DESIGN AND FABRICATION A SOLAR WATER

PURIFICATION SYSTEM USING A UV-LIGHT SYSTEM

DONE BY KANG’OMBE C.N.

STUDENT NO. 201301570

COURSE MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

SUPERVISOR DR. A. OGUNMOKUN

YEAR 27/11/2017

i
 DECLARATION

This report is a representation of my design proposal work. Wherever contribution of others

is involved, every effort has been made to indicate this clearly with due reference to

literature.

The work was done under the guidance of Dr. A. Ogunmokun at the University of Namibia,

Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology, Jose Eduardo dos Santos Campus,

Ongwediva.

Sign: _______________________________ Date: ______________________________

Chanda N. Kang’ombe (Student)

In capacity as the supervisor of the candidate’s design project, I certify that the above

statements are true to the best of my knowledge.

Sign: _______________________________ Date: ______________________________

Dr. A. Ogunmokun (Supervisor)

ii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Firstly, I like to thank Lord Almighty for his mercy, guidance, and for giving me the

consistent drive to persist in making this project possible. I thank my family for the support to

carry out the project and the provision of funds where it was needed the most. I would like to

express my appreciation to my friends for motivating me to go ahead with this project even at

times when it seemed impossible to complete till the end because the innovation also served

as an inspiration to them.

I express my sincere gratitude to my supervisor, Dr. A. Ogunmokun for guiding me by

providing the necessary information and literature and emphasizing on the critical aspects of

the design that were looked at. I thank Mr. Ndapuka of the electrical department for the

guidance on the sizing of the electrical components of the PV system. I thank Mr. Shikomba

for the much needed access to the machining laboratory at UNAM JEDS Campus and making

provisions of tools and machines where necessary. I would like to thank the University of

Namibia for the opportunity to apply my knowledge I acquired throughout my 4-year course

in this project wherever I was required to do so. Finally, if there are any people I have left out

who was a part of my success along the way in completing this project, I thank them too.

iii
SUMMARY

There is a need of a water purification design that enhances the technology used in water

treatment in many parts of Namibia especially in the rural and remote areas. This design can

contribute greatly to the health standards of the people who are occupants of these areas with

no electricity supply making most water purification systems unsuitable for these areas. A

proposed design is a UV-C Solar Water Purification System. It is designed for the elimination

of bacterial contaminants and pathogens from contaminated water using UV technology.

This report is articulated to demonstrate the capability of off the grid water treatment by

harnessing of Namibia’s abundant solar energy to make this system fully operate

independently from a mains supply. It shows the design alternatives that were considered and

selected and the calculation of retention time and the common length of beams to keep the

system stable.

A prototype was fabricated with improvised materials and a final CAD drawing was

delivered. Despite an incomplete fabrication of the system, tests were able to be carried out to

observe the performance of the physical components successfully put. Faults that were

indicated were fixed to the best of the students’ knowledge.

iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS

DECLARATION...................................................................................................................... ii

ACKNOWLEDEMENTS.......................................................................................................iii

SUMMARY ............................................................................................................................. iv

LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES...................................................................................... vi

ABBREVIATIONS ................................................................................................................ vii

1. INTRODUCTION.............................................................................................................. 1

2. PROBLEM STATEMENT ............................................................................................... 2

3. OBJECTIVES .................................................................................................................... 3

4. REQUIREMENTS ............................................................................................................. 3

4.1 Functional Requirement ....................................................................................................... 3

4.2 Non-Functional Requirement............................................................................................... 3

5. LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................................. 4

5.1 Review of similar projects ................................................................................................... 4

5.1 Critical aspects ..................................................................................................................... 4

6. DESIGN APPROACH....................................................................................................... 6

6.1 Design concepts ................................................................................................................... 6

6.2 Alternatives in pre-filter selection ....................................................................................... 8

6.3 Constraints ......................................................................................................................... 11

6.4 Contents of knowledge to apply ........................................................................................ 11

6.5 Procedure ........................................................................................................................... 12

v
6.6 Tests and Results................................................................................................................ 30

6.7 Project Consideration ......................................................................................................... 34

7. DELIVERABLES ............................................................................................................ 35

8. ECONOMIC ASSESSMENT ......................................................................................... 35

9. CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................ 37

10. RECOMMENDATIONS................................................................................................. 38

REFERENCES ....................................................................................................................... 39

APPENDICES ........................................................................................................................ 43

vi
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 6.1: Design concepts with hand pumps(L) and without hand pumps (R)

Figure 6.2: A design concept of the system

Figure 6.3: General concept for a community

Figure 6.4: Sand filtration

Figure 6.5: Sari-cloth filtration

Figure 6.6: Sieve filtration

Figure 6.7: Ceramic Filter

Figure 6.8: Filtration Bucket

Figure 6.9: Graph representation of discharge velocities vs. Water level

Figure 6.10: Graph representation of discharge velocities vs. Time

Figure 6.11: UV Lamp

Figure 6.12: UV Bucket with lamp

Figure 6.13: Graph representation of UV Output vs. Exposure Time Figure 6.14: close-up of

the system concept

Figure 6.15: Front view of part of the system’s framework

Figure 6.16: Constraint beams

Figure 6.17: The part where constraint beams were welded

vii
Figure 6.18: System beam structure

Figure 6.19: System beam structure with mounted platforms

Figure 6.20: System beam structure with mounted platforms

Figure 6.21: Leaks observed

Figure 6.22: bucket 2 disconnected from system

Figure 6.23: Contaminated water

Figure 6.24: Contents of the contaminated water

Figure 6.25: The result of the sari-cloth with 4 passes

Figure 6.26: The result of the sari-cloth with 8 passes

Figure 6.27: Water being withdrawn after particle settlement

LIST OF TABLES

Table 6.1: Data representation of the three velocities at different water levels.

Table 6.2: A computation of the time taken for values of V0 and their correspondents

Table 6.3: Representation of different UV outputs and PL at different time intervals

Table 8.1: Project Budget table

Table 8.2: Project budget to make a completely functionable system

Table 8.3: Lifetime estimates

viii
 ABBREVIATIONS

UNAM: University of Namibia

JEDS: Jose Eduardo Dos Santos Campus
PPR: Polypropylene
Wrt: with respect to

ix
1.0 INTRODUCTION

Water is life. It is therefore essential for water to be safe and readily available for human

consumption in achieving the benefits of human health [1]. Improvement of water supply and

sanitation encourages economic growth and poverty reduction [1].

Despite these facts, many in the world (an estimated 1.8 billion people [1] living mostly in

rural areas as of November 2016) have access to contaminated water which has serious health

hazard and rural area settlers living close to rivers and lakes and other water sources are the

biggest victims in this concern. Organisations such as the World Health Organisation (WHO)

and United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF) are working hand in

hand in areas concerning water and health [1].

In 2012, WHO estimated 6.3% of all deaths caused by limited access to safe drinking water

[2]. Diseases such as intestinal worms, lymphatic filariasis, trachoma, typhoid, diarrhoea and

some waterborne diseases are in relation to these deaths and children are especially

susceptible to unsafe water and poor sanitation [2]. In a country like Namibia, “diarrhoea and

other infections like worms, due to lack of safe drinking water and proper sanitation, accounts

for about half of ill-health and under-nutrition in children” as stated by De Sousa [3]. An

estimated 19.6% of people living in the rural areas of Namibia do not have access to potable

(drinkable) water with the rest living on safe water [4]. Most of these people do have access

to water from waterbodies such as rivers, lakes and streams but the water may have

contaminants which open doors to diseases [2]. As far as this is concerned, a method used to

turn dirty water to clean water is needed to contribute on improving these people’s standards

of living. Everyone, including the likes of these people, also have the right to sufficient, safe,

and affordable water for personal and domestic use hence the dissatisfaction with the current

situation and the desire for this problem to be addressed.

1
It is therefore needed to work on a project that would contribute in the overcoming the

challenge of lack of water pre-treatment and purification to make it drinkable for the

objective of Namibia’s vision of 2030 [4] which is to “achieve equitable access to potable

water and freshwater resources by all. [5]” This project will enhance the vision by designing

and building a system which should therefore be easily available and affordable on a small

scale with requirements specified by the client, the Ministry of Agriculture, Water and

Forestry.

The Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Forestry (client) wants an effective system that can

eliminate pathogens in the water to make it drinkable without any chemical additions or

changing water odour [6]. This system should as well be economical.

There are several methods of achieving this. However, some of these methods will not be

able to achieve all of them like those with chemical addition. Henceforth, an Ultra Violet

(UV) system looks to be the ideal type of a water purification system. It includes a UV-C

bulb, with an optimum wavelength of 254nm, that can eliminate 99.9% of micro-organisms

in the water [7] and can operate on solar energy. However, UV light can only work on clear

water to eliminate pathogens.

2.0 PROBLEM STATEMENT

With Namibian remote areas currently facing challenges with having sources of electricity

and considering that they are not connected to the grid, there is need for a solar water

purification system in these remote areas. UV water purification systems have not been

implemented in these rural and remote parts. However, it is preferable to use UV-C systems

over other systems because of its advantages of completing the purification process without

requiring further treatment.

2
3.0 OBJECTIVE

The objective of this project was to design a water purification system for rural and remote

areas in Namibia that will utilise solar energy as a renewable energy source and operate with

UV-C light.

4.0 REQUIREMENTS

By the end of the project, the system output should definitely be drinkable clean water. The

following are the client’s requirements for the system to deliver:

4.1 Functional requirements

The functional requirements of the system were as follows:

 The system shall utilize solar energy via a solar PV system.

 The pre-filter of the system should be able to reduce the contents of solid particle

impurities which are unwanted in the drinking water.

 It should be able to deactivate harmful pathogens using the UV-C light system.

4.2 Non-functional requirements

Even without the following requirements, the system is able to function. However, their

consideration is of significance:

 The system should be physically compact

 The pre-filter of the system should be cleanable

 The system should be easily maintainable

3
5.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

5.1 Review of Similar Projects

Deshmukh [8] constructed a portable UV-solar water purifier which makes use of filtration

and distillation processes. Water goes through three filters namely: pre-filter, sediment filter

and activated carbon filter where solid particles are removed. It includes a UV-bulb which

carries out the process of destroying parasites and micro-organisms. Its battery is solar

charged and can also be charged from the mains supply on days with low sunlight. This

system, however, has many filters that cannot easily be maintainable in Namibian remote

areas. Also, since sunlight is available in most parts of the country all year round, a mains

supply may not be necessary for these areas but a solar PV system is sufficing to charge the

battery in daylight.

Wilson [7] designed and constructed a Solar Water Purification System with Ultraviolet

Radiation. The water is pumped from a settling tank up a pipe system into the UV-tank via a

hand pump and then into a storage tank where water for drinking can be collected. A UV-C

bulb is used to kill pathogens and other organic material in the water. It was concluded that

UV-C light systems is more effective than systems that use UV-A light (from sunlight for

example) in killing pathogens to obtain suitable drinking water. This project, however, has

challenges to the requirements of this proposal. Firstly, Wilson’s prototype had a high initial

cost due to his huge number of material requirements. Secondly, UV treatment always

requires a pre-filter in order to reduce its turbidity hence making the water appear clearer [6].

Therefore, having a settling tank cannot be an optimum way of eliminating solid impurities.

Shull [9] designed a portable low power water purification system used by workers in

underdeveloped world regions. This design consisted of an activated carbon filtration, candle

filtration of 0.2 microns for bacteria and UV-filtration. This system was powered by an

4
electric generator to power up the UV lamp and the pump which boosts the flow of water.

This system may yield an improvement in hygiene for the people in the rural communities

but unfortunately, the carbon filter is never readily available in rural areas and would have to

be sourced elsewhere hence wastage of labour, time and probably cost.

Martin, Oberg and Yoder [10] produced a water filtration and purification system and their

aim was to make it marketable for a SUV or RV. They improved on a previous system that

was incomplete hence not marketed. They improved on the cost, bulkiness and weight of the

system and incorporating a DC battery and a micro controller to control the UV exposure

level. The system could easily be dissembled and packed in a casing. However, when the

system was designed, no safety factor was considered in order for surety of complete

deactivation of pathogens. It also consists of a sediment filter and a carbon filter which are

not easily maintainable in the rural areas but ok for the system because it was designated for

urban standards.

5.2 Critical aspects

The dosage requirement for deactivation of pathogens is 40 𝑚𝑊 · 𝑠/𝑐𝑚2 following class A

specifications of the NSF 55 standard [11]. The system is designed to give a dosage of 80

𝑚𝑊 · 𝑠/𝑐𝑚2 following a safety factor of 2 under the NSF 55 standard [11]. As for the pre-

filter, it has to filter the particles to the required turbidity for UV-filtration which is 5 NTU

[11]. In addition, the initial idea was to design a system that can supply a family of four in a

remote area on a daily basis. The average water consumption in Africa is 5litres per person

[12] which makes the consumption of a family of four 20litres.

5
6.0 DESIGN APPROACH

6.1 Design Concepts

Different design concepts were considered to suit the client’s needs. These concepts were

based on local availability and easy acquisition of materials.

The first concepts considered were to do with hand pumps. One that would function with

hand pumps such as that of Wilson [7] where hand pumps were involved in the design and

the other without hand pumps where the waterflow occurs via gravity. However, despite

having a cost-benefit and being able to compete with the functionality of the mechanical

pump, implementing it in this project would be costly considering purchasing different pipe

fitting to suit the size of the piping. The figures below show the initial idea on how the system

was going to look like with and without hand pumps.

Filtration
tank
Solar Panel

Solar Panel
Filtrate
tank
Waterflow pipeline

Filtration UV
tank tank
UV
P-10 P-11 tank

Waterflow pipeline

Filtrate Hand Pumps Storage

tank tank Storage
tank
E-15

Figure 6.1: Design concepts with hand pumps(L) and without hand pumps (R)

With these alternatives considered, it was then decided that a system without hand pumps is

going to be designed due to lack of local availability and expense. Having a system without

hand pumps will make the system less complicated hence also take advantage of gravity

which is the drive of the water flow.

The figure below shows the way the final concept appears considering compactness and less

complex. The ball valves are meant to restrict flow within the system.
6
 Filter
Tank

Filtrate
Inverter Tank
Ball valve 1 UV
Tank
Ball valve 2

Storage
Battery Tank
Controller

Figure 6.2: A design concept of the system

This system concept was initially designated to sufficiently supply an African family of four

daily with potable water. It was meant to be on four wheels for easy movement. However, the

cost to build this system was higher than expected. People who are financially well to do can

afford this type of system and make use of it when travelling to a place where there is no

surety of the water being clean there. As for the people living in rural areas it does not favour

the economics of scale for the people living in these rural and remote areas and therefore,

they cannot afford to buy this kind of system. The client then suggested that it is therefore

economical to have one system designed in this way for the whole community (say a

community of 30 families with four people per family) to benefit.

An addition to this design is a storage tank for the contaminated water and another one for

potable water already treated. The whole purification system would consist of three pumps.

One to take the contaminated water up to fill a storage tank from its source, another one to

pump potable water to the other storage tank and a third to boost the water up the potable

water tank. The figure below shows a general concept of the way the whole purification

system would look like for a community. The size of the two tanks are determined by how

many people live in the commmunity. Instead of tanks used for the filtration and UV-phase,

three 25 litre buckets were improvised for the prototype. Contaminated water tank would be

7
linked with the pre-filtration phase and the UV-filtration bucket linked to the potable water

tank with pumps in.

Storage tank for

potable water
Filtrate bucket
(Entry for
contaminated
Storage tank for water)
contaminated water

Platform for the

purification section
Figure 6.3: General concept for a community

NB: This project only dealt with the purification section which was necessary to fulfil the

requirements of the client.

6.2 Alternatives in Pre-filter selection

There were three different types of pre-filters considered in designing the system. Pre-

filtration is important to reduce the water’s turbidity [13]:

i) Sand Filtration

Slow sand filters (Figure 6.4), which are popular in developing and developed countries [13]

will be a part of this system. However, sand filtering is not independently a safe method of

water treatment because pathogens are not deactivated [14] hence can work well with UV

treatment.

8
 Figure 6.4: Sand filtration [15]

ii) Sari Cloth Filtration

This is a famous water filtration process which is practiced in countries like Bangladesh and

is currently used for treating contaminated water from lakes and rivers [16]. Studies have

shown that it is also well known for its turbidity reduction and capability of eliminating 99%

of cholera parasites found in the water. Sari Cloths would only require washing to be kept

clean although it is not effective in removing organisms [16] that can be removed using UV-

C filtration.

Figure 6.5: Sari-cloth filtration [17]

9
 iii) Sieve Filtration

This type of water treatment method involves the use of sieves which consist of a porous

medium that remove small flocs or precipitant particles [18]. This filtration methods can as

well be used in some wastewater applications and serves as a primary turbidity reduction

process.

Figure 6.6: Sieve filtration [18]

iv) Ceramic water Filtration

Ceramic water filters are known as a “point of use” treatment system used globally [19].

These filters work by using porous materials allowing water to flow through while restricting

the passage of potentially harmful microbes. 20 Modern filters are made by mixing clay with

sawdust, rice husks, or other flammable organic materials [20]. The pores are large enough to

allow the passage of water but not the microbes that cause water-borne disease. However,

Contaminants are eliminated via physical filtration and chemical disinfection.

10
 Figure 6.7: Ceramic Filter [21]

All these methods of filtration cannot work independently to filter the water to a point where

no further treatment is required. Elimination of three of these options were based on

availability (how easily accessible they are) and maintainability. Sand filtration requires a

special type of sand for its process which is not available in abundance. Sieve filtration is

very effective hence make a very good option but because of its expense on the market, it was

eliminated from being chosen and same goes for ceramic filters which were not found

locally. It was therefore the choice to go with a sari-cloth filter because it was readily

available and also the time constraint to complete the project was another reason for its

selection.

6.3 Constraints

The constraints to consider when selecting the type of system were cost effectiveness,

performance, availability, and maintainability.

6.4 Contents of knowledge to apply

In this project, there are major engineering criteria that were applied from the designing to the

drawing and then to the building of the system. Fluid Mechanics was used to determine the

11
discharge time of the water from the filtration phase. Computer Aided and Engineering

Manufacturing will be applied in drawing the system and the fabrication of the framework

and other Machine Tools applications such as welding, bolt fastening, drilling and material

cutting were considered when fabricating the prototype. From the knowledge of Project

Management, time and cost estimates for the project were formulated. Application of statics

was applied for system stability.

6.5 Procedure

6.5.1 Acquisitions

Quotations were taken from Benz, Build-it and Namibian solar solutions in order for the

prices of certain parts of the system to be taken note. Some items were found in more than

one shop hence the prices were compared. Quotations under the name of UNAM were

submitted to Mr. Shikomba who then processed the orders. All items received are shown in

Table 8.1 in the economic assessment section of this report.

The UV-C Lamp (25W Ultraviolet disinfection lamp) was looked up online [22] and was

ordered. The following are its specifications: Quartz Glass material, 20-30 square meters

suitable space, output power of 20W, Voltage of 220V, 50 Hz, E27 Lamp Holder type and

Size: (L)X(W)25.5X4.3cm (appr.), Average Life (hrs): 8000 hours.

The framework of the prototype was made using the workshop materials at UNAM JEDS

Campus to minimise on costs.

6.5.2 Calculations

This part of the project determines critical aspect parameters that gives an expectation on how

the system is going to function. It is essential to find the retention time [23] in the whole

purification process.

12
 i) For Water Discharge Time from the filtration phase

The figure below shows the filtration tank which is designated for filtered

water.
0.305 m

0.36 m

}
Datum

0.36 m
Figure 6.8: Filtration Bucket

The aim of this section was to determine the discharge time of the water in the filtration

bucket (the time it would take for the water to completely discharge). This is, as part of the

retention time significant. The system was designed in a way that gravity is the force that

takes down the water through the whole purification process. The first step always considered

in such an analysis is to derive everything from the Bernoulli equation (1) [24] between the

bucket and the exit.

𝑃0 𝑉2 𝑃 𝑉2
0
+ 2𝑔 + 𝑍0 = 𝜌𝑔1 + 2𝑔
1
+ 𝑍1 (1)
𝜌𝑔

In Equation 1, 𝑃0 , 𝑉0, 𝑍0 are respectively the pressure, velocity and water level height of the

surface above the datum line. The correspondents on the other side of the equation are that of

the velocity of the water at the exit of the tank. 𝜌 is the density of the water and 𝑔 is

acceleration due to gravity. If 𝑃0 and 𝑃1 are assumed to atmospheric and 𝑍1 = 0 we get

equation 2.

13
 𝑉02 1 𝑉2
+ 𝑍0 = 2𝑔 (2)
2𝑔

The amount of water exiting is equal to the amount of water entering the pipeline. This is

shown by the equilibrium discharge equation.

𝑄0 = 𝑄1

Therefore,

𝐴0 𝑉0 = 𝐴1 𝑉1

The equation then got rearranged:

𝐴
𝑉1 = 𝐴0 𝑉0 (3)
1

where 𝐴0 and 𝐴1 are the surface areas of the water in the tank and at the exit respectively.

The ratio of the two areas was converted to a square diameter ratio as shown:

𝜋𝑑02⁄
𝐴0 4 𝑑2
= 𝜋𝑑12⁄
= 𝑑02
𝐴1 1
4

𝑑2
Let 𝑑02 = 𝑘. Therefore,
1

𝑉1 = 𝑘𝑉0 (4)

Introducing equation (3) in (1),

𝑉02 (𝑘𝑉0 )2
+ 𝑍0 = (5)
2𝑔 2𝑔

Rearranging the equation, the following was gotten

2𝑔𝑍
𝑉02 = (𝑘−1)
0

14
Hence

0 2𝑔𝑍
𝑉0 = √(𝑘−1) (6)

The Bernoulli equation was then used between the bucket exit and the pipe exit as shown

2 𝐿 𝑉2
below. A hydraulic loss due to friction in the pipe (ƒ 𝐷 2𝑔 ) was considered because as water

flows inside the pipeline, the velocity decreases due to a pressure drop and friction.

𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑃2 𝑉22 𝐿 𝑉22

+ + 𝑍1 = + + 𝑍2 + ƒ
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝐷 2𝑔

Where 𝑉2 is the velocity of the flow at the pipe exit ƒ is the friction factor for the PPR pipe

(which is 0.009 [25]) used in the design, D is the pipe diameter, L is the length of the PPR

linkage (assuming the whole length is just piping) shown in figure 6.7. Assuming the pipe not

connected ( 𝑃1 is atmospheric), 𝑃2 atmospheric, 𝑍1 = 𝑍2 = 0, the Bernoulli equation was

modified and rearranged with respect to 𝑉2 .

𝑉12 1
𝑉2 = √ 𝐿 = 𝑉1 (7)
(1+ƒ ) 𝐿
𝐷 √(1+ƒ )
𝐷

Introducing (4) into (7) the following was gotten

𝑘
𝑉2 = 𝑉0 (8)
𝐿
√(1+ƒ )
𝐷

The following shows iterations that where computed in Microsoft Excel using the above

velocity equations with different heights of the water level. The values of the different

parameters shown were used to get to the calculated velocities.

15
Friction factor 0.009
Diameter of pipe (m) 0.015
Diameter of bucket (m) 0.305
Pipe Length (m) 0.36
Gravity Accel. (𝒎/𝒔𝟐 ) 9.81

16
 k 413.44

Table 6.1: Data representation of the three velocities at different

water levels.
𝒁𝟎 (m) 𝑽𝟎 (m/s) 𝑽𝟏 (m/s) 𝑽𝟐 (m/s)
0.00 0.00000 0.00 0.00
0.04 0.00214 0.89 0.80
0.08 0.00303 1.25 1.14
0.12 0.00371 1.53 1.39
0.16 0.00429 1.77 1.61
0.20 0.00479 1.98 1.80
0.24 0.00525 2.17 1.97
0.28 0.00567 2.34 2.13
0.32 0.00606 2.51 2.27
0.36 0.00643 2.66 2.41

A graph was plotted as shown below to see how the three velocities are changing with respect

to the water level as it goes to zero. As observed, the plots of 𝑉1 and 𝑉2, which are the two

velocities at the ends of the pipeline, have the same shape hence their rates of change are very

much comparable whereas 𝑉0 at any time, t is always close to zero. Comparing any two of the

three velocities, it would be found that their decelerations occur at a constant ratio at any

given time, t justified by the equations (4), (7) and (8).

17
 Discharge velocities vs. Water level
velocity in tank (v0) velocity at tank exit (v1) velocity at pipe exit (v2)
3.0

2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35

Figure 6.9: Graph representation of discharge velocities vs. Water level

To find the time of complete discharge, equation (6) had to be differentiated w.r.t. time as

shown below:

𝑑 𝑑 2𝑔𝑍
(𝑉02 ) = 𝑑𝑡 ( 𝑘−10 )
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑉0 2𝑔 𝑑𝑍0
2𝑉0 = 𝑘 2 −1
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑍0
Taking note that = 𝑉0,
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑉0 𝑔
2𝑉0 = 2𝑉0 𝑘 2 −1
𝑑𝑡

The equation was then simplified as shown below and written w.r.t. 𝑉0.

𝑔
𝑉0 = 𝑘 2 −1 ∫ 𝑑𝑡

−𝑔
𝑉0 = 𝑘 2 −1 𝑡 + 𝐶

At t = 0, C = 𝑉0 = 0.00643 𝑚/𝑠 as shown in Table 6.2. Therefore,

18
 −𝑔
𝑉0 = 𝑘 2 −1 𝑡 + 0.00643 (9)

Introducing equation (4) in (9) we get the velocity, 𝑉1 w.r.t. time

−𝑔
𝑉1 = 𝑘(𝑘 2 −1 𝑡 + 0.00643) (10)

Introducing equation (9) in (10) we get the velocity, 𝑉1 w.r.t. time

𝑘 −𝑔
𝑉2 = 𝐿
(𝑘 2 −1 𝑡 + 0.00643) (11)
√(1+ƒ )
𝐷

Equation (9) was used to determine the times at the velocity values shown in table 6.2.

𝑉0 −0.00643
𝑡= (𝑘 2 − 1) (12)
−𝑔

Table 6.3 shows an addition of the time column to Table 6.2. Using equation (12), the times

were computed in Microsoft Excel.

Table 6.2: A computation of the time taken for values

of 𝑉0 and their correspondents

𝒁𝟎 (m) 𝑽𝟎 (m/s) 𝑽𝟏 (m/s) 𝑽𝟐 (m/s) Time (s)

0.00 0.0000 0.00 0.00 112.0
0.04 0.0021 0.89 0.80 74.7
0.08 0.0030 1.25 1.14 59.2
0.12 0.0037 1.53 1.39 47.3
0.16 0.0043 1.77 1.61 37.3
0.20 0.0048 1.98 1.80 28.5
0.24 0.0052 2.17 1.97 20.6
0.28 0.0057 2.34 2.13 13.2
0.32 0.0061 2.51 2.27 6.4
0.36 0.0064 2.66 2.41 0.0

The following graph was plotted to show how the three velocities are changing with time

throughout the duration of 112 seconds.

19
 Discharge velocities vs. Time
v0 vs. time v1 vs. time v2 vs. time
3.0

2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0
0.0 20.0 40.0 60.0 80.0 100.0 120.0

Figure 6.10: Graph representation of discharge velocities vs. Time

There is no assurance of these theoretical calculations to be exactly the way it is going to be

in a real circumstance since conditions such as the pressure inside the pipe was neglected.

ii) For UV exposure time

The calculations for the exposure time was dependant on the furthest distance, r the UV was

emitted in the UV bucket. The required volume of the UV tank technically was supposed to

be 20 litres. However, a UV bucket having a volume of 25 litres (0.25𝑚3 ) was what was

available and actually more than suffice to purify water for an African family of four daily.

The figure below shows the UV Lamp that was ordered from Aliexpress.com with its

dimensions. This type of lamp is what is known as a medium pressure lamp which has an

efficiency of 40% [26].

20
 Figure 6.11: UV Lamp [22]

The figure below shows the lamp inside the bucket. The buckets are slightly tapered but for

calculation purposes, they are assumed uniformly cylindrical. The furthest distance (denoted

by r) is found by Pythagoras Theorem as shown below. This is necessary because the UV

lamp is required to deactivate the furthest particle at the required dosage of 80 𝑚𝑊 · 𝑠/𝑐𝑚2 .

Dimensions of the bucket were taken into consideration.

19 cm

41 cm

25.94 cm 22 cm

13.75 cm
Figure 6.12: UV Bucket with
lamp

The amount of time (in seconds) taken to achieve the required dosage is determined from the

following equation.

𝐷𝑜𝑠𝑒 = 𝐼(𝑟) · 𝑡 [4]

𝑃𝐿
Where the irradiation, 𝐼 (𝑟) = 2𝜋𝑟 𝑒 −𝑎𝑒𝑟 and t = time. Hence (3) can be written as follows

21
 𝑃𝐿
𝐷𝑜𝑠𝑒 = 𝑒 −𝑎𝑒𝑟 · 𝑡 (3)
2𝜋𝑟

Where PL = UV power emission per arc length of the lamp in 𝑚𝑊/𝑐𝑚, r = irradiation radius

and ae = base absorption coefficient of water (0.001/cm). The equation was then rearranged

as follows

2𝜋𝑟 𝐷𝑜𝑠𝑒
𝑃𝐿 = · (4)
𝑒 −𝑎𝑒𝑟 𝑡

The type of UV lamp has an input of 20 W (20 000mW). With an efficiency of 40% [26], the

output of the lamp is actually 8 W. The following shows iterations that where computed in

Microsoft Excel. Equation (4) was used to calculate PL values and the UV output was found

by multiplying the PL values with the arc length of the lamp as shown below.

2𝜋𝑟 𝐷𝑜𝑠𝑒
𝑃𝐿 = · · 𝐿 (5)
𝑒 −𝑎𝑒𝑟 𝑡

The power output at the time that should be used in one treatment process time must have the

highest value that is below 8W in order for the system to deliver a dosage close to 80

𝑚𝑊 · 𝑠/𝑐𝑚2 which is the first highlighted row in the table below. After the iterations were

computed, a computation in the second highlighted row was done to iterate precisely the

minimum amount of time required for achieving a dosage of above 80 𝑚𝑊 · 𝑠/𝑐𝑚2 .

Computed iterations of PL vs time and UV output vs time

r (cm) = 25.94
ae(1/cm) = 0.01
𝟐
Dose (𝒎𝑾 · 𝒔/𝒄𝒎 ) = 80.00
Length of UV Lamp (cm) = 19.00

Time (s) PL (mW/cm) UV Output (mW) UV Output (W)

15 1126.69 21407.12 21.41

22
 Table 6.3: Representation of different UV outputs and PL at
different time intervals

30 563.35 10703.56 10.70

45 375.56 7135.71 7.14
60 281.67 5351.78 5.35
75 225.34 4281.42 4.28
90 187.78 3567.85 3.57
105 160.96 3058.16 3.06
120 140.84 2675.89 2.68
135 125.19 2378.57 2.38
150 112.67 2140.71 2.14
165 102.43 1946.10 1.95
180 93.89 1783.93 1.78

41 412.20 7831.87 7.83

UV output = 8W = 8000 mW
Minimum time = 41s

Therefore, the actual dosage that is going to be supplied to the water was found using

equation (3):

8 000/19 −0.01𝑥25.94
𝐷𝑜𝑠𝑒 = 𝑒 · 41 = 81.72 𝑚𝑊 · 𝑠/𝑐𝑚2
2𝜋(19)

The data from the iterations above were plotted as shown on the graph below. For lamps with

a smaller power output, the duration of water UV treatment in which the dosage above is

supplied is longer.

23
 UV Output vs. Exposure Time
UV Output (W)

16.00

14.00

12.00

10.00 Point of supplying the right

dosage with the UV lamp
8.00

6.00

4.00

2.00

0.00
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200

Time (s)

The UV exposure time and Discharge time added together gives the system retention time at

which the water is purified. In the filtration phase, the water would take about 112 seconds to

completely discharge while in the UV phase, it would take 41 seconds to deactivate 99.9% of

all the water pathogens. The aggregate value therefore gives the retention time of 153

seconds (2minutes and 33 seconds).

iii) For stability of the system

The length of the linkage between

Figure 6.13: the filtration
Graph bucket (bucket
representation 2) and
of UV Output vs.the UV bucket (bucket
Exposure Time
3) was supposed to be then as short as possible in achieving a shorter retention time and the

requirement of compactness of the client. This linkage consists of plumbing components such

as couplers, bushings, stop tap and an elbow which are all made from PPR material. The

figure below shows a close-up view of the system concept as well as just part of its

framework.
24
 Constraint beams
Main beams

UV Bucket

Axis P

Figure 6.14: close-up of the system concept

The structure on the right was analysed for acting moments. The figure below shows the

point of possible tipping assuming the bucket has 25litres of water (25kg of water hence

245.45 N of water) as well as the forces acting on the system causing moment about an axis

P.

0.17 m

𝑊𝑐

𝑊𝑏
𝑥/2 P
2𝑊𝐿𝑏
2𝑊ℎ𝑏
5𝑊ℎ𝑏 Point of possible tipping

Figure 6.15: Front view of

part of the system’s framework

The aim of this calculation was to determine the length of the main beams that form up the

general structure of the framework in order to assure no tipping at axis P when the bucket is

full. Other components of significant weight were added later on to form up the complete

25
system which gives the assurance that no tipping would occur. The following assumptions

were made for less complication in the analysis.

 The weight of the UV bucket and of the UV lamp is negligible therefore not part of the

analysis.

 The bucket was assumed full of water with a weight of 245.45 N acting at the distance

shown in figure 6.14.

 The pre-filter platform definitely has a bigger moment value than that of the UV-filter

(due to the longer distance from the tipping axis) hence were both neglected.

With the application of statics, the sum of moments about a point or axis should equate to

zero for system stability (∑ 𝑀𝑃 = 0) [27]. As illustrated in the figure above, 𝑊𝑏 is the weight

of the water acting at the centre of the bucket, 𝑊𝑐 is the weight of the constraint beams, 𝑊𝐿𝑏 is the

force acting on each of the L-shaped cross-sectional beams of the main structure and 𝑊ℎ𝑏 is

the force acting on each of the hollow cross-sectional beams. Distance, x is the length of the

beams to be determined. Equation (1) below defined the mass of the beams in terms of x.

𝑚 = 𝜌𝑉 = 𝜌𝐴𝑥 (1)

Where m=mass, 𝜌=density and A=cross-sectional area. Mass was expressed in equation (2)

as in equation (1) modifying the equation of weight in terms of mass, W=mg [27],

𝑊 = 𝜌𝑔𝐴𝑥 (2)

The vertical beams have an L-shaped cross-sectional area of 0.225x10−3 𝑚2 whereas the

horizontal beams have a square hollow cross-sectional area of 0.116x10−3 𝑚2. Density, 𝜌 of

mild steel is 7850 kg/𝑚3 [28]. Equation (3) shows the equilibrium equation of the moments

∑ 𝑀𝑃 = 0

26
 𝑥
(2𝑊𝐿𝑏 𝑥 + 2𝑊ℎ𝑏 )𝑥 + (5𝑊ℎ𝑏 + 𝑊𝑐 ) 2 − 𝑊𝑏 (0.17) = 0 (3)

From equation (2), the values of the above weights were as follows:

𝑊𝐿𝑏 = 11.956 𝑁, 𝑊ℎ𝑏 = 8.933𝑥 𝑁, 𝑊𝑐 = 245.45 𝑁

The equation was therefore quadratic as follows:

40.199𝑥 2 + 40.231𝑥 − 41.727 = 0

Solving for x, the value gotten was 0.6849 m = 684.9 mm. The length of the beams to counter

the moment of the water was therefore 685 mm.

Because the width of the hollow beams cross-section was 30 mm, the horizontal platforms

formed by these beams have an outside dimension of 715 mm x 715 mm considering the

beams being welded side by side at 90°. With more components added onto the structure,

there is an assurance of stability.

6.5.3 Fabrication of the Mock-up

The fabrication of the mock-up started out with modifying the dimensions of the concept’s

purification section shown in figure 6.3. Some frames were modified in the drawing due to

the availability of them used to make the framework of the prototype. The material used for

the framework was mild steel.

The biggest diameter each bucket has is about 340mm and therefore, the constraint beams as

shown in the figure below have dimension of 350mm x 350mm on the inside with the

shortest clearance of 5mm between the bucket and the constraint framework. Due to this, the

beam dimensions on the outside are 410mm x 410mm considering the beam thickness to be

30 mm.

27
 350 mm

410 mm
410 mm
Figure 6.16: Constraint beams
These beams were welded together and then welded at the top part of the framework shown

below to form the constraining frames of the filtration section. The welded components were

then spray painted black.

Figure 6.17: The part where constraint beams

were welded

The main beams were cut and welded together as shown below in the figure. The structure

was the spray painted blue.

28
 Figure 6.18: System beam structure
The constraining frame of the pre-filter was then mounted onto the frame and the result came

out as shown in the figure below. The constraint beams were put half way the framework to

balance the stress occurring on the welds. platform of the UV bucket was also made just

slightly smaller than the pre-filter platform due to scarceness of metal material.

Figure 6.19: System beam structure

with mounted platforms

Chipboard was then cut to the appropriate dimensions to hold the system components. The

solar panel was then welded on supports on the end opposite to the pre-filtration section. The

29
three buckets were then placed as illustrated in the concept. 2 drainage holes were made in

between bucket 1 and 2 for inflow of water onto the sari-cloth filter.

As for the electric components, sizing was done to suit the capacity of the solar panel with the

help of Mr. Ndapuka. The rated power of the UV lamp is 20 Watts and, of course, a solar

panel of a higher voltage was recommended. A 30% tolerance of power input should be

considered when connecting loads onto the PV system. With that known, the maximum

possible input power of the PV system was 26 Watts given that tolerance. Other components

such as the regulator, battery and inverter were considered to have power losses. It was hence

necessary to use a solar panel of considerable amount of power (40 W) to accommodate these

factors. The specifications of the inverter, battery and regulator are shown in table 8.1.

As the fabrication was all happening, the drawing was also modified and finalised. The figure

below shows the finalised drawing and the resulting prototype.

Figure 6.20: Final concept of the design and result

30
 6.6 Tests and results

The testing of the system was carried out after its fabrication. The system’s plumbing work

was designed and tested for any faults or leakages. In its current status, the system’s pre-

filtration phase was, as well, eligible for testing.

i) Pipe work and tap Tests

Before carrying out this test, it was ensured that the stop tap and check tap were closed to

avoid any spills on the structure. Water was poured inside bucket 1 and was drained into the

bucket 2 and leaks were observed from the pipe work as shown below.

Insufficient seal

Spills observed
indicating the
presence of leaks
in the plumbing
Pipe was too loose

Figure 6.21: Leaks observed

A leak was observed on the coupler which links bucket 2 and the line leading to the UV

bucket. This was due to insufficient tape sealing of its threads. Another leakage was observed

31
on the check tap linkage on the connection of the pipe to the bushings. This was due to a

loose connection of the pipes on the bushings. The filtration section had to be removed as

shown below and the pipe work was then addressed.

Figure 6.22: bucket 2

disconnected from system

The quantity of tape seal was limited but the effort was made to ensure minimal leakage from

the 2 couplers fastened to the bucket. The pipes were then disconnected from the system and

reconnected tightly.

With that done, the filtration phase was reconnected and tested the second time. It was then

observed that there were no more leakages from the pipe whilst there was minimized leaking

of water from the coupler on the check tap linkage with the other coupler. This was then the

moment to test the taps for any faults and it was observed that the taps were functioning well.

ii) Pre-Filter Test

The sari-cloth filter was tested for its effectiveness. This test was carried out to determine

how many layers of the sari material required for reducing the cloudiness of the water for

there was no instrument to measure turbidity. Sari-cloths averagely perform well on 2 passes

[16]. For the sake of surety, 4 passes of sari were initially put and gripped inside bucket 2

32
with the bucket 2 lid. The figures below show a 2litre beaker containing contaminated water,

made in the machining laboratory, that flowed through these passes and what was contained

in the water which were wood shavings, mild steel shavings and dirt from the workshop

floor. 10litres of this water was tested.

Figure 6.23: Contaminated Figure 6.24: Contents of the

water contaminated water

With both taps closed, the contaminated water was then poured into the filtration column 5

times with its contaminants. The filtration took place and this was the result of the 4 passes of

sari-cloth:

33
 Figure 6.25: The result of the
sari-cloth with 4 passes

This result was not satisfactory because the water was still cloudy and hence, on the second

trial, the number of layers of sari-cloth was doubled to 8 passes and the test was repeated.

The end result after 8 passes is shown below:

Figure 6.26: The result of the

sari-cloth with 8 passes

Although the turbidity may still have appeared to have been above 5 NTU, the resulted water

after 8 passes of sari-cloth was more satisfactory than the result obtained from the first test.

34
However, for particles that were able to flow with the water through the passes, it was

observed after some time that they had settled at the bottom of the bucket hence making the

water less cloudy. The following image shows the water withdrawn from the check tap after

the particles settled.

Figure 6.27: Water being withdrawn

after particle settlement

6.7 Project considerations

In rural areas, women and children might have to go long distances to fetch clean water. A

system like this saves them from walking long distances to get clean water since it can purify

the water near them. There are certain factors considered that may be relevant to this project.

Environmentally, since the UV-C system planned will not be dependent on any type of fuel,

there will be no greenhouse gases emissions. Sustainably, the system concept is open to

future improvements for researchers. If this design is successful, it can serve as an economic

benefit in terms of not spending a lot of money on other systems that are more expensive.

Also, its fabrication can incorporate different design concepts such as different materials that

can be used, different structural appearances and so forth. It can as well yield a huge health

benefit if the ministry advances its exposure and thus far, meet the living standards of World

Health Organisation (WHO) such as the importance of safe drinking water to public health

[29].

35
7.0 DELIVERABLES

The following were the deliverables for the project

1. Prototype

2. A CAD Drawing (Using Autodesk Inventor) of the prototype.

3. Project Report

8.0 ECONOMIC ASSESSMENT

8.1 Project Budget

Table 8.1: Project Budget table

ITEM SUPPLIERS QUAN UNIT PRICE(N$)
TITY PRICE(N$)
Battery (12V, 7Ah, 60A) Campus Mechanical Workshop 1 0.00 0.00
Framework material (metal) Campus Mechanical Workshop - 0.00 0.00
Regulator (12/24V-10A) Namibian Solar Solutions 1 865.00 865.00
Inverter (12/375W) Namibian Solar Solutions 1 2400.00 2400.00
UV-lamp (Smuxi-20W-E27- Aliexpress (Online) 1 755.83 755.83
UVC-Germicidal-Lamp)
Solar Panel Chinese Shop 1 500 500
Plastic Bucket Benz 3 75.22 225.66
Garden Tap (22mm) Benz 2 36.52 76.04
Elbow Male (22mm x 3/4”) Benz 1 20.87 20.87
Stop Tap FxF 22mm Benz 1 36.52 36.52
Male coupler STR (22mm x 3/4”) Benz 4 12.61 50.44
Female coupler STR (22mm x Benz 1 13.91 13.91
3/4”)
Bush Red Plass (25x20mm) Benz 4 4.35 17.40
Bush Red Plass (32x25mm) Benz 3 7.39 22.17
Bush Red Plass (40x32mm) Benz 3 11.30 33.90
Castors Swivels (60x75mm) Benz 1 63.04 63.04
Pipe (22mm x 6m) Benz 1 63.48 63.48
Tape Thread Seal Benz 1 3.04 3.04
Steel Angle Iron 25x5mmx6m Build it 1 153.95 153.95
Tape PTFE Each loose Build it 1 4.30 4.30
Chipboard Build it 1 399.95 399.95
2750x1830x15.5mm(45kg)
Cutting fee per cut steel Build it 1 4.35 4.35
Cutting fee per board Build it 1 35.00 35.00
Sari-Cloth Donated 1 0.00 0.00

TOTAL N$ 5744.85

Current cost of Prototype: N$ 5744.85

36
 Table 8.2: Project budget to make a completely functionable system

ADDITIONAL ITEMS SUPPLIERS QUANTITY UNIT PRICE(N$)

PRICE(N$)
PV Connecting wire Namibian 1 25.00 25.00
Solar
Solutions
Chipboard part cutting - 3 35.00 105.00
Maintenance costs 0.00 0.00
CURRENT TOTAL N$ 5744.85
TOTAL COST N$ 5874.85

Supposing in the community, there are 30 families of four on average. The lifetime of the

bulb is 8000 hours. Therefore, the number of years the UV-Lamp would last assuming it is

used per family once per day is evaluated by the equation below:

𝐿𝑖𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
Durability = 𝐻𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠 𝑓𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑑𝑎𝑦𝑠
𝑥 𝑥
𝑓𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑑𝑎𝑦 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟

8000
Durability = 41 = 64.15 years
𝑥 30 𝑥 365
3600

Taking the assumption above, the amount of kWh used by the lamp annually is given by the

equation:

Power Exposure No. of Hours

AKWH =
output + Time + Families
+ per year
(hours)

41
AKWH = 0.02 𝑥 𝑥 30 𝑥 365 = 2.49 kWh/year
3600

The following is a table showing an estimate of how long each item would last. The solar PV

system can last up to 25 years but other components may fail earlier than that time.

Table 8.3: Lifetime estimates

PART YEARS

37
 Solar Panel 25
Regulator 25
Inverter 25
Battery 25
Wood 5-7
UV Lamp 64
Buckets 15 +
PPR components 30
Framework Welding 40
Sari-cloth 2

9.0 CONCLUSION

The project was carried out based on the requirements of the Ministry of Agriculture, Water

and Forestry who were the clients. A number of design concepts were looked at and the final

concept was selected based on reduction of costs and requirements of the client. Materials

used to build the system were selected based on their availability and cost reduction.

Calculations were made to determine the time for the system and its physical stability. The

test for linkage leaks were carried out and leaks were observed and dealt with as well as the

sari-cloth effectiveness was also done and the conclusion was to use 8 passes of the cloth.

However, this project was faced with many challenges. Among others, materials took some

time to arrive at the campus but while that was still in the process, the drawing was being

done. Another challenge was that the UV lamp unfortunately did not arrive within the

timeframe needed to complete this project. While its arrival was still awaited, activities of the

project continued either way. A turbidity meter was unavailable hence unable to test exactly

the turbidity of the water.

This current system is not affordable to a rural family of four people due to their economics

of scale. People who are well to do can actually afford this system and can use it for outdoor

use where they want to be sure of the water they want to drink.

38
The prototype, if complete, would purify water in 153 seconds of purification time with a UV

lamp that has an input of 20 W. The PV system operates on 26 W

10.0 RECOMMENDATIONS

The following are future recommendations to the system:

 In a large community, a storage tank for both contaminated and potable water is

recommended for it with the current prototype being on the platform once able to

function.

 An instrument should be available for it is essential in measuring the level of turbidity

when water passes though the pre-filter.

 The type of wood used on the project may not be the best option for the platforms of

the buckets due to the fact that spills of water can reduce its lifespan. It is therefore

recommended to research on the type of material that can be used for these platforms.

Another simple recommendation is to add some type of water proof material to

protect the wood from damage by water spills.

 A switch is needed in the electric circuit to switch the lamp on for 41 seconds and the

switched of to achieve 99.9% of pathogen deactivation in the water. A micro

controller can also be incorporated to automate the UV purification process.

 It is a huge must to prevent the inverter and regulator from damage or shorting. To

prevent this, a cover on the structure on top and at the side can be essential. In order to

minimize on cost, the chipboard to cover these parts could not be sourced.

39
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APPENDICES

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