Elementos Finjtos Programacion

The Finite Element Method for Computational
Structural Mechanics
Martin Kronbichler
Applied Scientific Computing (Tillämpad beräkningsvetenskap)
January 29, 2010
Martin Kronbichler (TDB) FEM for CSM January 29, 2010 1 / 31

What is structural mechanics about?
I A mathematician’s viewpoint:
Solve the (elliptic) PDE
3 3
∂ 2 uj ∂ 2 ui ∂ 2 uj
X X „ «
λ + µ 2
+ + fi = 0, i = 1, 2, 3,
∂xk ∂xj j=1
∂xj ∂xi ∂xj
j,k=1
for the variable u = [u1 , u2 , u3 ] on a certain computational domain Ω

subject to some boundary conditions.
I An engineer’s viewpoint:
Body deformed by loads.
Describe deformation and
structural failure (body
“breaks down”).
Pictures from open source finite element
library deal.II, http://www.dealii.org

Module scope
I Get a basic understanding of the mathematical modeling in structural

mechanics
I Perform some easy CSM simulations with the commercial software
package Comsol
I Understand and relate the theoretical model behind simulation results

Schedule
Time Room
Lecture Jan 29, 13–15 2345
Lab 1, group 1 (Comsol intro, assignment questions) Feb 2, 8–10 2315D
Lecture Feb 2, 13–15 2345
Lab 1, group 2 (Comsol intro, assignment questions) Feb 4, 10–12 2315D
Lab 2, group 1 (assignment questions) Feb 5, 10–12 2315D
Lab 2, group 2 (assignment questions) Feb 5, 15–17 2315D
Seminar (presentation of results) Feb 8, 15–17 2345

Module outline and literature
1. General overview over linear elasticity (today)

I O.C. Zienkiewicz and R.L. Taylor. The Finite Element Method.
Volume 1: The Basis. Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, 2000.
Chapters 1, 2, 3, 4.


2. Exemplary elasticity problem and discretization: The Plane Stress
Problem (Feb 2)
I C.A. Felippa’s lecture notes on “The Plane Stress Problem”, Chapter
14. Available online at
http://www.colorado.edu/engineering/CAS/courses.d/IFEM.d


2. Exemplary elasticity problem and discretization: The Plane Stress
Problem (Feb 2)
I C.A. Felippa’s lecture notes on “The Plane Stress Problem”, Chapter
14. Available online at
http://www.colorado.edu/engineering/CAS/courses.d/IFEM.d
3. Going beyond Plain Stress: A survey on how to pursue general
problems in structural mechanics (Feb 8, < 0.5 h)
Volume 2: Solid Mechanics. Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, 2000.
I M.A. Crisfield. Non-linear finite element analysis of solids and
structures: essentials. Vol. 1. John-Wiley & Sons, 1991.

Introduction, history
History of structural mechanics

Truss structures [sv. fackverk]
E. g. a frame structure
I Modeled by “assembling” elementary
“beam elements” [sv. bjälke] (if individ-
ual beams not too long)

I Beam element: 12 degrees of free-
θ2
dom/element (in the most general 3D
θ1
case); 3 coordinates + 3 angles per beam u1
u2
end point

I Beam element: 12 degrees of free-
θ
dom/element (in the most general 3D 2
θ
case); 3 coordinates + 3 angles per beam u
1
u 2
1
end point
I Shape of the deformed beam described by a cubic (so-called Hermite)
polynomial (4 parameters) in each of the 3 space coordinates
I Calculate displacement of beam parameters: → A discrete model
I balance forces and moments at joints [sv. länk]
I solve sparse linear system

Beams
I Shape of long beams not accurately

described by above model
I Idea: line up several elementary beam
elements
I Enforce continuity for positions and
angles at interfaces between elements
(i.e. couple parameters)
I A mathematical continuum model: the
discrete elements are not “physical”

I Above ideas very old (∼1860)

I 1950’s: triangular and rectangular elements developed for analysis of
e. g. airplane wings
I Idea by engineers in structural mechanics (at the same time when
computers became available)
I Berkeley professor R. W. Clough coined the term “finite element”

I Above ideas very old (∼1860)

I 1950’s: triangular and rectangular elements developed for analysis of
e. g. airplane wings
I Idea by engineers in structural mechanics (at the same time when
computers became available)
I Berkeley professor R. W. Clough coined the term “finite element”
I Later recognized as a variant of an old technique (“Ritz method”)
I FEM as a general method for discretization of PDEs developed in the
60–70s (mathematics, scientific computing).
I Mathematical foundation already in a paper by Courant (1942),
unknown by Clough et al.!

Linear elasticity
The basics of linear elasticity

Linear elasticity
The general model for 3D linear static elasticity

Ω: reference configuration
f : body force
g: surface traction
Γ0 : fixed (clamped) surface
Γ1 : surface subject to load; a “free”
surface has zero load
Hand-drawn picture goes here

Linear elasticity
The general model for 3D linear static elasticity

Ω: reference configuration
f : body force
g: surface traction
Γ0 : fixed (clamped) surface
Γ1 : surface subject to load; a “free”
surface has zero load
Problem
Under the steady loads f and g, determine
(i) the equilibrium displacement field u(x) with components
T
[u(x)] = u1 (x), u2 (x), u3 (x)
with respect to the given reference configuration and
(ii) the stresses in the body.

Linear elasticity Forces and stresses
Forces
Two types of forces: body and contact forces
Body force: e. g. gravity, magnetic forces. If f is a force
Z density (in
N/m3 ), the force (in N) on a given volume V is: F = f dΩ
V

Forces
Two types of forces: body and contact forces
Body force: e. g. gravity, magnetic forces. If f is a force
Z density (in
N/m3 ), the force (in N) on a given volume V is: F = f dΩ
V
Contact force: force between parts of material (inside or on the surface of
the body)
S: a surface with a normal n
Force on S from outside depends both t(n,x)
on position x ∈ S and on normal n:
Z Z
FS = t(n, x) ds = σ(x) · n ds n(x)
S S S
t(n, x): the Cauchy stress vector
σ(x): the stress tensor

The stress tensor components:

 
σ11 σ12 σ13
[σ] = σ21 σ22 σ23  , σT = σ
σ31 σ32 σ33
I Symmetric matrix.
Spectral theorem: 3 real eigenvalues, there is an orthogonal set of
eigenvectors
I The eigenvalues: principal stresses
I The orthogonal eigenvectors: the principal directions of stress
I Choose coordinate system aligned with the principal directions of
stress
I Stress tensor becomes diagonal
I Forces are directed orthogonal to the coordinate planes

Stress state examples
(i) Simple extension (uniaxial tension)
I Cylindrical specimen, arbitrary

cross section with area A,
x2
I Pulling at each side with evenly
distributed force f f f
I Stress tensor constant with x1
components
 
f /A 0 0
[σ] =  0 0 0
0 0 0

(ii) Simple shear
I Plate specimen
I Pulling along top and bottom
surface (area A) with evenly
distributed force f
I Stress tensor constant with
components
 
 0
 
[σ] = 
 
 0
 
0 0 0

(iii) Hydrostatic stress
I Spherical ball specimen x2

p
I Body at the exposure of gas at
pressure p
I Stress tensor constant with
components x1
 
1 0 0
[σ] = −p 0 1 0
0 0 1

Relevance of stress
I Stress is the variable that enters force balance, see slide 22.
I Stress is a model to predict structural failure due to excessive loads,
which is a key task of mechanical engineering:
choose the size of component parts such that the maximum
stress for a given material (e.g. structural steel) is not exceeded
anywhere in the body (often add safety factors)

Stress analysis and visualization
I Stress tensor: 6 independent components ([σ] symmetric)

I How to analyze & visualize stress field?
I Concept 1: look at the Frobenius norm of the tensor
3 X
X 3
kσk2F = 2
σij
i=1 j=1
Can show: kσkF independent of choice of coordinate system for

components σij
I However, kσkF not useful as a criterium for predicting structural
failure (specimen breakdown)

Stress analysis II
I Usually: material very resistant to pure pressure loading (compression,
expansion)
I Decompose stress tensor into an isotropic (pressure-like,
volume-changing) σ I and a deviatoric part σ D :

1 1
σ = tr σI + σ − tr σI
|3 {z } | 3
σI
{z }
σD

Stress analysis II
I Usually: material very resistant to pure pressure loading (compression,
expansion)
I Decompose stress tensor into an isotropic (pressure-like,
volume-changing) σ I and a deviatoric part σ D :

1 1
σ = tr σI + σ − tr σI
|3 {z } | 3
σI
{z }
σD
I The von Mises stress is defined as

1
σv = kσ D kF = σ − tr σI

,
3 F
(Frobenius norm of the deviatoric part of the stress tensor)

Examples:
I Simple extension:
     
σ 0 0 1 0 0 2 0 0
σ σ
[σ] =  0 0 0 , [σ I ] = 0 1 0 , [σ D ] = 0 −1 0
3 3
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 −1
p
so σv = σ 2/3 ≈ 0.82σ.

Examples:
I Simple extension:
     
σ 0 0 1 0 0 2 0 0
σ σ
[σ] =  0 0 0 , [σ I ] = 0 1 0 , [σ D ] = 0 −1 0
3 3
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 −1
p
so σv = σ 2/3 ≈ 0.82σ.
I Simple shear:
     
0 σ 0 0 0 0 0 σ 0
[σ] = σ 0 0 , [σ I ] = 0 0 0 , [σ D ] = σ 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
so σv = σ.

Examples:
I Simple extension:
     
σ 0 0 1 0 0 2 0 0
σ σ
[σ] =  0 0 0 , [σ I ] = 0 1 0 , [σ D ] = 0 −1 0
3 3
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 −1
p
so σv = σ 2/3 ≈ 0.82σ.
I Simple shear:
     
0 σ 0 0 0 0 0 σ 0
[σ] = σ 0 0 , [σ I ] = 0 0 0 , [σ D ] = σ 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
so σv = σ.
I Hydrostatic stress:
     
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
[σ] = −σ 0 1 0 , [σ I ] = −σ 0 1 0 , [σ D ] = 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0
so σv = 0.
Why stresses are relevant, revisited
I Model to predict structural failure due to excessive load:

base criterion on von Mises stress – works well for steel, aluminium,
copper, gold (“ductile” [sv. töjbar, duktil] materials)
I Von Mises criteria not appropriate to predict failure by crack
propagation (“fatigue” [sv. materialutmattning])
I For cracks, better to use criteria based on maximum principal stress

Linear elasticity Elasticity equations
Elasticity equations: integral and differential form

Fundamental axiom in mechanics: total forces on each volume V ⊂ Ω
are in balance
Z Z
σ · n ds + f dΩ = 0 ∀V ⊂ Ω, (Integral form)
∂V V

Elasticity equations: integral and differential form

Fundamental axiom in mechanics: total forces on each volume V ⊂ Ω
are in balance
Z Z
σ · n ds + f dΩ = 0 ∀V ⊂ Ω, (Integral form)
∂V V
Divergence theorem (Gauss) ⇒
Z
(∇ · σ + f ) dΩ = 0 ∀V ⊂ Ω,
V
thus,
−∇ · σ = f in Ω,
u=0 on Γ0 , (Differential form)
σ·n=g on Γ1 ,
where
3
X ∂
[∇ · σ]i = σij .
∂xj
j=1

Constitutive law
I Above problem statements incomplete (3 equations + b.c., 6 unknown

stresses and 3 unknown displacements)
I Need a constitutive law, a relation between stress and displacement,
σ = σ(u)
I Depends on material properties (rubber and steel at the same load
behave very differently!)
I Assume:
I Homogeneous material (same property at each point)
I Isotropic material (same property in each direction)
I Small deformations (geometric linear problems)

Then
σ = λI tr((u)) + 2µ(u), (constitutive relation)
where (= T ) is the strain tensor [sv. töjning]:
1
∇u + (∇u)T ,

(u) = (kinematic relation)
2
1 ∂ui ∂uj
ij (u) = + .
2 ∂xj ∂xi

Then
σ = λI tr((u)) + 2µ(u), (constitutive relation)
where (= T ) is the strain tensor [sv. töjning]:
1
∇u + (∇u)T ,

(u) = (kinematic relation)
2
1 ∂ui ∂uj
ij (u) = + .
2 ∂xj ∂xi
Parameters λ, µ: Lamé coefficients, usually expressed as

E Eν
µ= , λ=
2(1 + ν) (1 + ν)(1 − 2ν)
E: Young modulus [sv. elasticitetsmodul]. Ex. around 200 GPa for steel
ν: Poisson ratio; 0 < ν < 1/2. Ex. around 0.3 for steel, almost 0.5 for
rubber (indicating incompressible material)

Visualization of quantities and equations in structural

mechanics: Tonti diagram
Displacement (Dirichlet) BCs

Prescribed
displacements Displacements Body forces f
u = û u
û
on Γ0
Kinematic Equilibrium
relation: (balance eq.):
(u) = 12 · ∇·σ+f =0
∇u + (∇u)T
` ´

Prescribed
Strains Stresses σ
tractions t

Force
Constitutive
quantity Unknown fields relation: = Cσ or (Neumann)
σ = λI tr() + 2µ BCs:

quantity Known fields
σ·n=g =t
on Γ1
Energy and FEM
Linear elasticity from an energy point of

view – the weak form as a basis for FEM

Energy and FEM
Equations: energy viewpoint

Alternative derivation of the equations: energy principle (basis for FEM)
I Elastic energy stored in the body, the elastic strain energy:
Z 3 Z
1 1 X
S(u) = (u) : σ(u) dΩ := ij σij dΩ
2 Ω 2 Ω i,j=1
1
cf. the energy stored in a spring: 2 f (force f , stretched by )

Energy and FEM

Z 3 Z
1 1 X
2 Ω 2 Ω i,j=1
1
I Work exerted on the body by external forces:
Z Z
W (u) = u · f dΩ + u · g ds
Ω Γ1

Energy and FEM

Z 3 Z
1 1 X
2 Ω 2 Ω i,j=1
1
I Work exerted on the body by external forces:
Z Z
W (u) = u · f dΩ + u · g ds
Ω Γ1
I Total potential energy (fundamental axiom in mechanics)
T (u) = S(u) − W (u)

Energy and FEM
The principle of minimal potential energy

Equilibrium: displacement u minimizes total potential energy
Z Z Z
1
T (u) = (u) : σ(u) dΩ − u · f dΩ − u · g ds
2 Ω Ω Γ1
| {z }| {z }
S(u) −W (u)

Energy and FEM
The principle of minimal potential energy

Equilibrium: displacement u minimizes total potential energy
Z Z Z
1
T (u) = (u) : σ(u) dΩ − u · f dΩ − u · g ds
2 Ω Ω Γ1
| {z }| {z }
S(u) −W (u)
I W (u) is linear in u
I For linear elastic materials, σ(u) is linear in u and thus S(u)
quadratic in u
For linear, homogeneous, and isotropic material:
Z h Z Z
1 2 i
T (u) = λ tr((u)) + 2µ(u) : (u) dΩ − u · f dΩ − u · g ds
2 Ω Ω Γ1
1
= a(u, u) − l(u)
2
where a is linear in both arguments and l is a linear form in u.
Energy and FEM Mathematics: Variational Principle
Variational Reformulation
Now assume that u minimizes T . Let v be an arbitrary admissible
displacement (satisfying v = 0 on Γ0 ). Perturb the minimum and define,
for t ∈ R,
1
φ(t) = T (u + tv) = a(u + tv, u + tv) − l(u + tv)
2
1 t2
= a(u, u) + l(u) + t a(v, u) − l(v) + a(v, v)
2 2
φ is convex quadratic in t since a is positive definite (a(v, v) > 0 when
v 6= 0)
Thus, φ is minimized iff φ0 (0) = 0, that is,
a(v, u) = l(v) for each admissible v (1)

Relation to linear algebra
A quadratic function in Rn has the same structure as T (u):

1 1
J(u) = uT Au − bT u ↔ a(u, u) − l(u)
2 2
Here, the variational principle reads for A symmetric and positive definite:
1 2
J minimized by u ⇔ ∇J(u) = 0 and ∇ J(u) pos. def.
2
⇔ Au = b, A pos. def.
⇔ v T (Au − b) = 0 for all v ∈ Rn , A pos. def.

Equation (1) in explicit form: the equilibrium displacement u satisfies

Z Z Z

λ tr (v) tr (u) + µ(v) : (u) dΩ = v · f dΩ + v · g ds
Ω Ω Γ1
for each admissible v.

Above relation is a variational expression, called the principle of virtual
work in mechanics, and is the basis for the discretization with the Finite
Element Method (FEM)
In FEM, we want to fulfill (1) not for all admissible functions v, but only
for those described by a finite-dimensional subset V h of admissible
displacements.

Elementos Finjtos Programacion

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The Finite Element Method for Computational

Applied Scientific Computing (Tillämpad beräkningsvetenskap)

January 29, 2010

Martin Kronbichler (TDB) FEM for CSM January 29, 2010 1 / 31

for the variable u = [u1 , u2 , u3 ] on a certain computational domain Ω

library deal.II, http://www.dealii.org

Martin Kronbichler (TDB) FEM for CSM January 29, 2010 2 / 31

I Get a basic understanding of the mathematical modeling in structural

Martin Kronbichler (TDB) FEM for CSM January 29, 2010 3 / 31

Lecture Jan 29, 13–15 2345

Lab 1, group 1 (Comsol intro, assignment questions) Feb 2, 8–10 2315D

Lecture Feb 2, 13–15 2345

Lab 1, group 2 (Comsol intro, assignment questions) Feb 4, 10–12 2315D

Lab 2, group 1 (assignment questions) Feb 5, 10–12 2315D

Lab 2, group 2 (assignment questions) Feb 5, 15–17 2315D

Seminar (presentation of results) Feb 8, 15–17 2345

Martin Kronbichler (TDB) FEM for CSM January 29, 2010 4 / 31

1. General overview over linear elasticity (today)

Martin Kronbichler (TDB) FEM for CSM January 29, 2010 5 / 31

1. General overview over linear elasticity (today)

Martin Kronbichler (TDB) FEM for CSM January 29, 2010 5 / 31

1. General overview over linear elasticity (today)

Martin Kronbichler (TDB) FEM for CSM January 29, 2010 5 / 31

History of structural mechanics

Martin Kronbichler (TDB) FEM for CSM January 29, 2010 6 / 31

Truss structures [sv. fackverk]

Martin Kronbichler (TDB) FEM for CSM January 29, 2010 7 / 31

Truss structures [sv. fackverk]

Martin Kronbichler (TDB) FEM for CSM January 29, 2010 7 / 31

Truss structures [sv. fackverk]

Martin Kronbichler (TDB) FEM for CSM January 29, 2010 7 / 31

I Shape of long beams not accurately

Martin Kronbichler (TDB) FEM for CSM January 29, 2010 8 / 31

I Above ideas very old (∼1860)

Martin Kronbichler (TDB) FEM for CSM January 29, 2010 9 / 31

I Above ideas very old (∼1860)

Martin Kronbichler (TDB) FEM for CSM January 29, 2010 9 / 31

The basics of linear elasticity

Martin Kronbichler (TDB) FEM for CSM January 29, 2010 10 / 31

The general model for 3D linear static elasticity

Martin Kronbichler (TDB) FEM for CSM January 29, 2010 11 / 31

The general model for 3D linear static elasticity

Martin Kronbichler (TDB) FEM for CSM January 29, 2010 11 / 31

Martin Kronbichler (TDB) FEM for CSM January 29, 2010 12 / 31

Martin Kronbichler (TDB) FEM for CSM January 29, 2010 12 / 31

The stress tensor components:

Martin Kronbichler (TDB) FEM for CSM January 29, 2010 13 / 31

Stress state examples

(i) Simple extension (uniaxial tension)

I Cylindrical specimen, arbitrary

Martin Kronbichler (TDB) FEM for CSM January 29, 2010 14 / 31

(ii) Simple shear

Martin Kronbichler (TDB) FEM for CSM January 29, 2010 15 / 31

(iii) Hydrostatic stress

I Spherical ball specimen x2

Martin Kronbichler (TDB) FEM for CSM January 29, 2010 16 / 31

Martin Kronbichler (TDB) FEM for CSM January 29, 2010 17 / 31

Stress analysis and visualization

I Stress tensor: 6 independent components ([σ] symmetric)

Can show: kσkF independent of choice of coordinate system for

Martin Kronbichler (TDB) FEM for CSM January 29, 2010 18 / 31

Martin Kronbichler (TDB) FEM for CSM January 29, 2010 19 / 31

σ = λI tr() + 2µ BCs: