mechanism. It has, however, a very special structure. Since general nonlinear systems are difficult to deal with, it makes sense to consider special classes of nonlinear systems. An adaptive control system can be thought of as having two loops. One loop is a normal feedback with the process and the controller. The other loop is the parameter adjustment loop. A block diagram 12 Chapter | What Is Adaptive Control? Parameter adjustment Controller parameters Control ontrouer Control signal Figure 1.1 Block diagram of an adaptive system. Setpoint po. Output of an adaptive system is shown in Fig. 1.1. The parameter adjustment loop is often slower than the normal feedback ijoop. A control engineer should know about adaptive systems because they have useful properties, which can be profitably used to design control systems with improved performance and functionality. A Brief History In the early 1950s there was extensive research on adaptive control in connec- tion with the design of autopilots for high-performance aircraft (see Fig. 1.2). Such aircraft operate over a wide range of speeds and altitudes. It was found that ordinary constant-zain, linear feedback control could work well in one operating condition but not over the whole flight regime. A more sophisticated controller that could work well over a wide range of operating conditions was therefore needed. After a significant development effort it was found that gain scheduling was a suitable technique for flight control systems. The interest in adaptive control diminished partly because the adaptive control problem was too hard to deal with using the techniques that were available at the time. In the 1960s there were much research in control theory that contributed to the development of adaptive control. State space and stability theory were introduced. There were also important results in stochastic control theory. Dy- namie programming, introduced by Bellman, increased the understanding of adaptive processes. Fundamental contributions were also made by Tsypkin, who showed that many schemes for learning and adaptive control could be described in a common framework. There were also major developments in system identification. A renaissance of adaptive control occurred in the 1970s, when different estimation schemes were combined with various design meth- ods. Many applications were reported, but theoretical results were very limited. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, proofs for stability of adaptive systems appeared, albeit under very restrictive assumptions. The efforts to merge ideas