Fundamental Concepts in Igneous

Petrology (Chapter 1)

Ash-Rich Strombolian Activity, Stromboli Volcano, Italy

Image source: www.photovolcanica.com
1. How do we know we are dealing
with
i h iigneous rocks?
k ?
A Observational criteria (general)
A.
i. Field Criteria
cross-cut the
countryy rocks
and truncate
structures
image source: Barb Dutrow,
Dutrow
2005
 1. How do we know we are dealing
with
i h iigneous rocks?
k ?
A. Observational criteria (general)
i. Field Criteria Contact effects: chilled margins
or contact metamorphic effects

(
(above) ) Salsburyy Crags,
g , Teschenite Sill
(Edinburgh)
(right) Hutton’s step – contact
metamorphism of sandstone Image source: Barb Dutrow and Darrell Henry (2002)
 1. How do we know we are dealing
with
i h iigneous rocks?
k ?
A. Observational criteria (general)
i. Field Criteria
Geological forms
directly observed
as igneous
events:
• cinder cones
cones,
stratovolcanoes,
flows, etc.
Ash-Rich Strombolian Activity, Stromboli Volcano, Italy
Image source: www.photovolcanica.com
 1. How do we know we are dealing
with
i h iigneous rocks?
k ?
A. Observational criteria (general)
ii. Textural Criteria
Macroscopic/
microscopic
development of
interlocking texture.

• first-crystallizing minerals
are most euhedral and later
minerals are less euhedral
Gabbro - Rustenberg layered suite,Bushveld Complex: (paragenetic sequence)
Image source:
http://web.uct.ac.za/depts/geolsci/dlr/bv_thin.html
 1. How do we know we are dealing
with
i h iigneous rocks?
k ?
A. Observational criteria (general)
ii. Textural Criteria glassy textures

Ash grain from

pyroclastic
p
Osidian from a flow eruption:
Image source: Hamblin and Christiansen (2001) e.g. Mt. St. Helens
 1. How do we know we are dealing
with
i h iigneous rocks?
k ?
A. Observational criteria (general)
ii. Textural Criteria random orientation of
crystals
• except where there is crystal
settling
g or magmatic
g flow

Granite (above) and Gabbro (right)

Image source: Darrell Henry, 2007
 1. How do we know we are dealing
with
i h iigneous rocks?
k ?
A. Observational criteria (general)
ii. Textural Criteria development of pyroclastic
p
deposits ((explosive
p eruptive
p
materials)
• rapidly cooled/partly sedimentary

Rapidly cooled fragments

Rapidly-cooled
of rock and ash extruded as
a hot volcanic ash deposit -
welded tuff
Image source: Hamblin and
Christiansen (2001)
2. What does a igneous petrologist try
to assess:
• generation
i off meltsl – [how
[h many?]?]
• source of melting – [where?]
• material that is melted – [what?]
• processes that modifyy melts during
p g
crystallization, etc.? [how changed?]
3. How does a petrologist assess this?
A. Experience at looking at rocks and
interpreting
p g textures

Tokachi Volcano, Hokkaido, Japan (2006) Walter Maresch (Ruhr Univ.), Barb Dutrow
(LSU) and Dan Dunkley (Univ. Tokyo). Image source: Darrell Henry
3. How does a petrologist assess this?
B. Experimental data to simulate the
conditions at depth
p

Piston cylinder apparatus and experimental assembly from Ruhr Univ.. Image source: Barb
Dutrow, 1987
3. How does a petrologist assess this?
C. Theoretical models to extend experimental
data to other conditions i.e. thermodynamics
y

Theoretical melting models to relate decompression melting and the types of melts to
rocks. Image source: Ed Stolper (CalTech).
3. How does a petrologist assess this?
D. Knowledge of the interior of the Earth –
direct samples
p of the mantle

Mantle xenolith in alkali basalt.

Image source: Barb Dutrow, 2006 Seiad Ultramafic Complex, northern
California Image source: Darrell Henry
California. Henry, 1973
3. How does a petrologist assess this?
D. Knowledge of interior of the Earth –
indirect samples
p - meteorites
Meteorites - arrested early
stages of development of
solar nebula with no
subsequent alteration or
differentiation
• clues to the development
of the planets
Meteor
M t r Crater,
Cr t r Arizona.
Ariz n The
Th explosive
pl i
impact of a meteorite about 25,000 ybp.
Image source: Press and Siever, 2001
3. How does a petrologist assess this?
D. Knowledge of interior of the Earth –
indirect samples
p - meteorites
Irons (Fe-Ni alloy) - planetary
cores?
• 5% of falls
[Iron meteorite MALTAHOHE, Namibia Image
source: http://www.meteoriteman.com/]

Stony-irons (Metal and silicate

minerals) - partial differentiation
• 1% of falls
[Stony-iron meteorite – palllasite, Dora, New Mexico.
Image source: Smithsonian Institution]
3. How does a petrologist assess this?
D. Knowledge of interior of the Earth –
indirect samples
p - meteorites
Stones (Achondrites) –
differentiated – also SNC g
group
p
• 8% of falls
[Achondrite – Martian meteorite, Nakhla, Egypt,
Image
g source: http://www.meteoriteman.com/]
p // /]

Stones (Carbonaceous chondrite)

– primitive/undifferentiated
/
• 86% of falls
[Chondrite – Allende meteorite: Chihuahua, Mexico.
Image source: http://www.meteoriteman.com/]
4. What do we think we know about
Earth’s
Earth s interior?
A. The Earth is layered
y
Earth has layered
structure:
• crust (oceanic and
continental)
• mantle
• core (inner and outer)

image source: Press and Siever, 2001

4. What do we think we know about
Earth’s
Earth s interior?
A. The Earth is layered
Internal structure is
largely established by
variations in P- and S-
seismic waves.

• The Mohorovicic (Moho)

discontinuity at interface
of crust and upper
mantle is compositional
discontinuity.
image source: Winter (2001)
4. What do we think we know about
Earth’s
Earth s interior?
A. The Earth is layered
Low velocity zones in upper
mantle is zone of 1-10%
melting

• forms the asthenosphere

• serves as interface of
lithospheric plates and
mesophere.

image source: Winter (2001)

4. What do we think we know about
Earth’s
Earth s interior?
A. The Earth is layered
Damping of S waves in the
outer core signals presence
of liquid outer core.

Sharp increase in S-
S and P P-
wave velocities indicate
solid metallic inner core.

image source: Winter (2001)

4. What do we think we know about
Earth’s
Earth s interior?
A. The Earth is layered
Continental crust vs. ocean crust
Thicker: 25-60 km vs. 0-10 km
Older: some >4 Ga vs. <160 Ma.
Si-richer: 52-75% SiO2 vs. 50-52% SiO2.

Crust/upper mantle are coupled

as lithospheric
p p
plate to depths
p of
initial low velocity zones.

image source: Press and Siever (2001)

4. What do we think we know about
Earth’s
Earth s interior?
A. The Earth is layered
Within mantle there are
additional discontinuities that
mark polymorphic transitions of
olivine:

• 410 km olivine converts to

spinel-type
spinel type structures

• 660 km there is a transition to

a perovskite-type structure.
image source: Press and Siever (2001)
4. What do we think we know about
Earth’s
Earth s interior?
A. The Earth is layered
New player: Post-perovskite -
high-pressure
g p p
phase of MgSiO
g 3

• P and T stability at lowermost

Earth'ss mantle.
Earth mantle

p
• “Post-perovskite" derives from
name of stable phase of MgSiO3
throughout most of Earth's
mantle, i.e. perovskite.
image source: Press and Siever (2001)
 5. Hypothesis for origin of Earth?
A Early differentiation (first few 10s of
A.
millions of years?)
Differentiation process
likelyy results from
heating due to
combinations of
• gravitational
i i l collapse
ll
• accretion of
planetismals
image source: Press and Siever (2001) • Sinking of iron to form
core
• radioactive decay
Renewed interest in the Early Earth

Possible early evolution of solar system (4.57 Ga)

Alternate Early Earth scenarios
P ibl events
Possible nt
• Moon-forming
i
impactor ( 4 54 Ga)
(~4.54 G )
• Magma vs. watery
oceans (4.4-4.0 Ga)

Artist: Ron Miller

The Most Ancient Earth Materials Known

Detrital Zircons from a

conglomerate at Jack Hills,
Australia

False
F l color
l CL image
i off ancient
i t
zircon. (Wilde et al. 2001)
Alternate Early Earth timeline
Places of Other Ancient Earth Materials
 5. Hypothesis for origin of Earth?
B Resulting heterogeneous Earth composition
B.

Differentiation
produced chemical
zonation in the Earth

Defines nature of rock

types that will develop.

image source: Press and Siever (2001)

6. P
P--T-depth relation in the Earth?

Relationship between
depth and pressure

a function of weight of
the overlying column of
material.

image source: Winter (2001)

5. P
P--T-depth relation in the Earth?
In systems that flow
(ductile), P is equal in all
directions i.e. lithostatic

P = ρgh
• ρ = density
• g = acceleration of
gravity
• h = height of rock
column

image source: Winter (2001)

 5. P
P--T-depth relation in the Earth?
Near surface, rocks
behave brittly
• can accommodate small
amount of differential P
(a few kbars) before
fracturing.

density changes primarily

with composition e.g.
crust ~ 2.8 g/cm3 and
mantle ~ 3.3 g/cm3.
image source: Winter (2001)
5. P
P--depth-
depth-T relation in the Earth?
Variation of T with
depth is geothermal
gradient.
gradient

image source: Winter (2001)
Related to factors
including cooling
initiated in the early
Earth and radioactive
decay.
decay
Estimated ranges of oceanic and
continental steady-state geotherms to a
depth of 100 km using upper and lower
limits based on heat flows measured
near the surface.
5. P
P--depth-
depth-T relation in the Earth?
Heat is transferred by:
p
• radiation to space
(minor)
• conduction (thermal
(
vibration)
• convection (density
( y
differences
associated with T))
• advection (transfer of
heat with rocks).)
image source: Winter (2001)
7. Where are magmas from? – where
it is hot enough – plate tectonics
5 3 1 6 4 7 2

200 km
Continental Crust
Oceanic Crust
400 Source of Melts
Lithospheric Mantle ?
? ? ?
Sub-lithospheric Mantle
600 km

image source: Winter (2001)

1. Mid
Mid--ocean Ridges 5. Back-
Back-arc Basins
2 Intracontinental
2. I i l Rifts
Rif 6 Ocean
6. O Island
I l d Basalts
B l
3. Island Arcs 7. Miscellaneous Intra
Intra--
4 Active
4. A i C Continental
i lM
Margins
i Continental
C i lA
Activity
i i
‹ kimberlites, carbonatites,
kimberlites, carbonatites,
anorthosites...
anorthosites ...