Sec. 3.2 Designing for Geogrid Reinforcement 349 Note that these examples could just as well have been framed so as generate an ulti- mate strength from a given allowable value. This would be the case if we were working from an analytical method that generated a design value. This design value (as with the allowable) would have to be increased by reduction factors to arrive at a required (or ultimate) tensile strength. 3.2 DESIGNING FOR GEOGRID REINFORCEMENT The primary function of geogrids is invariably reinforcement; this section will proceed from one reinforcement application area to another. The order will parallel that of Sections 2.6 and 2.7 on geotextile reinforcement, with the addition of several areas that are unique to geogrids. 3.2.1 Paved Roads—Base Courses ‘The use of geogrids in paved road aggregate base courses is an area where the large aperture size of geogrids provide an excellent advantage. Here the geogrids are placed within the granular base course, typically crushed stone, with the intention of providing an increased modulus, hence a lateral confinement to the system. This lateral confine- ment is intended to resist the tendency for the base course aggregate to walk out from beneath the repetitive traffic loads imposed on the concrete- or bitumen-pavement surface. The situation is applicable for the ballast beneath railroad tracks as well, and perhaps even more so due to the nature and intensity of the dynamic loads. A number of laboratory tests have been conducted to assess the potential bene- fits and mechanisms involved, most significantly the work of Haas [21] and Abd El Halim [22, 23]. In a large test setup measuring 4.0 m long by 2.4 m wide by 2 m deep and using 10 KN loads applied sinusoidally at a frequency of 10 Hz on a 300 mm diam- eter circular plate, five test series (called /oops) were performed. Loop 1 compared the response of nonreinforced and reinforced sections using both dry (strong) and saturat- ed (weak) subgrade conditions. Failure appeared in the nonreinforced sections earlier than the reinforced sections under both conditions. Loop 2 provided data that show lit- tle difference in elastic deflection between the four trials. More significant was the angle of curvature and the elastic strain at the bottom of the asphalt pavement. Both indicate a 50% reduction for the reinforced sections, thereby indicating a significant load-spreading phenomenon. The permanent surface deformation of the reinforced section is substantially improved over the nonreinforced section. At a 20 mm failure as- sumption, the nonrcinforced section carricd 110,000 load repetitivus, compared with 320,000 for the reinforced case. In the context of the discussion on geotextiles used in the control of reflective cracking of paved roadways, this would be called a geogrid ef- fectiveness factor (GEF) equal to 2.9. Loop 3 investigated the equivalent thickness that can be attributed to the rein- forcement. The results indicate that the 150 mm reinforced section carried about 80,000 load cycles compared with only 34,000 load cycles for the 200 mm nonrein- forced and 92,000 loads cycles for the 250 mm nonreinforced. In other words, 150 mm of reinforced asphalt nearly compared with 250 mm of nonreinforced asphalt. Loop 42q ues pudoog ayy oxy “WU Q¢Z Ie SINDO LONIsUEN B PIP HON “g'¢ aANBLY UT UOALT s] Uondes pooioyUles-pUIBOOS vO} PoLIBAUOD 2q 0} SsOUYoIyL asmo9 aseq poosOsUIOT -WOU [eUONUAAUOD k sa[qeue Ivy) WeYD UsIsap Y ‘asinoo aseq ay} Jo WONO ay} Je pue aIpprut om ut pooe[d spuF0o8 Joy uaas ore ‘puann aes auf Inq ‘sanyea asayyIq| “Iva -UT] 3q 0} WdAS St OTTeA SI} ‘ssaUyoIYI asmoo aseq paosOUTaZ [EME au IsuTese ponojd OYA ‘PaLeI9UOS sI UOT}ONS PaorOsUTaIUOU-O1-PAdIOJUIAL Joy OHI v PUR ‘PaALZap St NS quawraArd-paosoyuras ay} Jo areas Uy “suoNsas PaorofUlax-pLUBoo 405 paye|ndyes Uy St J0}9eJ UOT991409-PRO| Y “PaIBIND]Ld 9q We UONIAS SSOI9 SUE J05 sjUDTeAMbo afxv-o/3uIs N08 Jo Joquinu yp ‘Isa1 YA Woy putergo ‘gs onjea 1u0ddns opessqns [10s e BuIs~) -rode] ova Jo (wun) ssouyory pure ‘(aseq ouois sejnuesd 10] F1°9 pur yfeydse 10} Op'0) sHUOIDJO09 JOKE ‘requinu jeimonns = NS P ‘p araym, (se) tp’ oz + 'p'v sz = NS st woris9s (Jonuos) paosoyurozuOU ay “Foquinu jesmons 2 jo 1doouos ayn Buisq) “{cZ] OLHSVV 40d se Jaquinu [eanjonns e areIno[eo 01 wep jequowtsadxo ows ayn Bursa onbrayooy at pouyor sayuany aaey [pz] “Te 19 [OLED (parenfeas puso -08 snoouaSowioy ‘pezntun ay 10} 9'¢ =) 40108} ssouDANDaHO puidoas = JAD pur ‘(sompaooid sommnsuy yyeydsy orp Bursa “3-0) suonspuoo (paoroyutazuoU) psepuers 1opun so9quinu oyjen uBisep = XN ‘oseo paorojutar-pusoa8 oyy 40} Joquinu syyen UBIs9p = ¥NIG axaya (Le) “st yey) ‘A{utps0d98 UsIsop pur anyea porprpour e sutumorep 07 roquinu oUFeN USISOp Oy OUT 11 OprAIP pue 101 -oby ssoUaAtToayJa pla30as & asn pnod adj ‘paussouod st ABo}opoyraur uBisop oysoods B Sv aey Sv SONINOYyIP 01 spEaT SLL “FoyTETOI Worscs ay) SuIpjoy K[dwys pur ‘so1eY -0q andnyey ayos0 SutAordun ‘Buryorso Furonpos ‘yyBuasys afisuoy Suiseasout ‘uoneur ~loJop [eWozLOY W19}-Bu0] SuIska199p “WOREUMIOJOP [RONIAA wWHIa}-Buo] Zutseas.ap ‘ssouyjns [PHU SuIsvasoUT :TUIMO]IO] By aPNIoUL SIOINLUOD a[qissod aWOg “sUIsTU -Pyoout Jo 198 xa|duwoo sayper v Aq Laqqe “PIEZO oy Aq uraisés jHOUFDALd oy 01 Pa -piaoud st Uoniouny juautaorosutol v yeyp ayeoIpUT AqTerIdAy step se Yons sarpmig. quowro10yulo1 oyp Jo Auiqedeo Suipea.ds-peo] ay) pouny -uoo pue opes8qns [los amp ur si[a0 amnssasd poafoaur ¢ doo ‘yyeydse paorosuroruow Jo WU QT 01 Og Jo SBuIARs v UT yINsax suONDDS poorOJUTOA Jey UT ‘syNsos asoMN PoULLAOD e-deya —_spriB0e5 yum BuuBiseg oseSec. 3.2 Designing for Geogrid Reinforcement 351 375 Grid at midpoint of base layer 250) Grid at bottom of base layer 125 100 mm min Equivalent reinforced base thickness (mm) 0 125) 250 375 500 625 Nonreinforced base thickness (mm) Figure 38 Geogrid-reinforced base course for paved highway section using HDPE geogrids. (After Carroll etal. [24]) placed either in the middle or at the bottom of the base course. It is important to rec- ognize that this curve is based on experimental data for the specific geogrid used. An equivalency between geogrids is difficult to suggest. Longitudinal and transverse rib strength, modulus in both directions, and junction strength are all included in the rein- forcement mechanisms, but to what degree needs product-specific investigation. 3.2.2 Paved Roads—Pavements There is ongoing research on the placement of geogrids directly within the pavement itself (bitumen or concrete). This section pertains to both new construction and reha- bilitation of existing pavements (i.e., the retardation of reflective cracks). Brown et al. [26] have reported that at high deformations of the pavement surface, geogrids clearly minimize rutting, However, at low deformations, the improvement is nominal. Keeping the geogrid tight during its placement (and possibly even prestressing it) appears to be logical, but it is clearly difficult to achieve. Equipment and techniques are described by Kennepohl and Kamel {27]. The material and type of geogrid is very important, since asphalt will not easily bond to the surfaces of polyethylene, polypropylene, or polyester rod (strap), but it can easily do so for yarn-type geogrids, particularly if bitumen coat- ed. The influence of geogrid shrinkage during placement of hot asphalt may be a prob- lem for molecular stress relaxation and loss of strength or modulus for highly oriented geogrids. In spite of the above comments, success has been reported in the prevention of reflective cracking using geogrids as crack arresters [26]. The use of geogrids to retard and minimize reflective cracking within old pavements from propagating through newly placed asphalt overlays is a topic of great interest. Results of laboratory testing by Molenaar and Nods [28] suggest thesteak ¢ 10 sapo4o 000'00S = zo00'0 _ oot (NPP) _ ee 1 (paoyoyuraruou) sajaco peo] Jo aqui ayy YoIya Woy epAoyarar 2000°0 = pO) X g OLX T= NP WV = Sp sf ayes woneSedosd-yoe1 aq, ‘paurergo are aumayy pue safo4o Jo aqui oyp Yor. ‘wos ‘pareinsqeo st ayex uopesedord yoes9 amp ‘(6'¢) uoNENba Jo mel ramod amp Huis. (ev) :wonnjog aynumnsa royne— (MEY) czy = Pty —_purRoa see raqng [sz] ou (PMV) CeO = ey spuB008 roysodjog aqeunss soyyne—("%Y) gery = dy -puBoos auapidosdKjog ayewnse soyne—(%7) ge = Ly — :a[H1x91008 uaroMUON :SMoT[O] Se SonpeA Y Ym speLayeML yuoUTZoIOsULO1 NayPUASOAT snouea Jo worsnpour ayy Suisn wajgosd ay opay (q) {WatisoL0suraL INoTALM AepsaA0 Tey -SB MoU ay) Jo (sIvaX pu sapodo Jo JOquINU Jo suUIa} UT) AUNTFOITT By st IeYA ‘UONdwNsse: amyrey uoneBedord-qny e yy ‘Aepaa0 ypeydse mau ay JO yIMoIB YoRID Jo ayer aBesOAe Oy) areIN}eD (B) “Ep JO U PUR, OL x OL JO V STUEISUOD pUk .. 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Many successes have been reported, to- gether with several attempts at a design method. The most advanced analytical method, and the one that will be used here, is that of Giroud et al. [29]. The method follows along lines similar to those described in the Section 2.6.1. The nonreinforced situation is han- dled first, and then new concepts are developed for the reinforced case. Here the mech- anisms of reinforcement are increased soil strength, enhanced load spreading, and membrane support via controlled rutting. The difference in required thickness of stone base is then compared with the cost of the installed geogrid. Ifthe latter is less expensive (as it usually is for soft soil subgrades), it is recommended for use. For the nonreinforced case, a U.S. Army Corps of Engineers unpaved road for- mula has been adapted [29] that includes the number of vehicle passages. For the ge- ogrid-reinforced case, new concepts are developed that include the above-mentioned beneficial mechanisms attributed to inclusion of the geogrid. The effects are as follows: 1. An increase in soil subgrade strength from the nonreinforced case to the rein- forced case as indicated by a comparison of the following equations: Pe = Wyn + Yho Pim = (1 + 2)eun + yh where Pe = bearing capacity pressure based on the elastic limit (nonrein- forced case), Pim = bearing capacity pressure based on the plastic limit (reinforced case), Cun = undrained soil strength at the Nth vehicle passage, ‘y= unit weight of aggregate, h, = aggregate thickness without reinforcement, and h = _ aggregate thickness with reinforcement. 2, An improved load distribution to the soil subgrade due to load spreading, which is quantified on the basis of pyramidal geometric shape. Figure 3.9 shows the angle ap for the nonreinforced case versus a similar construction for the rein- forced case where the new and larger angle is defined as a. The ratio of rein- forced to nonreinforced situations is expressed as a ratio of tan @/tan ag which Is greater than 1.0. 3. A tensioned membrane effect, which is a function of the tensile modulus and elongation of the geogrid and the deformed surface of the subgrade soil (ie., the rut depth). By taking the combined effect of the first two above-mentioned geogrid rein- forcement mechanisms and comparing it to the nonreinforced case, Giroud et al. [29] have developed the design chart shown in Figure 3.10. The membrane effect has beenSec. 3.2 Designing for Geogrid Reinforcement 355 | a0) Po fg TAT eget Figure 3.9 Concept of pyramidal load distribution. gen) t. Raoas Az0s 05s, R=0.60 oss, 070 ars No Reinforcement ‘r= Put dopth a f. i — ‘n= 10000 passages ‘n= 1,000 passages n= 100 passages n= 10 passages Figure 3.10 Design chart for geogrid-reinforced (left side) and nonreinforced t (right side) unpaved roads. (After Giroud et al. [29]) t | conservatively neglected. On the right side of the graph, for a standard axle load of 80 KN and any number of vehicle passes from 10 to 10,000, a thickness of nonreinforced stone base (hy) can be obtaincd upon estimativu of the suil subgrade strength. The rut depth turns out to be relatively insignificant. This value is then horizontally extended to the left side of the figure, where it is intersects with one of the following: * Curve 1, for BX 1200 geogrids, which assumes a large number of vehicle passes (N > 1000) where there is a significant likelihood of aggregate contamination without the geogrid. * Curve 2, also for BX 1200 geogrids, which assumes a low number of vehicle pass- es and low likelihood of aggregate contamination.“speo] al] pur ‘peop ‘s1usias ‘afedaas “{q1Avs8 0} onp ounpfey Bulsnes s1usOUL “yyBuans sways s, Nos oy 01 anp asnjrey SuNsisox syuoUIOW = Hy 1 = 5 (ors) — 4 — =a By «1 + :SMo|[OJ Se UoISsardxa Arayes Jo sore v Jo HOH -P]NULIOy 94} 10} Pamore SUL, “TS'Z pue OG"Z SOANBLY Ur ParesysnIfL seAd “UaUTOIOJUIOI Jo ssaKvy snoues oy) Sundooroqur Aqaxoyp ‘ouerd aunytey o1v sey & tA spoyoU WINLIGA -inba mtu] Jo asn ayy “(z°L'Z UONDag [[e991) soqNxa}008 Butsn podofarop o194 YU SUAS -op pur sonbruyoay atp sjaqtered Kpoomp (02 Wem sso] Jo JemUOZIOY Ip YH ofsue ue Buryeur se pouyap) sodos [Los daais 10 sjuauryuequia do10JUIO1 01 spLABOdB Jo asn UL, sedojg pue syueuyuequg 97° woo 0€0 — 090 4v 5S} pons ayeSaa3le ou, wogo = (o9'0)(0s'0) = OW = 20S'0 = y saat8 z aain*2 wog0 = soni aseo poorojuroruow auf ‘OTE amnSty SUIS], *woHN|OS pooiojutos-pufoo8 amp 104 gsasko om) aq Uaamiaq ssauyoN areTaaHe UF aouDLaANTp ay) pue“GoneUTETE}UOD areBou88e Jo pooyyjayl] Mo] & YL spLIOoS QOZE XA YE Yrdap ayedarsFe ays ‘puBoas v joys tndop aeBau8de pasmbar ayy st yey, “WU ¢/ Jo ypdop yn wnUETKEU v YIM sassed. aPNYOA opxe-prepueys QOOT AsAed 01 SIT pue ‘Q'] JO Suns YAO v sey operqns fos y ee ajdurexg, woned oyyen paziauueyo ey WU QST = 450} YY GO = ¥ woned opyen pazrouuryo ou pue ww OST > 4 JOy Cu = 4 “YY ‘pores ayeBo188e Jo yuNoUTe aU st (PaosOFUIAZ) y ue (po>10} -uraz0u) %y waomtaq eouaraTIp oy "y WWawasrojUtas pLusoas Sursn ssouyory oeBod -Se oy) ourunarap 01 suoneNba SuImoT{oJ ax Wi pash st ey oN[eA y Ue UT SyMsoI SIL “uoneuttuesuo9 ayeBor88e Jo poourfoyT] MoT pure sossed sajo1yaa Jo Joquinu mo] v souuNsse YyoryM ‘spUBO9B NOTE XM JOH ‘E OAM « e'deyg —spii60e9 ym Bulubiseq 9geUB[sap qwa[fooxa Jo Joquinu e UT payNsar aavy pue SuNapout saindwios o1 pardepe Ajooqu axe spoysau Auiquis odojs sperap asayy 104 ‘syiBu9] s194) 40 s19Xey jwaULO910} “tor atp Jo uoedo] oy SuUIWLAIOp Jo sjrerop oy) OWUI O8 r0U PIP g'¢ ajdurexg “adoys ay) Jo doy ayy pu 201 241 q10q 18 aaeds |e -vormppe Suture’ pue Kemysty 1ofew e Sunsnusuose1 Jo asvo v sMoYs [["¢ ANALY “TOTS -019 aavyins aonpas 0} pud} osye pu adojs ayy Jo aovy ayy 1B UONSedwod Ut pre siaXe asoy Stade] uowlsos0gutos Arepuooes WIM pasiodszoqun ATjensn axe sie] OUIAOIOFUL ~or ureU aqn ‘sadoys jros daays Supying vaya 10 ‘sadojs paltey ons Surronsuoses uoyM siedey 2] asm gor =u oLsz (ert)(49)(4) + o10z Ww "EN a) + Hye” SA WYN L9'9 = SIUL (aapr'"z = “ :SMO|JOy Se St aSvo paor0sUIOI-PLBo9s oy], (4) uoddey pip paaput se ‘ompey soyeorpu yoryan 1 ase posiojurartou ay 40} Arayes Jo 10r98} yy, (W) HORn[og “PL 9q 01 Moyes Jo s0198 poumnbax amp pur w ¢"pT se woUWLaDI05 -Ujad amp Jo plonueo aFeraae ayy Butsn g°[| JO s10}90j UOKINpad PIUIGWOD ue LYN {97 Jo BuoNs opeUTIN Ue YAM pUBodd oyloads v Jo s1oxej Jo JaquInU au (q) ue WUuaW29I0} “wor noYa Arazes Jo soyOeF aM (8) ouruLZaTEp “W/NY OLSZ JO TUOWOW SUIALIP e UE W/N 0102 Jo WaWOM FuNsisos v ut Funnsas sper PUL PIosUDD UNOUY Jo adoys [10s pajte} & 10 ge ardurexg ‘UBlY Afouronnxa st Yom ‘gT] = FAT] OF UAPaINbo s1 siup ‘C"]"¢ UONDAG Jad se SIO}9Ey Yononpas Jo 1x9}U09 oy} UJ “(oN]EA ayeUININ ay Jo %prg A[WO S| YOY LH/ NY Z9°9 “a1) pasn spuifoad oy soy yISuans aIqeMo|Te Moy Au9A v Pasn Kou ‘sorensNTt g'¢ afduexy SW ‘anyea sip) oz{[e01 0) JUEUTAOIOFUIAL Jo SI9KP] Jo ToquInU om pare|na[eD pu pUsos JO adA1 WoATS v TIM BuOLe ALayes Jo 10198} pasinbos e payoojas Koy, “eIwLop1[e> ut adojs Polfey & JO UoONsuoDEZ oy UaISeP 01 Yyoeosdde sip posn [gc] Jaqarg pue YLAsIOg ‘suode] quauroosojutax ayesedas Jo 1oquinu =u puv‘(s)uue juowou orudosdde = ‘aunwrey Gunstsex (s)o010) Sutpraosd ‘wpBuans juawosiosurox ajquavoye = '7 ise queweos0jUl9y pl4B095 10} BuyuBisaqg —z'g “00g-sdays ut uaaid s1 ammpasosd ufisop ayy, juauaaroyutan Jo ad4) autos Jo paou ur st pur (QT > Sal SE Tey) avers aun [Le B UL S| JUoWADuOJUIOX OYUN JwoHIOA By1 0} .OL 1 edo]s SIyp “UoHeAIESgo Ag suORNIOS -sroKv] piifoad jenprarput atp Jo qy3uay pue Suseds ‘raquine ayy aura. “(9 = "““at) ainssaid Jarem azod ou sey 11 pur “og = > pur ,WyNY gt = 4 yas sejnuLAs St [OS ULL “FT 9q 01 St A1Oes Jo LIONS OILL “ZT 'p JO S1O19e} UOHIONped PoulgutoD pur W/N Og] Jo t8uans seu] ue Furey spuToI! 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