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Meteorological Effect of Thermal Energy Release
Meteorological Effect of Thermal Energy Release
oml ORNL/TM-7286
OAK
RIDGE;
NATIONAL
LABORATORY
OPERATED BY
UNION CARBIDE CORPORATION
FOR THE UNITED STATfS
DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY Ol3TPiQ'.5TK!i OF T S QGCUMLHT IS UNLIMITEB
ORNL/TM-7286
Dist. Category UC-12
M E T E O R O L O G I C A L E F F E C T S OF T H E R M A L E N E R G Y R E L E A S E S
(METER) P R O G R A M ANNUAL PROGRESS REPORT
O C T O B E R 19 78 T O S E P T E M B E R 1 9 7 9
Contributions by:
Compiled by:
A. A. N . Patrinos
H. W. Hoffman
P r e p a r e d by the
OAK RIDGE NATIONAL LABORATORY
Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37830
operated by
UNION CARBIDE CORPORATION
f o r the
DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY
••• DISCLAIMER ,
This book was prepared as an account of work w n o n d Dy aft agency of t h * United States Covernment.
Neither the United St««t Gover/vrWM nor any agtncy thertol. nor any of ttwir employee*. mates any
watranty, n o r n s or l m o l * d , on a n o m n try te^al t lability PI rnponybitity tor the accuracy,
completeness, or usefulness of any informelion. apparatus. product. Or praces dl«cf<md, or
represents that its us* would " o t infringe privately o w r e d rights. Reference herein to any Specific
conwwciW p r o d u a , process. or service by U r t e name, trademark. manufacturer. or o i h e r w t * . does iRffRIBUTION OF THIS DSEUKLST IS UN LI ft
not necessarily constitute oc imply Its endorjenent, recommendftten, or f t w r l n j by the United
State* Government or «ny agtncy thereof. The views and ooiniom of authors expressed herein do not
necessarily state or rafiact those o l n * United S u m G c w n m t m o r any agency tterapf.
iii
CONTENTS
Page
INTRODUCTION 1
FIELD STUDIES
A N D WETFALL CHEMISTRY 7
ABSTRACT 7
1. RAINFALL MODIFICATION 7
1.1 Introduction 7
1.2 G e n e r a l Results 9
1.3 Statistical Design 20
1.4 C o n c l u s i o n s and F u t u r e W o r k 25
2. WETFALL CHEMISTRY 26
2.1 Introduction 26
2.2 Weekly Samples 26
2.3 Event Samples 29
2.4 Future Work 35
REFERENCES 36
ABSTRACT 39
1. INTRODUCTION 39
2. EXPERIMENTAL 40
3o RESULTS 41
4. CONCLUSIONS 55
5. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 58
REFERENCES 58
II.B, F I E L D S T U D I E S OF COOLING T O W E R C O N D E N S A T E S C A V E N G I N G 59
ABSTRACT 59
1. INTRODUCTION 59
2. EXPERIMENTAL 60
3. RESULTS 64
4. C O M P A R I S O N W I T H THEORY 73
5. CONCLUSION 80
REFERENCES 80
APPENDIX 81
iv
Page
III.A. S U L F A T E A E R O S O L P R O D U C T I O N GROWTH IN COAL-OPERATED
POWER PLANT PLUMES 83
1. INTRODUCTION ... 83
2. EXPERIMENTAL 85
3. RESULTS A N D D I S C U S S I O N 88
of M e t e o r o l o g i c a l Parameters 89
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 99
REFERENCES 99
C O N T R O L SYSTEM S T R A T E G I E S 101
1. INTRODUCTION 101
SYSTEM 106
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 112
IV. P H Y S I C A L M O D E L I N G O F F L O W O V E R AN A X I S Y M M E T R I C K N O L L
U N D E R N E U T R A L A T M O S P H E R I C CONDITIONS 117
SUMMARY 117
1. INTRODUCTION 117
3. A T M O S P H E R I C B O U N D A R Y L A Y E R MODELING R E Q U I R E M E N T S 120
4. T H E O R E T I C A L V E L O C I T Y PROFILE A B O V E T H E C R E S T OF
A KNOLL . 122
6. R E S U L T S A N D DISCUSSION 131
P a
§e
8. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 136
REFERENCES 138
P R E D I C T I V E METHODS
V. T H E C L I M A T I C P R O B A B I L I T Y OF SNOWFALL INDUCED BY
ABSTRACT 149
1. INTRODUCTION 150
2. PROCEDURE 151
3. RESULTS 159
5. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 171
NOMENCLATURE 172
REFERENCES 173
M E T E O R O L O G I C A L EFFECTS OF T H E R M A L ENERGY RELEASES (METER)
P R O G R A M A N N U A L T E C H N I C A L PROGRESS R E P O R T
OCTOBER 19 3 TO SEPTEMBER 1979
A. A. N . Patrinos H. W. H o f f m a n
INTRODUCTION
H. W . H o f f m a n
gram w a s organized to "develop and verify methods .•. for predicting the
without affecting ... the local and regional e n v i r o n m e n t . " The initial
1979.
2
atmosphere and plume in the vicinity of the cooling towers and correlate
scavenging measurements.
tower.
coal fueled power plant can remain w i t h i n air quality standard limits
in favor of extending and improving the field data base, continues to re-
l o g i c a l data for stations distributed across the colder parts of the United
tower) established that this technique could indeed be useful for charac-
Overall, FY 1979 has been a productive year for the METER program.
We have seen some rainfall modification that can be associated with power
plant presence, but cannot avow conclusive significance (at least at the
heat/moisture rejection levels of Plant Bowen). We have carried out some
scoping tests on precipitation chemistry in the near-field that, while
currently inconclusive, warrant continuation; we have not been able to
"sell" this work as a necessary "initial condition" study for far-field
atmospheric sulfur characterization. The thoughts presented last year as
to "whither METER" have evoked little response. It remains our feeling
that the METER studies are important in the U.S. energy picture, and it is
frustrating to find the effort struggling to complete its first phase
rather than expanding more broadly. It is a truism to comment that now is
the time to obtain, evaluate, generalize, and disseminate the information
that will assure least deterimental impact of future generations of power
stations.
With the end of FY 1979, active participation in the METER program by
the Argonne National Laboratory (ANL) and the Physical Modeling Group of
4
2. (Compilers), Meteorological
A . A . N . P a t r i n o s and H. W. H o f f m a n
Effects of Thermal Energy Releases (METER) Program Annual Progress
Report, October 1976 to September 1977, Oak R i d g e N a t i o n a l Laboratory
Report ORNL/TM-6248 (August 1978).
I. S T U D I E S AT P L A N T B O W E N : RAINFALL MODIFICATION
A N D WETFALL CHEMISTRY
A . A. N. Patrinos R. L . M i l l e r
N . C. J . Chen R- E. S a y l o r
ABSTRACT
two major areas during FY 1979. The first is the rainfall mod-
ORNL effort.
1. RAINFALL MODIFICATION
1.1 Introduction
which has been in operation since February 1978. This report presents
some highlights of the analysis of the data from the Feb. 22, 1978 through
time framework together with overall wind statistics. The spatial corre-
rainfall volume. The suspected subtle nature of the plant's effect led to
of the METER-ORNL data. One of these tools, employing the sample skewness
and kurtosis as test statistics, was applied to the data from the first
cant finding was a larger frequency of air mass storms in the immediate
9
the 5% significance level, e v e n for the case of the air mass storms.
port are based on data from the period Feb. 22, 1978 through Feb. 28,
ORNL-DWC 78-4197
I KILOMETERS
A v e r a g e No. of
Average r a i n f a l l
Storm type N o . of storms stations w i t h
(mm)
rainfall
Total 164
Fig. 3. Windroses of the three winds for the 43 air mass storms.
Noteworthy in both cases Is the large percentage of easterly surface winds
total p r e c i p i t a t i o n for the entire storm data set, while Fig. 5 displays
the respective contours for the air mass storms. Figure 5 is noteworthy
the cooling tower plumes. The h y p o t h e s i s that the surface winds govern
the motion of the c o o l i n g towsr plumes during air mass storms is fairly
plant should be viewed i n terms of the proximity of the two h i g h s east and
ALL STORMS
(O
£
<§> >
,S>
O 'I rf
a>
MAXIMUM PRECIPITATION =
52.20 in. AT STATION 8
MINIMUM PRECIPITATION =
36.51 in. A T S T A T I O N 48
c
AVERAGT -. _CIPITATION =
44.86 in.
S T A T I O N S O P E R A T I N G = 49
AVERAGE OF STATIONS WITH
P R E C I P I T A T I O N = 44.86 in.
m *- S
S <0
MAXIMUM PRECIPITATION -
4.01 in. AT STATION 24
MINIMUM PRECIPITATION =
0.92 in. AT STATION 11
AVERAGE PRECIPITATION *
1.99 in.
STATIONS OPERATING = 49
AVERAGE OF STATIONS WITH
PRECIPITATION = 1.99 in.
STATIONS WITH PRECIP f A -
TION = 49
10
12 •
MAXIMUM PRECIPITATION =
4.83 in. AT STATION 23
MINIMUM PRECIPITATION =
2.15 in. AT STATION 6
AVERAGE PRECIPITATION -
3.32 in.
STATIONS OPERATING = 49
AVERAGE OF STATIONS WITH
PRECIPITATION = 3.32 in.
STATIONS WITH PRECIPITA-
TION = 49
9
10 •
N 0 i 0
NNE 0 0 0
NE U 1 0
ENE 2 3 0
E 5 5 0
ESE 2 3 0
SE 2 2 0
SSE 0 1 1
S 0 0 5
SSW 1 1 1
SW 2 1 6
wsw 0 1 5
w 1 2 1
WNW 0 1 1
NW 4 1 1
NNW 0 0 2
23 23 23
fines the spread over w h i c h the plumes are expected to have an effect.
O R N L - O W G 80—4362 E T D
SECONDARY
WIND DIRECTION
SECONDARY
WIND DIRECTION
SECONDARY \ • y P , TARGET AREA
CONTROL AREA 1-v
/ / > y C ' r - t PRIMARY
WIN0 DIRECTION
v SECONDARY
CONTROL » CONTROL AREA 2
AREA
(c)
studies.
tween the target and c o n t r o l areas, the null hypothesis is not rejected at
the 5% s i g n i f i c a n c e level.
Test Case B. This case deals with the 43 a i r mass s t o r m s . The tar-
get area is again determined on the basis of the surface w i n d prior to the
storm and the upper air w i n d , with g equal to 15°. The results are pre-
T a b l e 3. T e s t Case Aa
a
V a l u e s of the normalized test statistic for the r a n k test
comparisons between control and target area r a i n f a l l (all 164
storms). For one-tail significances of 1% and 5 % t h e values of
the normalized test statistic are 2.326 and 1.645 r e s p e c t i v e l y .
Table 4. T e s t Case Ba
a
V a l u e s of the normalized test statistic for the rank test
comparisons between c o n t r o l and taarget area rainfall (air-mass
storms w i t h m e a n rainfall greater than 1 mm). For one-tail sig-
nificances of 1% and 5% the values of the normalized test statis-
tic are 2 . 3 2 6 and 1.645 r e s p e c t i v e l y .
Test Case C . This case examines the 2 3 stationary front storms. The
target area is determined i n the s a m e manner as the other cases. The hy-
ered that the applied rank tests would demonstrate the existence of a n
25
effect only for the case of sizable increases (or decreases) of target
investigation.
tive since they are based on the data from the first year of o p e r a t i o n of
2. WETFALL CHEMISTRY
2.1 Introduction
draft cooling towers and two 300-m smokestacks. The n e t w o r k has been
presented elsewhere.1®
efficiency.
site 25. Column 2 provides the on and off times for the c o l l e c t o r s . The
ORNL-DWG 78-4197A
0 5 10 15 20 25
KILOMETERS
Location in
Date of
Site Code relation to _. _ n
^ _ f i r s t sample
plant B o w e n
-1 2- -1 -
m e n t s of pH, c o n d u c t i v i t y (ymho cm ), SO4 (mg l i t e r ), NO3 — N (mg
s a m p l e was analyzed.
R A I N F A L L IN I N C H E S
C O N D U C T I V I T Y IN BICRCttHC PER C M
S 0 4 , K 0 3 - N , A N D N H 4 - N IN fllLlIGEAH PEE LITER
lij Jtf
•J
--U
5C -5 ZS
-J C Uw .lj c O
</l -c f- to —1
t- «s«t C H
_> c< O
<5
HI a 0 a w
-A. •HOJ-U 'aj •H
J u -1
7: ^ t-1-J.J S3V5.J H
f* —<t-< lu 3C
MM
-•4 0J a Jj UJ
(5 UllsJtvl ul tn 'J 'J
-B OJ ou> z c
'J ?3SB H3U a: .JO —t 13 •J
-r r ^ r g ^ r o <-^1VO
OOOC^OOOO^^OOOI/tf"
• • * • •
oooooonoi;
•"•ToQinnoo
•• »• i
ooooiooo-
< i-r""TOJi o o
o o o o 0 o in qr^ >o o m n m o o o i"> o o "">
• 1 • * 1 i * i f
ooooooor-iN^j^i—<r-"inao'
1
r » o o • o T o o r - v o . y - c o o i — mo'M o'ncr.ooi-i
i < > t i « t i * i « i * i i i i t i i « i i i t « t i i
^ I f-> 1 i N - N ^ J 1 1 ^-naiT'-M^a.'M
T h e storm started at 7:00 a.m., A p r i l 25, and ended at 12:00 noon, April
26. However, the collectors were covered and retrieved at 6:30 p.m.,
time and v o l u m e .
mn. in the S o u t h , but the rain is relatively uniform over areas where the
For this event, the pH at all sites (Fig. 1 2 ) is about the same, with
values n e a r 4 . 9 5 at all but one site, which had a depressed value of 4.21.
ORNL-DWG 7 9 - 6 5 8 9 ETD
H 8 0
4.95i J V^
4.9
4 97 ^CARTERSVILLE
PLANT o
0 5 10 4.7
o 4.9 5.08
KILOMETERS
• •
<jcic
CEDARTOWN
wind which was determined by a nearby windset. Plume direction was also
wind site.
34
• •
ROME„ • •
8.0
7.8
1
V
*
PLANT 8.1
^ARTERSVILLE
• 29.0. ® •
0 5 10 10.4
• o 8.1
• 7.2
• 8.1 • •
KILOMETERS
CEDARTOWN
• •
2 - -
Table 8. C o n c e n t r a t i o n of S O 4 , N O 3 ,
and Nfty-ion (mg l i t e r - ! ) f o r the
event s a m p l e of A p r i l 25, 1979
2- +
Site SO4 NO3-N NH4-N
other areas.
planned for the FY 1981 and FY 1982. These w i l l employ the a u t o m a t i c wet-
REFERENCES
(1979).
1980).
(1978).
(1979).
(1973).
37
0RNL/TM-6930 (1979).
ORNL/METER/MR-79-11 (1979).
N. S. Laulainen*
ABSTRACT
1. INTRODUCTION
The key aspects of the study were to measure concurrently the character-
istics of the drift droplets emitted from the tower, the ambient meteorological
conditions responsible for the transport and dispersion of the drift, and
the downwind deposition patterns and near-surface air concentrations of the
drift. The source characteristics, including updraft air temperature and
velocity profiles, and the meteorological data provide inputs to the models.
The measured deposition patterns serve as comparisons to model outputs.
2. EXPERIMENTAL
A total of eight test runs plus a limited near tower test were carried
out during the June drift study at Pittsburg, CA. Downwind deposition
measurements were coordinated with ESC's source measurements on seven
different, tests. An eighth test was conducted with no concurrent source
measurements. Limited droplet measurements were made on the fan deck of a
single tower to examine near field deposition during a ninth and final test.
The tests were divided into two-tower operation (three tests), Tower 7-2
alone (two tests), and Tower 7-1 alone (three tests).
(IK) sampler. Updraft velocity profiles were measured with a gill anemometer
while the air temperatures were obtained with standard precision thermistors.
3. RESULTS
Of the eight test runs conducted during the June 1978 drift study, only
six were used in the evaluation of downwind deposition patterns, while seven
were used to establish a representative source emission rate.
42
Wind
Relative Wind
Speed
Run Temperature Humidity Direction
Date No. (°c) (%) (ms ) (°) Comments
6-15 3 23.6 43 6.6 292 Both towers
6-16 1 18.4 55 4.8 269 Both towers
6-17 2 19.7 57 3.9 265 Tower 7-1 only
6-18 5 16.9 63 7.1 241 Tower 7-3 only
6-20 8 13.5 85 7.6 242 Tower 7-2 only
6-21 4 18.3 65 5.7 246 Tower 7-2 only
6-22 6 16.8 66 6.4 248 Both towers
6-24 7 16.7 61 7.7 248 Tower 7-1 only
6-25 X 15.9 65 5.4 248 Tower 7-1 only
6-15 1130 1610 517 26.2 34. 3 33..3 25.,5 23. ,9 16.3
6-16 0630 1115 682 25.6 36. 5 35..7 25..5 20.,9 14.6
6-17 0630 1130 493 24.6 32..6 32..0 24..6 21..6 17.6
6-18 0630 1215 504 24.2 32.,3 31.,6 24..0 18..9 14.1
6-20 0745 1230 518 24.1 32..2 31..5 24..1 19..0 14.8
6-22 0700 1130 512 24.5 32..8 32..0 24..1 20,.0 15.1
cold w a t e r t e m p e r a t u r e for the test cell and tower closely paralleled those
from four cells o f T o w e r 7-1 and three cells of Tower 7-2. The velocity
sensor accuracy.
44
6-15 1130 1610 7-1 12 9.5 153 33.4 25.0 33.3 23.7 7
7-2 10 10.4 151 32.2 27.3 — — —
6-16 0630 1115 7-1 12 9.5 155 35.6 24.5 35.6 26.5 12
7-2 10 10.4 154 34.6 27.6 — — —
6-17 0630 1130 7-1 12 9.5 153 32.0 23.9 32.0 22.9 3
7-2 0
6-18 0630 1215 7-1 12 9.5 156 31.6 22.8 31.6 23.9 9
7-2 0
7-2 0 — — — — — — —
J
C e l 1 4 on 7 - 1 , C e l l s 5 , 1 0 , 13 on 7 - 2 not o p e r a t i n g , c e l l 12 on 7 - 1
out on 6 - 2 4 , 6 - 2 5 .
2
A v e r a g e , PG&E Cooling Tower Data Logger paper t a p e printout.
3
Average fan power per c e l l a t the fan based on v o l t - a m p e r e r e a d i n g s ,
f a n e f f i c i e n c y o f about 0 . 9 2 , ambient p s y c h r o m e t r i c s t a t e and o t h e r
c o o l i n g tower o p e r a t i n g p a r a m e t e r s .
900 -
•
07
o ESC BASIN (HOT)
•
PNL BASIN (COLD)
A PNL CANAL (HOT)
ESC BASIN (HOT)/
PNL ANALYSIS
PG&E
%
£
• vo
• A•
• •a
V A
O
•
0
%
•
A
1
6° D
A
h S)
v
I • I • I • I • I • I . I • I • I • I 1 I • I • I • I • I •
12 24 12 24 12 24 12 24 12 24 12 24 12 24 12 24 12 24 12 24
6-15 I 6-16 | 6-17 I 6-18 | 6-19 I 6-20 | 6-21 I 6-22 I 6-23 6-24 I
SAMPLE COLLECTION TIME (PDT)
all of the observed changes in sodium concentration during a given test run
d i l u t i o n b y fresh river w a t e r .
46
this d i f f e r e n c e is a p p a r e n t .
If no evsporation of d r o p l e t s o c c u r r e d in the fill region, then the
+ +
mineral (Na ) m a s s emxssion rates coupled w i t h the b a s i n w a t e r m i n e r a l (Na )
data are s u m m a r i z e d in T a b l e 4.
A r e p r e s e n t a t i v e e m i s s i o n r a t e p e r cell w a s c a l c u l a t e d b y E S C using a
(2) Meteorology
test run to an average high o f about 23°c at the end of it. Relative
Emission Rates
Reference Cel1
Data Above 90 urn
(„a s - 1 ) IK BdsecF SP-Based Ratio of DME7
;
Test Cell Pretest + + DME3 DME3 IK to MMD1' Rate MMD1'
Date (Tower C e l l ) Rank Na Mg (gs-1) 1 s-1) SP DME3 (pm) (g s - i ) (mil)
6-15 1-7 Medium 1540 192 16.0 2.59 6.2 73 4.70 720
6-16 1-12 Medium 1910 171 18.2 4.57 4.0 785
6-17 1-3 High 1830 194 14.7 6.76 2.2 721
6-18 1-9 Low 1380 157 6.77 4.23 1.6 638
6-20 2-7 Medium 2650 268 9.64 4.59 2.1 81.9 6.48 503
5
6-21 2-12 High 3670s 523 10.8 8.17 1.3 507
6-22 2-3 Medium 3890 294 8.34 4.08 2.0 692
J.4. 4-
Mg /Na 0.11 i 0.02
1
MME = Mineral Mass Emission.
C a l c u l a t e d using assumption that sodium concentration of d r i f t d r o p l e t s equals t h a t of
c i r c u l a t i n g water.
3
DME = D r i f t Mass Emission.
l,
MMD = Mass Median Diameter.
5
Based on i n t e r p o l a t e d basin water concentration values.
48
typically <10°-
atmosphere w a s also u n s t a b l e .
for the s t r e a k s not all b e i n g aligned in the same d i r e c t i o n o n the SP. The
the lower b o u n d .
CM
t
E
C
DC.
CO
o
Q_
O
OC
Q
50 100 150
DIRECTION FROM TOWER 7 - 1 or 7 -2 (DEGREES)
tower operation the slopes are again similar b u t larger than the two-tower
speeds w e r e 18.4 and 23.6°C, 55- and 43%, and 4.8 and 6.6 m s ^ , respectively
or o t h e r w i s e , p r o d u c e no s t a i n o n t h e SPs.
51
0.5 1.0
DOWNWIND DISTANCE (km)
RUN 1, 6-16-78
BOTH TOWERS
ARC 3, REF 7-2
40 L
J L J L J — i L ± i J L
80
ir>
P 200 b ARC I, REF 7-1
J L
200
30 60 90 120 150
DIRECTION FROM TOWER 7-1 OR 7-2 (DEGREES)
not the collected particles are w e t or dry ncr can they distinguish the
ation such as dust from vehicular traffic or dust resuspended from the
Sodium ion m i n e r a l mass deposition patterns for each arc resemble those
for the droplet pattern of Fig. 2, except that the data are quite ragged.
also. T h e shadowing effect of the switchyards also appears on the data for
arc 2. Similar b e h a v i o r w a s observed in the mineral mass data for the other
test runs.
the droplet salinity and the measured drift flux from the cooling towers.
w h i l e the 750 ppm value is one determined by ESC using the IK and SP methods
3/4 km alone it would appear that the switchyards could have reduced the
b e the case when compared to the ESC model. V a l u e s for Tower 7-2 alone were
than the apparent contribution from Tower 7-1; this indicates that, even
though 3 fans w e r e not operating, Tower 7-2 has a h i g h e r drift emission rate.
data for single tower operation are compared. Peak d e p o s i t i o n rates from
Tower 7 - 2 (6-21-78) are larger than those in the two cases for T o w e r 7-1
10*
RUN 1, 6-16-78
BOTH TOWERS
CALCULATED, ESC
• MEASURED, PNL
O ESTIMATED TOWER 7-2
10
ID?
101
I _L _L
10
0.5 1.0
DOWNWIND DISTANCE (km)
6-22-78).
downwind.
4. CONCLUSIONS
In this report, the r e s u l t s from six of these test r u n s are presented and
discussed.
b u l k mineral m a s s d e p o s i t i o n rates.
b y ESC, using its own m o d e l and the source and m e t e o r o l o g i c a l data described
The meteorological conditions during the test period did not provide
h u m i d i t i e s and high w i n d s had the effect o f rapidly drying out the drift
m o n t h s at this site.
material.
5. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
ESC p r o v i d e d d r i f t m o d e l c o m p a r i s o n data.
mineral d e p o s i t i o n r e s u l t s u s i n g a l i n e a r p r o g r a m m i n g technique.
were derived.
REFERENCES
ABSTRACT
1. INTRODUCTION
A recent r e p o r t ^ d e s c r i b e s t h e results of a t h e o r e t i c a l s t u d y o f c o n d e n s a t e
t e s t i n g the theory.
*
B a t t e l l e , P a c i f i c N o r t h w e s t Laboratories, R i c h l a n d , W A 99352
60
2. EXPERIMENTAL
Table 1.
P o w e r Output o f U n i t , M W e 880
Liquid Flow Rate,Kg s - 1 2 x 10*
(gpm) (3.1 x 1 0 5 )
Diameter, m
Sill 96.6
T h r o a t (W) 63.7
Height, m (H) 119.0
were 30 m along the 1U0 and 200-numbered lines, and 40 m along the more
l a r g e - a r e a c o l l e c t o r s only.
W i n d speed and d i r e c t i o n w e r e m e a s u r e d on the p l a n t meteorological
the chart speed w a s slow a n d not generally suitable for data analysis to
3. RESULTS
the same, however, for a l l events, and generally coincident with rainfall
65
(a)
Table 3. P o w e r Plant Data
at the plant. A further difficulty with showers was that wind directions
were not constant, and considerable direction shifts would occur. Brief
follow.
were similar (about 220° and 240°) and the plumes were contained on the
direction shift occurred (about 2/3 of the t i m e period had a mean direction
e s t i m a t i o n of expected enhancement.
total.
greater than those w h i c h would result from estimation o f rain size spectra.
61
IgQO 190° 200° 210° 220°
B3
B3
u s e d in F i g u r e s 10 and 11.
71
B6
, 100 m ,
estimated d i r e c t i o n o f p l u m e travel.
73
section.
4 . COMPARISON W I T H THEORY
The mass flux of scavenged material (in this case condensate droplets)
CJ = k)^ (1)
i n t e g r a l at x' is given b y
(2)
74
DOWNWIND DISTANCE X
calculations.
w h e r e Q is t h e source (g s "S
u is t h e mean w i n d speed.
j - k ( x ' - x )\
Q(x') - A( X .x , exP ( _ - J E - J ' (3)
of x' :
Q0 exp- u ) (4)
k
E „ _ ( x ' ) = C(x') = a
C L J p
w /2~ y(x')u
75
C
(The enhancement E is n u m e r i c a l l y equal to / P w w h e n the density of w a t e r
P^ is expressed in cgs u n i t s .
p o l y d i s p e r s e p a r t i c l e w a s h o u t to estimate a v a l u e o f k/J o f 5 c m \
that the plume at the real source is six times the v a l u e of y at that
(4)
point. We w i l l u s e t h e S m i t h - S i n g e r value of y for n e u t r a l conditions.
to d e r i v e
X = / W \1-16 , ,,,
r (6)
14316 )
V
H' = H - x 1 (7)
r —
u
(8)
in t h e A p p e n d i x .
76
e s t i m a t e i s b a s e d o n scaling t h e U n i t 3 value by t h e r a t i o o f t h e p o w e r
o f e n h a n c e m e n t w o u l d b e s p e c u l a t i v e at b e s t .
T a b l e 4. G e o m e t r i c a l F a c t o r s for S o u r c e Estimates
k Qo
Run Units :nra hr ,-1 g s- l Area E
CL' %
200 19
300 7
200 8
300 4
300 12
-4
B4 6.7 9.3x10 7x10 100 13
300 5
(a)
Crude estimate, assuming two cooling towers w i t h same source
as the Unit 3 s o u r c e for Run B4.
78
I
400 300 200 100 0 100 200
CROSS-PLUME DISTANCE, m
C ROSS-PLUME DISTANCE, m
5. CONCLUSION
the March-April 1979 field series, it appears from the observed rainfall
p l u m e data.
REFERENCES
APPENDIX
ESTIMATION OF SOURCE T E R M
B3 and fi4), these w e r e 36°C and 18°C. T h e former is the average of the
for the plume, and 18,064 and 13.5 for ambient, respectively.
anc
T h e next step is calculation of the enthalpy ^ various
R (EN) . T MR (MR) . MR C
mix w mix w
cal/kg C g/kg g/kg g/kg g/kg
1. INTRODUCTION
urban and industrial centers (Husar and Husar, 1978). Fossil-fuel electric
compounds which accumulate in the aerosol phase (Friedlander, 1978) and accounts
l i m i t a t i o n s in i n s t r u m e n t a l s e n s i t i v i t y , and r a n d o m e r r o r s in s a m p l e collection
or fog layers.
2. EXPERIMENTAL
in w h i c h t h e p l a n t is l o c a t e d is subject to f a i r l y h i g h a m b i e n t l e v e l s of pol-
throughout the M i d w e s t . W e s t e r n P e n n s y l v a n i a is c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y a m o i s t ,
in p a r t i c l e s i m p a c t i o n e f f i c i e n c y caused b y the s c r e e n s , it w a s n e c e s s a r y to
1/2
s q u a r e r o o t of the S t o k e s n u m b e r at 5 0 % i m p a c t i o n e f f i c i e n c y , (St^ ) ,
was constructed.
p a r t i c l e size distribution.
B e s i d e s p r o v i d i n g a q u a n t i t a t i v e , r e p r o d u c i b l e m e a s u r e of a t m o s p h e r i c sulfate,
s u l f i t e s react w i t h B a C ^ forming i n s o l u b l e p r e c i p i t a t e s , it is p o s s i b l e to
of d e t e c t i o n of this s u l f a t e c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n t e c h n i q u e is r o u g h l y 10 ^ grams,
88
the q u a n t i t y a c c e s s i b l e by b u l k a n a l y s i s methods.
concentrations. Impactor and EAA sampling was performed upwind of the plant
3. RESULTS A N D DISCUSSION
(i-A). Changes in (co'. v.) (1~/*J during the course of each flight reflected
cover. I'lutne relative humidity was found to vary within the plume, especially
fog below or cloud layers above the plume. Plume lap.se rat'-' "was determined
1 row the upwind aircraft temperature: sounding within the altitude range en-
In order to gain an estimate of the SC^ conversion rate in the plume, the
from the power plant for each flight. This was done by computing the flow of
both sulfate and SO^ through individual cross-sections of the plume, similar to
total particle m a s s size distributions a s given by the EAA, OPC, and CNC
particle size was found (e.g., Figure 1). The curves were extended to include
ruler measurement of the halo w i d t h s and included. For each horizontal cross-
sulfate "fluxes" through the plume were then calculated by way of a two-dimensional
stack.
(%/hr).
91
during the course 01" thi.-^ e x p e r i m e n t , allowing solar radiative flux t.o increase
subs tantiallv. This irend continued into 11igiu 24, conducted in the afternoon
rate.
humid if.-. For relative h u m i d i t i e s less than 65/'.', it is sci'ii thai S09 conversion
is ne^l L^i ble. A notable increase occurs beyond hY,'. relative h u m i d i t y , marked
of 65% or less has occurred w i t h i n the plume. It was also found that the impactor-
of 63"^. The sharp increase in S O ^ conversion rate above 90Z relative humidity is
a direct relationship between particle size and ambient relative humidity, re-
h o r i z o n t a l bars denote the range in (cos z)(1-A) encountered during the course
sulfate contained in these particles generally increased with plume age, es-
to b e t h e h i g h e s t (flights 8, 12, 13, 20, 23, and 24). This represents further
evidence of droplet phase particle growth. The high correlation between this
30 MINUTES PLUME
TRAVEL TIME
,030
I—
<
cc
cr
<
o
.020
£
ro
A*
Q
to
P fl-
O
cn
.010
o
o
o
o
20 40 60 80 100
RELATIVE HUMIDITY
Figure 6. Molar ratio of sulfate for particles larger than 0.3 vim to total
than 0.3 ym. These particles accounted for a major fraction of the total
parameter with respect to plume age occurred during flights 8, 15, 17, 20, 23,
and 24, in which moderate to high solar radiative fluxes were observed.
50-
to
ui
.j
o
K 30-
g o
<S)
Z v£>
UJ
^
t:
< 20-
10-
JL _L I X
.100 .200 .300 .40C. 500 .600 .700
PLUME TRAVEL TIME (MIN) (COS Z)(l-A)
Figure 7. SC^-normalized Aitken particle concentra- Figure 8. S02-normalized Aitken particle concentta-
M e a s u r e m e n t s of p a r t i c l e p r o d u c t i o n and g r o w t h h a v e b e e n m a d e w i t h i n the
An a v e r a g e g a s - t o - p a r t i c l e c o n v e r s i o n r a t e of r o u g h l y 1 % / h r . w a s found for
which sulfate particles achieved their m a x i m u m size, due to droplet phase SO2
p r o d u c t i o n of h i g h c o n c e n t r a t i o n s of s m a l l p a r t i c l e s d u r i n g c o n d i t i o n s of high
p h o t o c h e m i c a l a f f e c t s p l a y a m o r e s i g n i f i c a n t r o l e in p l u m e c h e m i s t r y at
an i m p o r t a n t m e c h a n i s m for p l u m e s u l f a t e f o r m a t i o n a s the p l u m e a g e s . It is
T h e u n d e n i a b l e i m p o r t a n c e of a q u e o u s p h a s e SC^ o x i d a t i o n as r e v e a l e d in
u r b a n p l u m e is e m b e d d e d , in t e r m s of the c o n c e n t r a t i o n s of photochemically-
in o t h e r c l i m a t i c r e g i o n s and s u b j e c t to d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s of b a c k g r o u n d pol-
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
we are grateful.
dissertation.
REFERENCES
12, 323-334.
12, 649-660.
69-82.
E n v i r o n m e n t a l S c i e n c e and T e c h n o l o g y , 648-654.
S u m m a r y of Hourly O b s e r v a t i o n s , P i t t s b u r g h , Pennsylvania.
III.B. A T M O S P H E R I C M E A S U R E M E N T T E C H N I Q U E S FOR
SUPPLEMENTARY CONTROL SYSTEM STRATEGIES
* *
1. INTRODUCTION
T h i s t e c h n i q u e for m a k i n g u s e of o u r h i g h - s u l f u r c o a l has b e e n a d v a n c e d by
along the east c o a s t . Any acid r a i n that m i g h t occur as a result of the increased
S u c c e s s f u l a p p l i c a t i o n of this t e c h n i q u e of s w i t c h i n g from l o w - s u l f u r to
h i g h - s u l f u r c o a l in r e s p o n s e to c h a n g i n g a t m o s p h e r i c c o n d i t i o n s , w e r e it to b e
*
Department of M e t e o r o l o g y , T h e P e n n s y l v a n i a S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , University
Park, Pa.
102
for e x a m p l e , an a v i a t i o n w e a t h e r forecast.
than 2 kilnnje^ers w h i c h m e a n s that its depth may v a r y by a facr.or of more than 70.
as o u t l i n e d above.
s u r f a c e or b y u s i n g e c o n o m i c a l l y v i a b l e i n s t r u m e n t e d towers.
(midnight to 8 a m ) o b s e r v e d at R o c k S p r i n g s A g r i c u l t u r a l R e s e a r c h C e n t e r near
clearly evident.
3. T H E PENN S T A T E C O M P U T E R I Z E D A C O U S T I C S O U N D I N G SYSTEM
in wind speed w i t h h e i g h t , and also with the m a g n i t u d e of the turbulent wind and
Figure 1. Note that some of the required m e a s u r e m e n t s are common to both the
11:30 a.m.
models. The dashed line shows the feedback scheme used to correct earlier
of fumigation.
fumigation, signaling the onset of an event that may last only 30 m i n u t e s , but also
u
in l a c k and w h i t e of the color t e l e v i s i o n d i s p l a y of p o l l u t a n t concentration
foe u r b a n a n d , p e r h a p s , e v e n r e g i o n a l s c a l e a n a l y s e s . By s u b s t i t u t i n g time-
of a t m o s p h e r i c p o l l u t a n t concentrations d o w n w i n d of m a n y , g e o g r a p h i c a l l y distributed
s o u r c e s are p o s s i b l e . T h u s in c r i t i c a l s i t u a t i o n s s u c h as m a j o r a i r stagnation
112
F i g u r e 5. B l a c k and w h i t e r e p r o d u c t i o n of CASS c o l o r t e l e v i s i o n d i s p l a y of
v e r t i c a l c r o s s s e c t i o n of p o l l u t a n t concentration isopleths.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
assume that once the drift d r o p s leave the p l u m e they fall to the ground while
direction.
theoretically.
discrepancies between the observed and predicted drift deposition rates can
of magnitude)."*"
*
Department of M e t e o r o l o g y , T h e P e n n s y l v a n i a S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , University
Park, Pa.
114
REFERENCE
W. C. Cliff* J. D. Smith*
SUMMARY
Mean velocity, rms velocity, and turbulence intensity profiles were mea-
sured at locations near the knoll using an existing laser Doppler anemometer
system. The flow accelerated over the knoll and produced a relatively uniform
velocity profile at the crest. The measured velocity profile was in close
agreement with a theoretical velocity profile developed using potential flow
theory and an upstream power law velocity profile. The turbulence intensity
decreased at the crest of the knoll as a result of the flow acceleration.
1. INTRODUCTION
*
Pacific Northwest Laboratory, Richland, Wash.
118
The following conclusions and recommendations are based upon the results
of the analysis and experimental testing performed during this study.
2.1 CONCLUSIONS
2.2 RECOMMENDATIONS
• An extension of this effort should be performed to investigate the
effects of a local surface protuberance, such as an axisymmetric
knoll, on mechanical draft cooling tower plumes under neutral atmo-
spheric conditions.
This study provided similarity for the seven parameters listed above as
follows:
3) Reynolds number similarity was not met. This did not signifi-
cantly limit modeling because the significant flow characteris-
tics were weakly dependent upon the Reynolds number.^
Ono. can estimate the velocity profile expected above the top of an axi-
symmetric knoll using potential flow theory for flow near a half sphere and
adjusting the approach velocities to be consistent with the upstream velocity
profile. This replaces the uniform upstream velocity profile conventionally
assumed in potential flow theory. A detailed analysis presented in Appendix A
resulted in the following relationship for the expected velocity profile above
the centerline of an axisymmetric knoll.
(1)
u
u
z = r " z-r 0
o
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 0 0.5 1.0
T 1 1 T 1 1 r
THEORETC
I AL
4.0 -
VaOCITY PROFLI E OVER CREST U . Um, z.rQ
i/14
bMi
\ (APPROACH VELOCITY)
U 6 )
2.0 -
1.0
U
ir~
us,z=r
1.00 0.00
1.00001 0.71
1.0001 0.84
1.001 0.99
1.005 1.11
1.01 1.16
1.05 1.25
1.10 1.26
1.20 1.24
1.30 1.22
1.40 1.20
1.50 1.19
1.60 1.18
1.70 1.17
1.80 1.17
1.90 1.16
2.00 1.16
2.25 1.16
2.50 1.17
2.75 1.18
3.00 1.19
3.50 1.21
4.00 1.23
5.00 1.26
124
5. EXPERIMENTAL METHOD
An existing PNL hydraulic flume used for this study contains glass walls
with an open channel flow section 1.2 m (4 ft) wide, 1.5 m (5 ft) deep and
12.2 m (40 ft) long as shown in Figure 2. The recirculating flume has a maxi-
3 3
mum flowrate capability of 0.28 m / s (10 ft /s). Pump flow rates are mea-
sured with a calibrated orifice meter in the 25.4-cm (10-in.) return line.
After passing through a 1-m (38-in.) stilling chamber, the flow is slightly
accelerated and then flows through a honeycomb flow straightener and turbu-
lence suppressor which consists of 0.3-cm (1/8-in.) diameter by 23-cm (9-in.)
FLOW INLET
al PLAN VIEW
GLASS
1.5 m (5 ft)
: 0 WALLS
\
BOUNDARY LAYER TRIP MOD&
M ELEVATION VIEW
long flow channels. The total blockage created by the honeycomb is less than
2 percent of the available flow area. A 10-cm (4-in.) high boundary layer
trip that extended across the width of the flume was installed approximately
10 cm (4 in.) .'ownstream from the honeycomb. Crushed, 1.9-cm (3/4-in.) aggre-
gate spaced randomly with a mean spacing of approximately 7.6 cm (3 in.) was
located on the flume floor between the boundary layer trip and the model knoll.
The model knoll was located 7 m (22 ft) downstream from the boundary layer
trip. The boundary layer trip and the crushed aggregate produced a neutral
boundary layer exhibiting a 1/7 power law velocity profile upstream of the
model knoll.
The axisymmetric knoll shape chosen for this study is defined by the fol-
lowing formula:
h = r (2)
o
where h equals the vertical height of the hill at a distance r from the center-
line, and r is the centerline vertical height of the hill. This shape has
(9)
been previously used by the Environmental Protection Agencyv ' and has
gaussian-shaped features near the top of the hill but decays more rapidly at
large values of r. The model used for this study was fabricated from a 7.5-cm
(2.94-in.) aluminum block with a radius of 20.3 cm (8 in.). Pea gravel having
a diameter of approximately 0.5 cm (3/16 in.) was glued to the knoll to pro-
vide an aerodynamically rough surface for testing. At a scale of 1:250, the
model represented a 19-m (62.5-ft) knoll.
5.1.3 Laser Doppler Anemometer
to a photomultiplier detector. The output signal from the detector was moni-
tored by a Doppler signal processor. The processor provided a digital display
of the Doppler frequency and an analog output voltage scaled to that frequency.
The location of the sample volume was varied by movement of the lens and mir-
ror, and was monitored by encoders coupled to their respective drive
mechanisms. Resolution and control of the system was 0.16 cm (0.006 in.) in
any direction. The mean analog voltage from the processor and the output of
the encoders were processed and stored by a mini-computer which was used to
reduce, tabulate, and plot the flow field data. Figure 4 shows a schematic of
the LDA signal processing system. Figure 5 shows the LDA system in operation.
IDA
SIGNAL
INPUT
\I/
_
PM
TUBE
MINICOMPUTOR DISK
\ POSITION
SHAFT PRINTER
READOUT
ENCODERS y
acquisition and control system permitted processing and storage on 512 sepa-
rate channels. The data were converted to engineering units and processed in
final form within the computer system, and the graphical analysis of the data
was displayed on a cathode ray tube (CRT) from which direct hard copies were
made using an available commercial hard copier. Figure 6 is a schematic of
the data acquisition system.
5.2 PROCEDURE
The hydraulic flume was filled with water to a height of approximately
1 m (3 f t ) and left to stand for several days to remove entrained air result-
ing from the f i l l i n g process. The water in the flume was then circulated
while measurements of velocity were obtained using the LDA system. Lateral
velocity profiles were obtained across the flow channel to ensure that the
velocity profile was invariant with regard to lateral location. The longitu-
dinal mean and turbulent velocity profiles were then obtained at locations
30.5 cm (12 in.), 15.2 cm (6 in.), 7.5 cm (3 in.) upstream and downstream of
the knoll centerline as well as at the apex of the knoll. Velocity profiles
were also obtained laterally from the knoll centerline at distances of 7.6 cm
128
DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEM
ANALOG
TO DIGITAL
CONVERTER
MULTIPLEXOR
PDP 11/10
COMPUTER
(5
TELETYPE
GRAPHIC DISPLAY
CRT/TELETYPE
(3 in.) and 15.2 cm (6 in.). These lateral profiles could only be obtained at
elevations greater than the height of the knoll due to a large specular reflec-
tion from the knoll surface at lower elevations. The specular light reflection
as much greater than the intensity of the Doppler signal from the focal volume
of the laser system. The specular reflection swamped the photodetection system
and thus diJ not permit an evaluation of the Doppler signal.
A 1/7 power law velocity profile was established by using a 10-cm (4-in.)
trip fence 6.7 m (22 f t ) upstream of the knoll and by roughing the floor of
the hydraulic flume using 1.9-cm (3/4-in.) crushed aggregate spaced approxi-
mately 7.6 cm (3 in.) apart. A plot of the measured upstream velocity profile
obtained 30.5 cm (12 in.) upstream from the knoll is shown in Figure 7. In
this nondimensional plot of mean velocity, the region where the log profile
fits the data corresponds to the constant shear stress layer in the atmospheric
boundary layer. The shear, U*, for the case presented is 0.087 U- .
o
Figure 8 provides plots of the mean velocity profile at various locations
over the knoll. It is interesting to note how well the experimental velocity
profile obtained above the knoll centerline agrees with the theoretical veloc-
ity profile developed in Section 4. Table 2 presents the values of all the
1 2
VELOCITY 77^—
u
z.r 0
1500
-4 -i -2 -1 0 1 2 3
Dl STANCE
velocity data. For a scale of 1 to 250, the upstream velocity profile corre-
sponds to an aerodynamic surface roughness of approximately 0.27 m (0.9 f t ) ,
which is consistent with a neutral atmospheric boundary l^yer developing over
(4)
fairly level, sparsely wooded countryside. '
Figure 9 is a plot of the level of turbulence, a u , and turbulence inten-
sity, ou/U, measured upstream and at the crest of the knoll. The constant
value of the level of turbulence upstream may be interpreted as representing
the constant shear portion of the boundary layer, which may extend to approxi-
mately 100 m (328 f t ) in the atmosphere. That is, for the neutral boundary
layer, au is proportional to u j ^ , shear velocity, which is equal to "Vt/p
where t is the local shear stress and p is the fluid density. Thus, t is pro-
portional to c ^ , and if a is constant, the shear stress is constant.
I t is also interesting to note that the level of turbulence does not
change significantly as the bulk flow is accelerated over the knoll. This was
expected because i t is generally accepted that when flow is accelerated, the
longitudinal turbulence level will stay constant or decrease. Some of the
longitudinal kinetic energy will be transferred to the lateral and/or vertical
components of flow.
133
Location
X/V-4 X/ro=-2 x/v-i X/rQ.=1 X/ =2
Knoll <L V
(ZJ U U U U U u
r
o U' IT U' U' U' U U' U
0.0667
0.133
0.200 0.670 0.682 0.666 0.085
0.267 0.700 0.691 0.727 0.078
0.333 0.723 0.7?7 0.799 0.071
0.400 0.780 0.780 0.743 0.083
0.467 0.811 0.793 0.850 0.070
0.533 0.855 0.793 0.902 0.068
0.600 0.882 0.818 0.864 0.061
0.667 0.920 0.877 1.009 1.000 0.061 0.882 0.062
0.733 0.882 0.968 1.093 0.054
0.833 0.973 0.955 1.014 1.084 0.055 0.991 0.055
0.900 0.986 1.075 1.043 0.052
1.00 1.00 1.014 1.118 1.114 0.047 0.898 0.068
1.067 1.164 1.095 0.05?
1.125 1.114
1.167 1.04 1.070 1.166 1.114 1.166 0.050 1.023 0.060
1.233 1.166 1.109 1.095 0.050
1.333 1.064 1.070 1.175 1.118 1.170 0.047 1.00 0.059
1.400 1.141
1.500 1.080 1.123 1.170 1.150 1.127 0.048 1.034 0.053
1.567 1.150
1.667 1.105 1.123 1.198 1.150 1.093 0.054 1.039 0.053
1.833 1.155
2.000 1.105 1.123 1.216 1.150 1.136 0.054 1.114 0.055
2.167 1.150
2.333 1.105 1.118 1.216 1.150 1.093 0.050 1.105 0.056
2.667 1.105 1.127 1.225 1.234 1.132 0.044 1.118 0.045
3.000 1.100 1.150 1.220 1.189 1.132 0.046 1.105 0.041
3.333 1.105 1.150 1.215 1.184 1.136 0.046 1.166 0.045
3.667 1.100 1.150 1.216 1.184 1.136 0.048 1.123 0.049
4.000 1.150 1.216 1.184 1.136 0.052 1.123 0.047
(a) The results were obtained with a r0=7.62 cm (3.0 in.) andU'=13.4 cm/s
(0.44 ft/s) taken at Z=r0 upstream and 30.5 cm (12 in.) from the knoll
centerline (I).
8. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
APPENDIX A
THEORETICAL VELOCITY PROFILE AT THE CREST OF THE KNOLL
(A.l)
(A.2)
where r is the radial distance from the center of the sphere and 8 is the
angle subtended from the horizontal.
(A.3)
or
(A.4)
140
U = F U 1 + (A.5)
us I p
3 . 1/2
us - \ -U 0 I - \2 " 2r I
U,
3 3 n/2
3 r r
U 'o " o
us,Z=r 11 + —JIJ
2r 2r r
o J
or
n/2
U =U 1+ f(n) (A.7)
us,Z=r [7 " k) 2r
of the velocity at the crest of the knoll to the upstream velocity yields
in/2
U us
crest »Z=r
limit v . _ —n —
X U
us Uz.r (X)n
o
Equation A.7 for the velocity profile over the crest of the knoll now
becomes
APPENDIX B
ERROR AND UNCERTAINTY ANALYSIS
Using the chain rule for differentiation, the total differential of the
velocity may be expressed as
d U =
l i 1d X
i +2 i r d X
2 +
- - - l rnd X n
(B.3)
W
U
% uncertainty = ±tt- (B.5)
Aside from human errors, the uncertainty in the measured velocity will be
considered to be a function only of the wavelength of the laser, A, the angle
subtended by the two converging laser beams, 9, and the measured frequency of
the Doppler signal, f.
X = 0.5145 x 10"D m
8 = 0.043574 radians
f = 25,000 Hz
LX » 0.001 x 10~6 m
aq = 0.002 radians
Af « 100 Hz
145
% error = 100 1 % M ( f Y w 2+ / A |2 H 2
W
\U J U \sin 8/2I X \sin Q/2) w f
1/2
"e2
kZ sin -g '
The uncertainty in the level of turbulence was not as great as the uncer-
tainty in the mean velocity due to an analog time averaging of the true rms
meter with which the data was taken. Thus, the expected uncertainty in the
level of turbulence was
V. T H E C L I M A T I C PROBABILITY OF S N O W F A L L
I N D U C E D BY C O O L I N G - T O W E R P L U M E S
F. W . M u r r a y *
ABSTRACT
I. INTRODUCTION
some of which produced snow. Koenig (197 9) has tabulated them and
duced snow. For the colder plumes snow w a s produced only w h e n the
point and concluded that there is a physical basis for expecting snow
and the vapor density d e p r e s s i o n less than 0.5 g m""3. The amount of
2. PROCEDURE
tions throughout the United States and the rest of the w o r l d . The
humidity.
conditions
T c < - 1 3 °C (1)
D < 5 x 10
-4 kg m
-3
(2)
P v = e/RvT (5)
p s = e s /R v T (6)
e
n s(1 " e/es}
D = (7)
— - RT
V V
where
T = T c + 273.15 (9)
6
a. T (10)
2 3 3 c
j=o
( 1
DR T \
J (11)
_A
From (2) the critical v a l u e of D is 5 * 10 . Substituting this,
the v a l u e 461.51 for R^, and (9) into (11) yields a critical v a l u e of
U of
U > Uc (13)
an e x p r e s s i o n of the form
2
U = a + bT + cT (14)
c c c
154
Tc rc>
Table 1
T T e U U
c s c c
a = 67.08551548 )
b = -2.580786895 > (15)
c = -0.1634 915003 I
In order to test the method, data were secured from the National
Climatic Center for the eleven stations listed in Table 2. These sta-
tions were selected to be a cross-section of the climates of the colder
part of the United States, excluding Alaska. It was deemed that sta-
tions in the warmer part of the country would not meet the temperature
condition (1) frequently enough to justify their inclusion in a pilot
study. The data requested included all of the soundings taken in the
four coldest months—December, January, February, and March—from
December 1970 to March 1978. Since soundings are normally taken twice
d.iily, at midnight and noon Greenwich time, this amounted to 21,188
separate soundings, or an average of 1926 soundings per station.
Table 2
LIST OF STATIONS
(a) H < HT
(b) T. S -13
(c) U > a + bT + cT 2
c c
a = 67.08551548
b = -2.580786895
c = -0.1634915003
case. If, however, at least one level has missing data and no
3. RESULTS
Each sounding of the data collection was tested for the three
snowfall conditions using H T = H q + 1500. Although most plumes are
likely to stay well below 1500 m above ground level, some may rise
that high, and using a layer that deep assures consideration of at
least one standard level. Furthermore, there is the possibility
that the ground elevation of some cooling towers might be signifi-
cantly higher than that of the nearby radiosonde station, further
narrowing the layer of consideration.
A tabulation of the number of "snow" cases (Ng ) , "no-snow"
i ,m
cases (Njj ), and indefinite cases (N^ ) by station (i) and month
i,m i,m
(m) is given in Table 3. The table also gives the probability of
snow, defined as
N
s.
p = l.M
i,m Nn + Ns (16)
i,m i,m
analysis this is not exactly the probability that any given plume
Table 3
Table 4
t
Dayton Dec 100 396 0 0.202
Jan 151 342 0 0.306
Feb 135 317 0 0.299
Mar 62 436 0 0.124
Table 5
4. CONCLUSION
5. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
NOMENCLATURE
Vapor pressure Pa
s Saturation vapor pressure Pa
H
Height of observation (MSL) m
Air temperature K
Air temperature °C
c
U Relative humidity %
u Approximation to U c through %
curve fitting
-3
Saturation vapor density kg m
REFERENCES
10. Otts, R. E., 1976: "Locally Heavy Snow Downwind from Cooling
Towers," NOAA Technical Memorandum, NWS ER-62, 8 pp.
174