4-1 Power Stages in an Induction Motor:

 Stator iron loss (consisting of eddy and hysteresis losses) depends on the
supply frequency and the flux density in the iron core. It is practically
constant.
 The iron loss of the rotor is, however, negligible because frequency of rotor
currents under normal running conditions is always small.
 Total rotor Cu loss = 3 I22 R2.

 An induction motor develops gross torque Tg due to gross rotor output Pm, Its
value can be expressed either in terms of rotor input P2 or rotor gross output
Pm as given below.

,or

The shaft torque Tsh is due to output power Pout which is less than Pm because of
rotor friction and windage losses.

The difference between Tg and Tsh equals the torque lost due to friction and
windage loss in the motor.
In the above expressions, N and Ns are in r.p.s. However, if they are in r.p.m.,
the above expressions for motor torque become

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4-2 Torque, Mechanical Power, and Rotor output:
 Stator input P1 = stator output + stator losses. The stator output is transferred
entirely inductively to the rotor circuit.
 Obviously, rotor input P2 = stator output
 Rotor gross output, Pm = rotor input P2 — rotor Cu losses
 This rotor output is converted into mechanical energy and gives rise to gross
torque Tg.
 gross torque developed, some is lost due to windage and friction losses in the
rotor and the rest appears as the useful or shaft torque Tsh.
Let N r.p.s. be the actual speed of the rotor and if Tg is in N-m, then

 If there were no Cu losses in the rotor, then rotor output will equal rotor input
and the rotor will run at synchronous speed.

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Note:
If some power P2 is delivered to a rotor, then a part sP2 is lost in the rotor itself
as copper loss (and appears as heat) and the remaining (1 − s)P2 appears as gross
mechanical power Pm (including friction and windage losses), hence it is
advantageous to run the motor with as small a slip as possible.
4-3 Relation Between Torque and Rotor Power Factor:
In an induction motor, the torque is proportional to the product of flux per stator
pole, the rotor current, and the power factor of the rotor.

The effect of rotor power factor on rotor torque is illustrated in Fig. 3.13 and
Fig.3.14, it is clear that as ф2 increases (and hence, cos ф2 decreases) the torque
decreases and vice versa.

i. Rotor Assumed Non-inductive (or ф2 = 0):

In this case, the rotor current I2 is in phase with the e.m.f. E2 induced in the rotor
(Fig. 3.13). The instantaneous value of the torque acting on each rotor conductor is

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given by the product of instantaneous value of the flux and the rotor current. It is seen
that the torque is always positive i.e. unidirectional.

ii. Rotor Assumed Inductive:

This case is shown in Fig. 3.14 Here, I2 lags behind E2 by an angle
ф2=tan−1X2/R2 where R2 = rotor resistance/phase; X2 = rotor reactance/phase at
standstill. for a portion ‘ab’ of the pole pitch, the torque is negative. Hence, the total
torque is considerably reduced.
If ф2 = 90°, then the total torque is zero because in that case the backward and
the forward torques become equal and opposite.

Figure 3.14: relation of torque and rotor power factor in induction motor

4-3 Starting Torque:

In some cases, it is greater than the normal running torque, whereas in some
other cases it is somewhat less.

Note:

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 1. In the squirrel-cage motor, the resistance small compared to reactance,
because high frequency at stand still case (f ' = Sf , S = 1). So starting current
I2 is very large in magnitude (about 5 to 7 times of full load), and lags by a
very large angle behind E2, so , the starting torque per ampere is very poor.
2. In slip-ring motor, the starting torque improved by improving PF by adding
external resistance in the rotor. So we get a starting current lesser than
squirrel-cage state, with higher starting torque. But after run the motor these
external resistance will reduce the current and reduce the torque so should
removed from rotor circuit.
4-5 Condition of Maximum Starting Torque:
It can be proved that starting torque is maximum when rotor resistance equals rotor
reactance.

Note:
From the equation of starting torque

E2 ∝ supply voltage V, then Tst ∝ V2.

Clearly, the torque is very sensitive to any changes in the supply voltage. A
change of 5% in supply voltage, for example, will produce a change of approximately
10% in the rotor torque.

Example. A 3-6 induction motor having a star-connected rotor has an induced e.m.f.
of 80 volts between slip-rings at standstill on open-circuit. The rotor has a resistance
and reactance per phase of 1 Ω and 4 Ω respectively. Calculate current/phase and
power factor when (a) slip-rings are short-circuited (b) slip-rings are connected to a
star-connected rheostat of 3 Ω per phase.

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4-6 Torque Under Running Condition:

where k1 is another constant. Its value can be proved to be equal to 3/2 πNs. Hence, in
that case, expression for torque becomes.

Example 34.10. The star connected rotor of an induction motor has a standstill
impedance of (0.4 + j4) ohm per phase and the rheostat impedance per phase is (6 +
J2) ohm. The motor has an induced emf of 80 V between slip-rings at standstill when
connected to its normal supply voltage. Find
i. rotor current at standstill with the rheostat is in the circuit.
ii. when the slip-rings are short-circuited and motor is running with a slip of 3%.

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4-7 Condition for Maximum Torque Under Running Condition:

by differentiating the above expression with respect to slip s and then putting it equal
to zero. However, it is simpler to put Y =1/T and then differentiate it.

Hence, torque under running condition is maximum at that value of the slip s
which makes rotor reactance per phase equal to rotor resistance per phase. This slip is
sometimes written as sb and the maximum torque as Tb.
Slip corresponding to maximum torque is s = R2/X2
Putting R2 = sX2 in the above equation for the torque, we get

Substituting value of s = R2/X2 in the other equation given in above, we get

The rotor torque at any slip s can be expressed in terms of the maximum (or
breakdown) torque Tb by the following equation

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Note:
From the above, it is found
1) The speed or slip at which maximum torque occurs is determined by the rotor
resistance [R2=sX2]. Hence, by varying rotor resistance (possible only with
slip-ring motors) maximum torque can be made to occur at any desired slip
(or motor speed).
2) Maximum torque varies inversely as standstill reactance. Hence, it should be
kept as small as possible.
3) Maximum torque varies directly as the square of the applied voltage.
4) For obtaining maximum torque at starting (s =1), rotor resistance must be
equal to rotor reactance.
Example 34.11. A 3-phase, slip-ring, induction motor with star-connected rotor has
an induced e.m.f. of 120 volts between slip-rings at standstill with normal voltage
applied to the stator. The rotor winding has a resistance per phase of 0.3 ohm and
standstill leakage reactance per phase of 1.5 ohm. Calculate (i) rotor current/phase
when running short-circuited with 4 percent slip and (ii) the slip and rotor current per
phase when the rotor is developing maximum torque.

4-8 Starting of poly phase induction motor:

The method depends upon the size of the motor and the type of the motor. The
common methods are:
• Direct-on-line starting
• Stator resistance starting
• Autotransformer starting
• Star-delta starting
• Rotor resistance starting

The last method is abdicable for wound rotor only.

4-8-1 Direct-on-line starting:

• the motor is started by connecting it directly to 3-phase supply.
• this method of starting is suitable for relatively small (up to 7.5 kW) machines.

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4-8-2 Stator resistance starting:
• An external resistances are connected in series with each phase of stator
winding during starting.
• Voltage will drop across the resistances.
• Voltage across motor terminals is reduced and hence the starting current.
• The starting resistances are gradually cut out in steps (two or more steps) from
the stator circuit.
• When the motor attains rated speed, the resistances are completely cut out and
full line voltage is applied to the rotor.
• The drawbacks are “reduced voltage applied to the motor will lowers the
starting torque”, and “a lot of power is wasted in the starting resistances”.

4-8-3 Autotransformer starting:

• At starting, the change-over switch is thrown to “start” position.
• This puts the autotransformer in the circuit and thus reduced voltage is applied
to the circuit.

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 • Consequently, starting current is limited to safe value.
• When the motor attains about 80% of normal speed, the changeover switch is
thrown to “run” position.
• Advantages: low power loss, low starting current, less radiated heat.

4-8-4 Star-delta starting:

• The six leads of the stator windings are connected to the changeover switch.
• At starting, the changeover switch is thrown to “Start” position which
connects the stator windings in star. Therefore, each stator phase gets V/√3
volts where V is the line voltage. This reduces the starting current.

• When the motor picks up speed, the changeover switch is thrown to “Run”
position which connects the stator windings in delta. Now each stator phase
gets full line voltage V.

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Disadvantages :

(a) With star-connection during starting, stator phase voltage is 1/√3 times the
line voltage. So, starting torque is 1/3 times the value it would have with Δ-
connection. This is rather a large reduction in starting torque.
(b) The reduction in voltage is fixed.

4-8-5 Rotor Resistance Starting:

• At starting, the handle of rheostat is set in the OFF position so that maximum
resistance is placed in each phase of the rotor circuit. This
reduces the starting current and at the same time starting torque is increased.
• As the motor picks up speed, the handle of rheostat is gradually moved in
clockwise direction and cuts out the external resistance in each phase of the
rotor circuit.
• When the motor attains normal speed, the change-over switch is in the ON
position and the whole external resistance is cut out from the rotor circuit.

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4-9 Relation between torque and slip:
A family of torque/slip curves is shown in Fig. 3.20 for a range of s = 0 to s = 1
with R2 as the parameter.

 When s = 0, T = 0, hence the curve starts from point O.

 At normal speeds, close to synchronism, the term (s X2) is small and hence
negligible w.r.t. R2.

 For low values of slip, the torque/slip curve is approximately a straight line.
 As slip increases (for increasing load on the motor), the torque also increases
and becomes maximum when s = R2/X2. This torque is known as ‘pull-out’ or
‘breakdown’ torque Tb or stalling torque.

Figure 3.20

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  As the slip further increases (i.e. motor speed falls) with further increase in
motor load, then R2 becomes negligible as compared to (sX2.). Therefore, for
large values of slip.

 we see that beyond the point of maximum torque, any further increase in
motor load results in decrease of torque developed by the motor. The result is
that the motor slows down and eventually stops.
 the stable operation of the motor lies between the values of s = 0 and that
corresponding to maximum torque. The operating range is shown shaded in
Fig. 3.20.
4-10 Torque/ Speed Curve:
 T represents the nominal full-load torque of the motor.
 The starting torque (at N = 0) is 1.5 T and the maximum torque (also called
breakdown torque) is 2.5 T.
 At full-load, the motor runs at a speed of N.
 If the load torque exceeds 2.5 T, the motor will suddenly stop.

Figure 3.21

4-11 Shape of Torque/ Speed Curve:

For a squirrel-cage induction motor (SCIM) shape of its torque/speed curve
depends on the voltage and frequency applied to its stator. See figure 3.22.
 The supply voltage and frequency are varied in the same proportion in order
to maintain a constant flux in the air-gap.
 Under the above condition, shape of the torque/speed curve remains the same
but its position along the X-axis (i.e.speed axis) shifts with frequency.
 When reduce both the voltage and fequency to one-fourth their original values
i.e. to 110 V and 15 Hz respectively. As seen in Fig. 3.22 (b), the torque/speed
curve shifts to the left. Now, the curve crosses the X-axis at the synchronous
speed of 120 × 15/4 = 450 rpm.
 if the voltage and frequency are increased by 50% (660 V 90 Hz), the curve
shifts to the right and cuts the X-axis at the synchronous speed of 2700 rpm.

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 Figure 3.22: 11.kW, 440-V, 60-Hz 3-ph SCIM, full load speed is 1728 rpm and Tf =
45 N-m (point-A), Tb = 150 N-m and Tst = 75 N–m.
Exampel 34.26. A 440-V, 50-Hz, 4-pole, 3-phase SCIM develops a torque of 100 N-
m at a speed of 1200 rpm. If the stator supply frequency is reduced by half, calculate
(a) the stator supply voltage required for maintaining the same flux in the machine.
(b) the new speed at a torque of 100 N-m.

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