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2005 16 Autumn Wiring Matters Complete No Adverts PDF
2005 16 Autumn Wiring Matters Complete No Adverts PDF
2005 16 Autumn Wiring Matters Complete No Adverts PDF
WIRING
MATTERS Autumn 2005 Issue 16
EARTHING:
Your questions answered
OUTBUILDINGS
1
IN THIS EXAMPLE, the user has requested a small
supply be provided to a detached garage to feed lighting
and socket-outlets. The supply to the dwelling is PME.
Initially we will assume that the garage contains
no extraneous-conductive-parts, such as a metallic
water supply or other earthed metalwork.
Two methods of meeting the users requirements
will be discussed:
OUTBUILDINGS
2
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Published by IEE Publishing & Information Services Michael Faraday House, Six Hills Way, Stevenage, Herts, SG1 2AY, United Kingdom
Tel: +44 (0)1438 313311 Fax: +44 (0)1438 313465
Sales and Project Coordinator L Hall +44 (0)1438 767351 lhall@iee.org.uk | Editor G D Cronshaw +44 (0)1438 767384
gcronshaw@iee.org.uk | Contributing Editors J Ware, M Coles, P Still | Chief Sub Editor Jim Hannah | Design SaBle Media Solutions
IEE Wiring Matters is a quarterly publication from the Institution of Electrical Engineers (IEE). The IEE is not as a body responsible for the
opinions expressed.
2005: The Institution of Electrical Engineers. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,
or transmitted in any form or by any means without the permission in writing of the publisher. Copying of articles is not permitted except for
personal and internal use. Multiple copying of the content of this publication without permission is always illegal. Web-offset printing by
Wyndeham Heron, The Bentall Complex, Colchester Road, Heybridge, Maldon, Essex, UK
Co-operating Organisations The Institution of Electrical Engineers acknowledges the contribution made by the following
organisations in the preparation of this publication: British Electrotechnical & Allied Manufacturers Association Ltd R Lewington,
P D Galbraith, M H Mullins | Office of the Deputy Prime Minister K Bromley, I Drummond | Electrical Contractors Association D Locke,
S Burchell | City & Guilds of London Institute H R Lovegrove | Energy Networks Association D J Start | Electrical Contractors Association
of Scotland SELECT D Millar, N McGuiness | Health & Safety Executive N Gove | National Inspection Council for Electrical Installation
Contracting | | ERA Technology Limited - M Coates | British Cables Association C Reed
OUTBUILDINGS
@ZkZ`^(La^]
10mm2 main bonding conductor would be
required to connect the water pipe in the
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garage with the Main Earthing Terminal in
the dwelling.
TEST INSTRUMENTS
5
ONGOING ACCURACY OF
TEST INSTRUMENTS By Mark Coles
When undertaking electrical testing on an The requirements
Anyone can make a mistake, even the most
installation, how accurate are the test results?
experienced of electricians. For this reason, all
The readings obtained from a test instrument electrical installations, alterations and additions
when carrying out a measurement of earth- should be tested, inspected and subsequently certified
fault loop-impedance or the operating time of an prior to handing over to the client for use. The
RCD is the reading shown on the instrument certificate issued describes the current operating
correct? How do I know? parameters and will provide the basis for any future
alteration or addition to the installation. The results
of testing, contained within the certificate, must be an
This, the second article in the series of testing & accurate representation of the installation. The test
inspection, looks at what can go wrong and how instrument must, of course, be accurate and the
to keep track of an instruments performance. obtained results must be consistent but what are the
requirements?
TEST INSTRUMENTS
6
repeated after the fault has been rectified. What can go wrong?
Some methods of test are described in Guidance
Note 3, Inspection & Testing, published by the Damage to the instrument
Institution of Electrical Engineers. Other methods are Consider the scenario; a test instrument was
not precluded provided they give valid results. calibrated by a calibration house six months ago and
is still within the stated 12-month calibration period.
Electrotechnical Assessment Scheme (EAS) It appears to be working well but, unbeknownst to the
Under the Electrotechnical Assessment Scheme contractor, five months ago it had a collision with a
(EAS), Annex 1, Test Instruments Calibration conduit bender in the back of the firms van and is
requirements, it is a requirement that the Enterprise now out of calibration. Many, many jobs have been
shall have a suitable system in place to ensure that the tested with this instrument since the incident
accuracy and consistency of all test instruments used occurred and, hence, many certificates and forms
for certification and reporting purposes is being have been issued. The certificates and forms, of
maintained. course, are worthless as the test results contained
The Electrotechnical Assessment Scheme (EAS) within would not be representative of the installation.
specifies the minimum requirements against which an Therefore, it is extremely important that the
electrical installation enterprise, or electrical instrument is regularly assessed.
contractor, may be assessed in order to determine the
technical competence of the enterprise. The ownership Connecting leads and the importance of nulling
and management of the EAS was taken over by the IEE Often, problems associated with test instruments can
and is administered by the EAS Management be traced to faulty leads. The leads suffer a great deal
Committee. An Electrotechnical Assessment Scheme of punishment, constant flexing and pulling,
was seen as necessary if the electrical industry and uncoiling and recoiling, squashed into boxes, etc. As
other interested parties were going to support the testing probes are repetitively changed and replaced
efforts of the then DETR in introducing electrical safety with gripping crocodile clips, over time, contact
in to the Building Regulations. resistance at the point of connection can increase,
Subsequently, the Office of the Deputy Prime which could throw doubt on the results obtained. The
Minister (successor body to the DETR) asked the EAS springs that maintain the gripping pressure of the
Management Committee to make recommendations for crocodile clips can suffer fatigue with age or when not
the technical competence of contractors to carry out adequately maintained. Foreign bodies and particles,
electrical installation work in dwellings only without such as brick dust, can clog the connections and
prior notification to building control. moving parts, again, increasing contact resistance. It
The document Minimum Technical Competence of is well documented that the leads should be nulled
Enterprises that undertake Electrical Installation Work prior to use and there is a correct way of nulling.
in Dwellings (MTC) was prepared for this purpose and Fig 1 shows the correct method of connection when
accepted by the Office of the Deputy Prime Minister. nulling test leads. Note that the current flow is directly
All authorised competent persons schemes are required from lead to lead.
to ensure that registered firms have the minimum Fig 2 shows the incorrect method of connection
technical competencies. when nulling test leads. Note that the current flow is
across two hinges. When the leads have been nulled
HSE guidance note GS 38 with this method of connection, a value of resistance
Electrical testing leads and accessories must be will be subtracted from the final test result.
designed to provide adequate protection against Should the leads be re-connected in the correct
danger. The HSE guidance note GS 38, Electrical test manner and a measurement of resistance taken, the
equipment for use by electricians, gives guidance to instrument may give an error message or show a value
electrically competent people, along with advice on of negative resistance.
test probes, leads, voltage indicating devices and Fig 3 shows that the leads have been nulled with the
measuring equipment. incorrect method of connection. The instrument shows
the value of resistance as 0 .
What can go wrong with test instruments? Fig 4 shows that when the leads are re-connected in
Problems with test instruments are not always the correct manner, a value of negative resistance may
immediately obvious so it is important that any be obtained.
irregularities are discovered as early as possible. The value of negative resistance is due to the
TEST INSTRUMENTS
TEST INSTRUMENTS
9
with the associated harmonised standard:
Calibration
Historically, many electrical contractors have had test
instruments calibrated on an annual basis. The
instrument would be sent away to a calibration house Fig 5: Proprietary checkbox
and it would arrive back, some time later, with a [Image courtesy of Seaward Instruments. Model shown Checkbox 16]
certificate stating the date of calibration, the time period
for which the certificate would be valid along with the To avoid ambiguity, the relevant testing points should
findings of the assessment in the form of a table of be labelled allowing other operatives, who may not
results. The certificate would state that the instrument usually be charged with the task of test instrument
was within calibration parameters at that time only; it assessment, to follow the system. Should the results
certainly could not guarantee that the instrument would waver by 5%, the instrument should be recalibrated.
still be fit for purpose at any time after that. If the results remain within the 5% limits then the
instrument could feasibly go for a number of years
Ongoing accuracy and maintaining records without the need of calibration assessment by a
Establishing an effective method of proving the calibration house. For some businesses, this could be
accuracy of test instruments is of paramount a major cost saving.
importance. BS 7671 offers no guidance as to the It is worth noting that changes to the electrical
method that should be employed to ensure supply network could affect the actual supply
consistency and accuracy other than requiring that characteristics at the installation.
the results of testing are compared with the relevant Many test instrument manufacturers produce
criteria. proprietary checkboxes (see fig 5) that incorporate
One method of assessing the on-going accuracy of many testing functions, such as high and low
test instruments is to maintain records, over time, of resistance, earth fault loop impedance and RCD
measurements taken from designated circuits of testing.
reference. Before such a system is implemented, the Such instruments could be used in conjunction
accuracy of each test instrument must be confirmed; with the following systems.
this could only be carried out by a formal calibration Other equally effective methods of assessment
house. An important point to note is that test leads could be utilised.
should be assessed at the time of calibration.
The following examples are methods in which the Resistance Ohmmeters
on-going accuracy of test instruments may be Once a month, take a measurement of each resistor
assessed. and record the results in tabulated form. Over a
In each instance, the designated circuit or socket- period of time, the table will show how the
outlet must be used for every subsequent assessment. instrument is performing.
TEST INSTRUMENTS
10
10 Ohm 10 M Ohm
16
Cable Inspect the connecting cable for damage throughout its length. Look for cuts, nicks,
and kinks. If damage has been repaired with insulating tape, the cable should be
replaced. Ensure the cable is routed where it will not suffer damage in use
Plug Inspect the plug and check that the plug is suitable for the application. For 13 A
applications, a resilient plug marked BS 1363A may be necessary if the plug is
subjected to harsh treatment
Socket-outlet or flex outlet Inspect the socket-outlet or flex outlet of the fixed wiring system for any signs of
damage such as cracks and overheating such as discoloration
Table 2: Testing
1 Earth continuity test Earth continuity testing can only be applied to Class I equipment or cables.
Paragraph 15.4 of the Code of Practice gives further details of the testing
2 Insulation resistance test For many types of appliance, insulation resistance is generally checked by applying a test voltage and
measuring the resistance. This test may not always be suitable and the protective conductor/touch
current measurement of paragraph 15.6 of the Code of Practice may be a more appropriate alternative
3 Functional check In its simplest form a functional check is a check to ensure that the appliance is working properly
Note that some electrical test devices apply tests put into service safely.
that are inappropriate and may even damage Looking in detail at the insulation resistance test,
equipment containing electronic circuits, such as for some types of equipment it may not be appropriate
VSDs, possibly causing degradation of safety. In to perform an insulation test at 500 V d.c. because of
particular, while the Code of Practice includes the risk of damage to the electronic components in
insulation resistance tests, equipment should not be the equipment. The testing engineer may then decide
subjected to dielectric strength testing (known as hi- to perform the protective conductor/touch current
pot testing or flash testing) because this may damage measurement, which is an alternative to the
insulation and may also indirectly damage low in-service insulation test for use if the insulation
voltage electronic circuits unless appropriate resistance test either cannot be carried out or gives
precautions are taken. suspect test results. The protective conductor current
The limit stated in the Code of Practice for test consists of measuring the current flowing from
insulation resistance for Class I equipment when live parts to earth for Class I equipment, or from live
tested at 500V d.c. is 1 megohm. An item of equipment parts to accessible surfaces of Class II equipment.
without input filters generally has an insulation For practical purposes the test voltage is the
resistance greater than 50 megohm and the use of the supply voltage and the current should be measured
insulation test in preference to the leakage current within five seconds after the application of the test
measurement will therefore allow the equipment to be voltage, the supply voltage, and should not exceed the
Notes to Table 3:
2. Equipment with a protective conductor current designed to exceed 3.5 mA shall comply with the requirements of paragraph 15.12.
Protective conductors The equipment should have internal protective conductors of not less than
1.0 mm2 cross-sectional area (based on clause 5.2.5 of BS EN 60950), and
18
EARTHING:
YOUR QUESTIONS ANSWERED
By Geoff Cronshaw
What are earthed and unearthed systems? connected to earth through a deliberately introduced
What are the requirements of BS 7671? earthing impedance or is isolated from Earth. All
exposed-conductive-parts of an installation are
What are the advantages and disadvantages connected to an earth electrode.)
of the various types of earthing systems? When designing an electrical installation, one of
the first things to determine is the type of earthing
This article, which is based on IEE Guidance notes, is system. The distributor will be able to provide this
intended to provide information that it is hoped will information.
prove helpful. The system will either be TN-S, TN-C-S (PME) or TT
for a low voltage supply given in accordance with the
BS 7671 lists five types of earthing system: Electricity Safety, Quality and Continuity Regulations
TN-S, TN-C-S, TT, TN-C, and IT. 2002. This is because TN-C requires an exemption
T = Earth (from the French word Terre) from the Electricity Safety, Quality and Continuity
N= Neutral Regulations, and an IT system is not permitted for a
S = Separate low voltage public supply in the UK because the
C = Combined source is not directly earthed. Therefore TN-C and IT
I = Isolated (The source of an IT system is either systems are both very uncommon in the UK.
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EARTHING
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1.2 TN-C-S system earthing distributors neutral conductor is also used to return
A TN-C-S system, shown in fig 3, has the supply earth fault currents arising in the consumers
neutral conductor of a distribution main connected installation safely to the source. To achieve this, the
with earth at source and at intervals along its run. distributor will provide a consumers earthing
This is usually referred to as protective multiple terminal which is linked to the incoming neutral
earthing (PME). With this arrangement the conductor.
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Figure 5: TT system
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22
underground structural metal work. An example would be a bare or insulated copper
The soil resistivity of the ground is probably the conductor clipped to a surface, run on a cable tray or
single most important factor in the determination of fixed to the outside of a wiring enclosure. Such a
the type of earth electrode. Rods can only be as circuit protective conductor must also be suitably
effective as the contact they make with the protected if it is liable to suffer mechanical damage or
surrounding material. Thus, they should be driven chemical deterioration or be damaged by electro-
into virgin ground, not disturbed (backfilled) ground. dynamic effects produced by passing earth fault
Where it is necessary to drive two or more rods and current through it. If mechanical protection is not
connect them together to achieve a satisfactory result, provided the minimum size is 4 mm2 copper or
the separation between rods should be at least equal equivalent.
to their combined driven depth to obtain maximum BS 7671 provides two methods for sizing protective
advantage from each rod. In some locations low soil conductors including earthing conductors (see also
resistivity is found to be concentrated in the topsoil Table 54A). The easier method is to determine the
layer, beneath which there may be rock or other protective conductor size from Table 54G but this may
impervious strata which prevents the deep driving of produce a larger size than is strictly necessary, since
rods, or a deep layer of high resistivity. Only a test or it employs a simple relationship to the cross-sectional
known information about the ground can reveal this area of the phase conductor(s).
kind of information. In such circumstances, the The second method involves a formula calculation.
installation of copper earth tapes, or pipes or plates, The formula is commonly referred to as the adiabatic
would be most likely to provide a satisfactory earth equation and is the same as that used for short-
electrode resistance value. circuit current calculations (see Regulation 434-03-03).
Whatever form an earth electrode takes, the It assumes that no heat is dissipated from the
possibility of soil drying and freezing, and of protective conductor during an earth fault and
corrosion, must be taken into account. Preferably, therefore errs on the safe side. Even so, application of
testing of an earth electrode should be carried out the formula will in many instances result in a
under the least favourable conditions, i.e. after protective conductor having a smaller csa than that of
prolonged dry weather. Further information on the live conductors of the associated circuit. This is
earthing principles and practice can be found in quite acceptable.
BS 7430 : 1998 Code of Practice for Earthing.
Regulation 543-01-03 states:
Earthing conductors The cross-sectional area, where calculated, shall be
Earthing conductors which are defined in BS 7671 as a not less than the value determined by the following
protective conductor connecting the main earthing formula or shall be obtained by reference to BS 7454.
terminal of an installation to an earth electrode or
other means of earthing must be adequately sized
particularly where buried partly in the ground, and
be of suitable material and adequately protected S= I2t
against corrosion and mechanical damage. k
The size of an earthing conductor is arrived at in where:
basically the same way as for a circuit protective
conductor, except that Table 54A of BS 7671 must be S is the nominal cross-sectional area of the conductor
applied to any buried earthing conductor. For a in mm2.
TN-C-S (PME) supply, it should be no smaller than the
main bonding conductors. I is the value in amperes (rms. for a.c.) of fault
current for a fault of negligible impedance, which can
Sizing of circuit protective conductors flow through the associated protective device, due
There are several factors which may influence or account being taken of the current limiting effect of
determine the size required for a circuit protective the circuit impedances and the limiting capability
conductor. A minimum cross-sectional area of (I2 t) of that protective device.
2.5 mm2 copper is required for any separate circuit Account shall be taken of the effect, on the resistance
protective conductor, i.e. one which is not part of a of circuit conductors, of their temperature rise as a
cable or formed by a wiring enclosure or contained in result of overcurrent - see Regulation 413-02-05.
such an enclosure. t is the operating time of the disconnecting device in
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bglmZeeZmbhgZg]lniier^Zkmabg`
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seconds corresponding to the fault current I amperes. supplies compared to 0.8 for TN-S supplies.
k is a factor taking account of the resistivity, However, under certain supply system fault
temperature coefficient and heat capacity of the conditions (PEN conductor of the supply becoming
conductor material, and the appropriate initial and open circuit external to the installation) a potential
final temperatures. can develop between the conductive parts connected
to the PME earth terminal and the general mass of
3.0 Type of earthing systems, earth. However, since there are multiple earthing
advantages and disadvantages points on the supply network and bonding is provided
within the building complying with BS 7671, the risk
3.1 Protective multiple earthing (PME). is considered to be small.
Such a supply system is described in BS 7671 as TN-C-S.
The advantage of this system is that it provides an Special Locations
effective and reliable method of providing customers The Electricity Association publications provides
with an earth connection. For example the maximum guidance on PME systems. Whilst PME systems
Ze specified by a distributor is 0.35 for TN-C-S provide an effective and reliable earth connection
24
precautions need to be taken when dealing with
special locations. For example Regulation 9(4) of the
Electricity Safety, Quality and Continuity Regulations
does not allow the combined neutral and protective
conductor to be connected electrically to any
metalwork in a caravan or boat. This prevents PME
terminals being used for caravans or boat mooring
supplies, although they may be used for fixed
premises on the sites, such as the site owners living
premises and any bars or shops, etc.
Petrol filling stations are another area where
precautions need to be taken. The reference
publication is Guidance for the design, construction,
modification and maintenance of petrol filling
stations, published by the Association for Petroleum
and Explosives Administration (APEA) and the
Institute of Petroleum, which recommends a TT
supply for hazardous areas.
A separate earth electrode and RCD or other
alternative arrangement is required to ensure the
segregation of petrol filling area earthing and that of
the PME earth of the distribution network. A PME
earth may be used for permanent buildings such as
shops and restaurants.
Also, mines and quarries are another area. A supply
taken to an underground shaft, or for use in the
production side of a quarry, must have an earthing
system which is segregated from any system bonded
to the PME terminal.
Finally, because of the practical difficulties in
bonding all accessible extraneous-conductive-parts
electricity distribution companies might not provide a
PME earth to agricultural and horticultural reasons of safety (Reg 24 of ESQCR). Construction
installations and construction sites. site, farm or swimming pool installations might be
inappropriate unless additional precautions are
3.2 TT system taken, such as an additional earth electrode.
With TT, the consumer must provide their own
connection to earth, i.e. by installing a suitable earth 3.3 TN-S system
electrode local to the installation. The circumstances A TN-S system has the neutral of the source of energy
in which a distributor will not provide a means of connected with earth at one point only, at or as near as is
earthing for the consumer are usually where the reasonably practicable to the source and the consumers
distributor cannot guarantee the earth connection earthing terminal is typically connected to the metallic
back to the source, e.g. a low voltage overhead supply, sheath or armour of the distributors service cable into
where there is the likelihood of the earth wire either the premises or to a separate protective conductor of, for
becoming somehow disconnected or even stolen. instance, an overhead supply.
A distributor also might not provide means of Large consumers may have one or more HV/LV
earthing for certain outdoor installations, e.g. a transformers dedicated to their installation and
construction site temporary installation, leaving it to installed adjacent to or within their premises. In such
the consumer to make suitable and safe arrangements situations the usual form of system earthing is TN-S.
for which they are fully responsible. The electricity More information on earthing and bonding is
distributor is required to make available his supply available in IEE Guidance Note 5. Also more
neutral or protective conductor for connection to the information on special locations is available in IEE
consumers earth terminal, unless inappropriate for Guidance Note 7.