Introduction

Southwest monsoon is the main rain producing system for South Asia and a major contributor to the
total rainfall of the region. It is an important meteorological phenomenon of much economic value.
Onset date of monsoon rainfall is very important for agricultural point of view as an abnormal onset can
adversely affect the crop growth and yield. Withdrawal determines the stock to meet the water
requirements of transition period before the start of winter rains. The summer Monsoon in
subcontinent is defined by the reversal of winds up to 180° but a remarkable increase in the rainfall
amount is an essential feature of the onset of the monsoon (Wang and Ding, 2008). Human life and
economy in Pakistan considerably depends upon the monsoon activities. To address the water resource
challenges, the need is to develop a basis of scientific understanding of different contrast of the
climatology of heavy rainfall events over Pakistan (Ahmad et al., 2010).The summer monsoon enters
Pakistan in two different ways; first the south westerly winds from Bay of Bengal strikes the Himalayas,
deflected and travelling along the foothill of Himalayas and enters Pakistan. The stations receiving first
monsoon rainfall from these currents are Sialkot, Jhelum, Islamabad and Lahore; make the northeastern
belt of summer monsoon. Second is the southwest winds from Arabian Sea enters south Pakistan. Badin
and Chhor are the first stations to get rainfall from these currents and can be considered as the
southeastern belt of the Pakistan’s summer monsoon.
Table of Contents

• 1 Indian Monsoons

o 1.1 Factors responsible for south-west monsoon formation

o 1.2 Factors that influence the onset of south-west monsoons

o 1.3 Factors that influence the intensity of south-west monsoons

o 1.4 Factors responsible for north-east monsoon formation

• 2 Mechanism of Indian Monsoons

• 3 Indian Monsoons – Classical Theory: Sir Edmund Halley’s Theory

• 4 Indian Monsoons – Modern theory: Air Mass Theory

o 4.1 Indian Monsoons – Role of ITCZ [Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone]

Indian Monsoons – Factors responsible for south-west monsoon and north-east monsoon formation.
Mechanism of Indian Monsoons. Indian Monsoons – ITCZ [Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone].

• Indian Monsoons |ITCZ|Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone <– You are Here

• Indian Monsoons Mechanism|Jet Stream Theory

• Indian Monsoons – Easterly Jet|Tibet|Somali Jet

• Indian Monsoons – South West|North East Monsoons

Indian Monsoons

• The term monsoon has been derived from the Arabic word mausin or from the Malayan word
monsin meaning ‘season’.

• Monsoons are seasonal winds (Rhythmic wind movements)(Periodic Winds) which reversetheir
direction with the change of season.

• The monsoon is a double system of seasonal winds – They flow from sea to land during the
summer and from land to sea during winter.

• Some scholars tend to treat the monsoon winds as land and sea breeze on a large scale.

• Monsoons are peculiar to Indian Subcontinent, South East Asia, parts of Central Western Africa
etc..

• They are more pronounced in the Indian Subcontinent compared to any other region.

• Indian Monsoons are Convection cells on a very large scale.

• They are periodic or secondary winds which seasonal reversal in wind direction.

• India receives south-west monsoon winds in summer and north-east monsoon winds in winter.
• South-west monsoons are formed due to intense low pressure system formed over the Tibetan
plateau.

• North-east monsoons are associated with high pressure cells over Tibetan and Siberian plateaus.

• South-west monsoons bring intense rainfall to most of the regions in India and north-east
monsoons bring rainfall to mainly south-eastern coast of India (Southern coast of Seemandhra and the
coast of Tamil Nadu.).

• Countries like India, Indonesia, Bangladesh, Myanmar etc. receive most of the annual rainfall
during south-west monsoon season where as South East China, Japan etc., during north-east rainfall
season.

Factors responsible for south-west monsoon formation

• Intense heating of Tibetan plateau during summer months.

• Permanent high pressure cell in the South Indian Ocean (east to north-east of Madagascar in
summer).

Factors that influence the onset of south-west monsoons

• Above points +

• Subtropical Jet Stream (STJ).

• Tropical Easterly Jet (African Easterly Jet).

• Inter Tropical Convergence Zone.

Factors that influence the intensity of south-west monsoons

• Strengths of Low pressure over Tibet and high pressure over southern Indian Ocean.

• Somali Jet (Findlater Jet).

• Somali Current (Findlater Current).

• Indian Ocean branch of Walker Cell.

• Indian Ocean Dipole.

Factors responsible for north-east monsoon formation

• Formation and strengthening of high pressure cells over Tibetan plateau and Siberian Plateau in
winter.

• Westward migration and subsequent weakening of high pressure cell in the Southern Indian
Ocean.

• Migration of ITCZ to the south of India.

All these will be discussed in detail.

Mechanism of Indian Monsoons

• The origin of monsoons is not fully understood.

• There are several theories that tried to explain the mechanism of monsoons.

Classical Theory

• Monsoons are mentioned in scriptures like the Rig Veda. But these scriptures didn’t make any
mention of the monsoon mechanism.

• The first scientific study of the monsoon winds was done by Arab traders.

• Arab traders used the sea route to carry out trade with India and monsoon patterns were of
prime importance for them.

• In the tenth century, Al Masudi, an Arab explorer, gave an account of the reversal of ocean
currents and the monsoon winds over the north Indian Ocean.

• In seventeenth century, Sir Edmund Halley explained the monsoon as resulting from thermal
contrasts between continents and oceans due to their differential heating.

Modern Theories

• Besides differential heating, the development of monsoon is influenced by the shape of the
continents, orography (mountains), and the conditions of air circulation in the upper troposphere {jet
streams}.

• Therefore, Halley’s theory has lost much of its significance and modern theories based on air
masses and jet stream are becoming more relevant.

Indian Monsoons – Classical Theory: Sir Edmund Halley’s Theory

Summer Monsoon

• In summer the sun’s apparent path is vertically over the Tropic of Cancer resulting in high
temperature and low pressure in Central Asia.

• The pressure is sufficiently high over Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal. Hence winds flowed from
Oceans flow towards landmass in summer.

• This air flow from sea to land bring heavy rainfall to the Indian subcontinent.

Winter Monsoon

• In winter the sun’s apparent path is vertically over the Tropic of Capricorn.

• The north western part of India grows colder than Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal and the flow of
the monsoon is reversed.

• The basic idea behind Classical theory is similar to land and sea breeze formation except that in
the case of monsoons the day and night are replaced by summer and winter.
Drawbacks: The monsoons do not develop equally everywhere on earth and the thermal concept of
Halley fails to explain the intricacies of the monsoons such as the sudden burst of monsoons, delay in on
set of monsoons sometimes, etc..

Indian Monsoons – Modern theory: Air Mass Theory

• According to this theory, the monsoon is simply a modification of the planetary winds of the
tropics.

• The theory is based on the migration of ITCZ based on seasons.

Indian Monsoons – Role of ITCZ [Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone]

• The southeast trade winds in the southern hemisphere and the northeast trade winds in the
northern hemisphere meet each other near the equator.

• The meeting place of these winds is known as the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ).

• This is the region of ascending air, maximum clouds and heavy rainfall.

• The location of ITCZ shifts north and south of equator with the change of season.

• In the summer season, the sun shines vertically over the Tropic of Cancer and the ITCZ shifts
northwards.
• The southeast trade winds of the southern hemisphere cross the equator and start blowing in
southwest to northeast direction under the influence of Coriolis force.

• These displaced trade winds are called south-west monsoons when they blow over the Indian
sub-continent.

• The front where the south-west monsoons meet the north-east trade winds is known as the
Monsoon Front (ITCZ). Rainfall occurs along this front.

• In the month of July the ITCZ shifts to 20°- 25° N latitude and is located in the Indo-Gangetic
Plain and the south-west monsoons blow from the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal. The ITCZ in this
position is often called the Monsoon Trough [maximum rainfall].

• The seasonal shift of the ITCZ has given the concept of Northern Inter-Tropical Convergence
Zone (NITCZ) in summer (July – rainy season) and Southern Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (SITCZ) in
winter (Jan – dry season).

• NITCZ is the zone of clouds and heavy rainfall that effect India.
MONSOON • • • • MONSOON –SEASON SEASONAL WINDS-WINDS THAT BLOW FROM A PARTICULAR
AREA TOWARDS A PARTICULAR REGION IN A PARTICULAR DIRECTION SOUTHWEST MONSOON – SEA
LAND NORTHEAST MONSOON _ LAND SEA

3. INDIAN MONSOON • INDIA IS LOCATED IN THE TRADE WIND BELT • IT IS A DRY CONTINENTAL WIND
BELT • BUT FOR THE PHENOMENON OF MONSOON INDIA WOULD HAVE BEEN A SEMI DESERT

4. SOUTHWEST MONSOON • • • • • DURING THE MONTH OF JUNE SUN IS ON THE TROPIC OF CANCER
AND THE TEMPERATURE IS HIGH IN THE NORTHERN PART OF INDIA DUE TO VERY HIGH TEMPERATURE
AIR PRESSURE IS VERY LOW THIS LOWPRESSURE ZONE ATTRACTS THE WIND FROM THE SURROUNDING
INDIAN OCEAN SOUTH TRADE WINDS CROSS THE EQUATOR AND BLOW FROM SOUTHWEST DIRECTION
AND SO THEY ARE CALLED SOUTHWEST MONSOON WINDS. AS THEY MOVE FROM A VAST OCEAN PART
THEIR RELATIVE HUMIDITY IS 90% AND GIVE RAINFALL TO INDIA

5. MECHANISM OF MONSOON • DIFFERENTIAL HEATING AND COOLING OF LAND AND WATER • SHIFT
IN THE POSITION OF ITCZ • HIGH PRESSURE OVER MADAGASCAR • INTENSIVE HEATING OF TIBETIAN
PLATEAU • JET STREAMS

6. DIFFERENTIAL HEATING AND COOLING OF LAND AND WATER • LAND ABSORBS THE HEAT VERY FAST
AND RELEASES THE HEAT VERY FAST • WATER ABSORBS THE HEAT VERY SLOW AND RELEASES THE HEAT
VERY SLOW • SEA BREEZE AND LAND BREEZE

7. POSITION OF ITCZ • IN THE MONTH OF JUNE ITCZ IS LOCATED IN THE TROPIC OF CANCER REGION •
INTENSIVE HEAT LEADES TO THE FORMATION OF INTENSIVE LOW PRESSURE ZONE • LOW PRESSURE
TROUGH IS KNOWN AS MONSOON TROUGH

8. INTENSIVE HEATING OF TIBETIAN PLATEAU • AS A VAST LAND MASS,TIBETIAN PLATEAU GETS

INTENSELY HEATED DURING SUMMER • IT RESULTS IN STRONG VERTICAL AIR CURRENTS • FORMATION
OF LOWPRESSURE OVER THE PLATAU

9. HIGH PRESSURE OVER MADAGASCAR • • THE PRESENCE OF THE HIGH PRESSURE AREA ,EAST OF
MADAGASCAR . THE INTENSITY AND POSITION OF THIS HIGH PRESSURE AREA AFFECTS THE INDIAN
MONSOON

10. JET STREAMS • • • FAST MOVING WINDS IN A NARROW ZONE IN THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE
WESTERLY JETSTREAM HELPS IN ARRIVAL OF MONSOON-CAUSE AND EFFECT RELATION BETWEEN
WITHDRAWAL OF WESTERLY JET STREAM AND SHIFT OF ITCZ EASTERLY JETSTREAM –HELPS IN SUDDEN
OUTBREAK OF MONSOON

11. SOUTHERN OSCILLATION • Southern Oscillation, refers to the seesaw relationship of atmospheric
pressures between Tahiti, south pacific island and Darwin, Australia’ • INDIAN OCEAN PACIFIC OCEAN
SUMMER WINTER

12. ELNINO CURRENT • • • WARM CURRENT ALONG THE PERUVIAN COAST ONCE IN TWO TO FIVE
YEARS REPLACING PERUVIAN COLD CURRENT INCREASES TEMPERATURE OVER EAST PACIFIC COAST AND
WEAKENS TRADE WINDS ELNINO

13. BREAK OF MONSOON • BREAK OF MONSOON-ONSET OF MONSOON • SUDDEN ARRIVAL OF

MONSOON
14. BREAK IN MONSOON • • • 1. 2. BREAK IN MONSOON RAINFALL WET SPELLS ARE FOLLOWED DRY
SPELLS REASONS WHENEVER WINDS BLOW PARALLEL TO THE COAST POSITION OF ITCZ- MOVES
TOWARDS NORTH NO RAIN IN PLAINS MORE RAIN IN HIMALAYAS
Monsoon theories

1. MONSOON THEORIES MINU YACOB CB.EN.P2ET16010

2. MONSOON • Monsoon is a complex meteorological and atmospheric circulation phenomenon. •

Earlier, it was considered to be a simple atmospheric circulation • But over a period of time experts
through researches at various levels try to prove this complex phenomenon more accurately.

3. THEORIES • THERMAL THEORY • DYNAMIC THEORY • JET STREAM THEORY

4. THERMAL THEORY • This classical theory of Indian monsoon proposed and put forth by Admand Hally
in 1686 • Monsoonal winds are land and sea breezes produced by unequal and differential heating of
continental and oceanic areas.

5. NORTH EAST MONSOON • During the northern winter when sun rays fall vertically over tropic of
Capricorn the land mass of Asia cools rapidly than the ocean generating a high pressure area over Asia
while there is low pressure Centre on the Indian ocean. • As a result of this there is an out flow of air
from high pressure to low pressure, consequently the surface winds started to flow from land to sea. •
This wind pattern is commonly known as north-east monsoon • Often dry due to lack of moisture and
hence do not precipitate.

6. SOUTH WEST MONSOON • During the northern summer season sun rays fall vertical on tropic of
Cancer • Due to excess heating of huge land mass of Asia a low pressure area develop over it.
Conversely, high pressure Centre is developed in the Indian Ocean due comparative low thermal
conditions. • As a result of this winds started flowing from high pressure area over ocean to low
pressure area over Indian subcontinent. • This pattern of wind flow is popularly known as southwest
monsoon in India. • Due to on shore nature of southwest monsoon it bears and produces rainfall
wherever it is obstructed by various topographical barriers.

7. DISADVANTAGES • The thermal and classical theory proposed got wide popularity and support of the
scholars throughout the world due its simplicity to explain the Indian monsoon. • This concept fails the
explanations of onset, breaks and spatial distribution of rainfall over the Indian subcontinent.

8. JET STREAM THEORY • The jet streams are a narrow belt of high altitude westerly winds in the
troposphere • It’s speed varies from about 110km/h in summer to about 184 km/h in winter. • The main
types are the polar jets, the subtropical westerly jets and the less common tropical easterly jets.

9. JET STREAMS

10. TIBETIAN PLATEAU • It is located in a altitude of 5000 meters • It spread over about 2 lakh square
kilometers. • The Tibet plateau act as a heat engine .

11. ROLE OF TIBETIAN PLATEAU • It acts as a mechanical barrier for subtropical westerly jet stream to
completely withdraw from India which helps burst of Indian monsoon. • It produces a thermal
anticyclone in mid troposphere over this region. This anticyclone weakens the western subtropical jet
stream to the south of Himalayas but produces tropical easterly jet on the southern side of the
anticyclone

12. SOUTH WEST MONSOON • The high temperature over the Tibetan Plateau, as well as over Central
Asia in general, during the summer leads to the formation of the tropical easterly jet over India in
summer. • This tropical jets first develop in longitudes east of India and then extends westward across
India, over the Arabian Sea and to eastern Africa. • Air under this jet stream blowing along Kolkata-
Bangalore axis, the air descends over Indian Ocean and southwest monsoon moves towards Indian
subcontinent.

13. CONTD… • The onset of SW Monsoon is driven by the shift of the subtropical westerly jet
northwards towards the Tibetan Plateau. • As the Tibetan Plateau heats up, the low pressure created
over it pulls the westerly jet northwards. • The westerly jet is inhibited from moving northwards by
Himalayas. • However, with continuous heating, sufficient force for the movement of the westerly jet
across the Himalayas is created at a significant level. • As such, the shift of the jet is sudden and abrupt
causing the bursting of SW Monsoon rains onto the Indian plains.

14. NORTH EAST MONSOON • The westerly jet causes high pressure over northern parts of the
subcontinent during the winter. This results in the north to south flow of the winds in the form of the NE
Monsoon.

15. Ocean Bodies and Air Circulations • El Nino- It is a narrow warm current which appears off the coast
of Peru in December. when the surface temperature goes up in the southern Pacific Ocean, India
receives deficient rainfall. • Southern Oscillation- It is a curious phenomena of sea- saw pattern of
meteorological changes observed between the Pacific and Indian oceans.
Weather classification characterizes pre-Monsoon period as the hot season. Unlike peninsular
and northeast India, the hot season gets extended for almost entire month of June over northwest
India. The season is characterized by wide spread dust haze and extremely high temperatures
over North India. There are heat islands even over central and eastern parts of the country. Dust
storms (Andhis) over western India and thundersqualls (Norwesters) over eastern India become a
regular feature. These are triggered by the influx of warm moist air in association with the
Western Disturbances. Land and sea breeze effect is more prominent over the coastal areas. With
the increased influx of moist air, the frequency of thundershowers increases progressively in
South India. A few tropical cyclones form in the Indian seas threatening coastline on either side.

According to Skymet Meteorology Division in India, the most dangerous aspect is that, the
season gets infested with far too many aviation weather hazards. Quite a few of these are the
invisible ones which are also capable of striking without any notice. Paucity of preparation time
leaves the air operations vulnerable to mishaps. Some of these invisible hazards need to be
catered for, without fail, particularly during take off and landing phase.

High Temperatures: Surface temperature is the single most important and decisive factor for
the `all out weight` for the airplane to lift off. The parameter becomes rather significant for
shorter runways during extreme temperatures, particularly over North India where dry conditions
prevail. Miscalculations of density altitude, if any, may lead to unpleasant situations during take
off phase.

Wind Shear: Drop in surface pressure due to excessive heating may lead to gusty winds
resulting in wind shear. The phenomenon may also be experienced in case of dissipation of
vertical clouds in the vicinity of aerodrome. Speed and direction of prevailing winds remain a
critical factor, both, for take off and landing run.

Turbulence: High temperatures do give rise to eddies and thermals in the lower levels,
particularly over an uneven terrain. Uncontrolled swaying and bumpiness may lead to anxious
moments for the air travellers.

Wake Turbulence: Take off and landings are in quick succession at some of the busy airports
like Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai. Heavy body aeroplanes have very powerful engines
which do leave lot of turbulence in its wake on the approach and take off leg. This specially gets
accentuated during the hot and dry atmospheric conditions of pre-Monsoon, more so over North
India.

In the recent past, technology and training has taken a big leap in the field of aviation.
Technology demonstration of flying machines, along with high level of expertise of aircrew has
mitigated the risk involved in complex air operations during adverse weather conditions.
However, vagaries of weather are not advised to be taken lightly at any stage of flying missions.
Precautions Monsoon Flying

In addition to the cooling of temperatures, most needed relief to the agriculturist and the problem of
water shortage diminishing, monsoons pose number of hazards to the aviators? Monsoons are
associated with strong gusty winds, strong up and down drafts, squalls, poor visibility, low clouds,
lightning, hailstorms, thunderstorms and icing etc.

During monsoon months, number of accidents has taken place in our country. Most recent unfortunate
fatal accidents involving Bell 430 in Chhattisgarh must be still fresh in the minds of all of us.

Loss of visual reference, disorientation, colliding with static obstructions and failure to land at a suitable
place in no go situation( in spite of clear instructions to that effect have been some of the main causes
of accidents during monsoon months. Personal ego, overconfidence, pressure to undertake the task and
get homeitis have been some of the contributory factors towards occurrence of accidents.

It is prudent to get to know about the monsoon hazards and preventive measures lest we fall prey to
these and add to the accident statistics of the helicopter fleet. RWSI is conscious of the fact that the
Pilots and Engineers manning the helicopter fleet are highly experienced, knowledgeable, professional
and concerned about the flight safety. Nevertheless,RWSI would like to refresh the memory and cover
important aspects which needs to be kept in mind during monsoon flying. These are covered in
succeeding paragraphs:-

Pre Flight

It is very essential to plan the flight meticulously keeping in mind the weather conditions, availability of
diversionary airfields since on number of occasions due to widespread thunderstorms; it may not be
possible to reach your destination and even the diversionary airfield/helipad.

Early mornings, afternoons are more likely to have thunderstorms. Keep this aspect in mind.

Normally adverse phase of thunderstorms last around 30 Mts to 1 Hour but in the case of regenerating
thunderstorms it may continue for hours. Study the weather conditions properly and plan your flights
keeping the weather developments in mind.

Flying during monsoons in Northeastern states, Western Ghats, Coastal areas, hilly areas demands total
alertness on part of the aircrew.

Be current in instrument flying/simulater flying.

Ensure serviceability of your weather radar,wind screen wipers,nav aids,communication equipment,

Radio Altimeter,ELT,flying instruments, nav and flashing beacons etc

During Flight

As far as possible avoid bad weather areas using weather radars and visual clues. If get caught
unintentionally in bad weather, then do not press on. Return to your base, divert and if unable to
continue, then find a suitable place and land. Don’t worry about the consequences of unplanned landing
since CAR permits landing by helicopter in such contingencies.

Do not get pressurized for any reason and take chances with weather. Don’t hesitate to say NO
regardless of pressures. Numbers of aircrew have lost their lives while taking chance with weather.
Most of the flying by helicopters is VFR. Ensure that flying is undertaken with ground contact.Keep a
very sharp look out for obstructions like pylons,cables,TV towers, Communication poles/towers, high
rise buildings, tall trees,hills,high ground etc.If forced to descend low due to clouds then reduce speed
and keep a sharp look out for these obstructions. If unable to maintain safe height then it is better to
land at suitable place then continue at low heights in poor visibility.

Flying in the hills is most dangerous during monsoons and great care must be exercised keeping in mind
the obstructions, low clouds downdrafts/updrafts, aspect of wind conditions on the windward and
leeward side of the hills, minimum height and crossing angle ( Minimum height 1500 ft and crossing
angle 45 degrees while crossing hills).

Plan your flight so that you are out of the hills minimum one hour before sunset.

Maintain your route safety altitude and make full use of weather radars for keeping a track on weather
developments.

Know about the location of obstructions and note down any obstructions seen for the first time for your
records, marking on maps and dissemination to other aircrew.

Offshore flying is very demanding during monsoons. Exercise special caution and take no chances with
weather particularly during monsoons which are quite severe in the areas of offshore operations.

Trust your instruments and do not look outside while flying on instruments. Remember the
phenomenon of spatial disorientation and apply the knowledge about it intelligently.

With weather, no amount of experience or heroism works. Never be overconfident, respect weather
and prepare well for your sortie. Do not press on regardless of weather even if you are highly
experienced.

Do not use landing light in case of rain/drizzle during night.

Post Fight

Rain Water and high humidity during monsoons have adverse effects on electronics equipment.Ensure
protection by parking inside hangars, covering helicopter when parked.

Ensure that the helicopter is properly sealed when parked. Danger of reptiles entering the helicopter are
high during monsoons due flooding.

Birds are known to make nest in the areas of air intakes,exhaust and other available space on
helicopters even with in a very short duration.Carry out proper externals.

Make sure that soft parts of the helicopter like stabilizers/antennas etc are covered with proper covers
to prevent damage due to hail storms.

Proper lashing of helicopters is essential to prevent damage due to strong gusty wind conditions.

Ensure the bonding of helicopter are intact to prevent lightning strikes.

Take great care during refueling lest water enters fuel tanks.Proper bonding during refueling needs no
emphasis.
Kuchcha/grassy landing surface becomes soggy. Ensure due caution during
landing,parking.Wheels/skids getting stuck on wet surface may lead to dynamic roll over conditions.
Skidding while fast taxying/turning is expected on wet surfaces. Exercise caution

Ensure that the helicopter is not parked in low lying areas which are prone to flooding,water logging
specially in high rain density areas like Mumbai etc.

AMEs,technicians to exercise due caution while servicing the helicopter since chances of slipping are
high due to wet surfaces.

Carry out special checks on parts/equipment which are likely to get affected due to rain water. Rusting
of the parts is another hazard.

Although efforts have been made to include all the aspects related to monsoon flying yet there may be
some points which might have been missed. out.Operators,supervisors,aircrew,maintenance staff are
requested to include those which have been missed out or particularly applicable in their area of
operations. Let us all involve ourselves to ensure safe flying during monsoons.

All the best and happy landings.