Tce in 2.1

Initiative for Spreading Power System Education (ISPSE)
Faults , Stability and Protection Principles
Dr. A. Kumar
EA Training,Siemens AG
Power Transmission and Distribution ISPSE
1. DC and AC Networks
Copyright © SIEMENS AG PTD EA 2007. All rights reserved.

Energy Automation : Faults , Stability and Protection Principles
PTD-EA/TCE_IN_2.1/STAB / 2
Currents, Voltages and Power in DC Systems (1)
a ) Resistance Circuits a ) Inductive Circuits
I I
DC Voltage Source
L
R DC Current Source U
U
Example : Battery
Voltage = U = L* di = 0 (Since Current is Constant )

Current = I = U (Ohms Law)
dt
R
2 Power = U * I = 0
Power = U * I = I R

Currents, Voltages and Power in DC Systems (2)
c ) Capacitive Circuits
I
DC Voltage Source Summary for cases (a) to (c) :
C U 1. Only in Resistive circuits, the power is non zero.
Example : Battery In Inductive and Capacitive circuits, the power is
zero.
2. Currents in inductive circuits cannot change
instantenously
3. Voltages across capacitances cannot change
instantenously
Current = I = C* dU = 0 (Since Voltage is Constant )
dt
Power = U * I = 0

Transients in DC Systems (1)
a ) RL Circuits
U / R
U
R
Voltage Current i
I
DC Voltage Source
U L
Example : Battery
Time Time
Voltage across
Voltage = U = R * i + L* di inductance
dt
-t/T
Current = i = U ( 1 – e )
R
Time
T = L / R = Time Constant of the circuit

a ) RC Circuits
R
U U / R
i
Voltage
Current i
DC Voltage Source
U C
Example : Battery
Time Time
U
t
1
Voltage = U = R * i +
C ?I * dt Voltage across
0 capacitance
-t/T
Current = i = U * e
R
T = R*C = Time Constant of the circuit Time

a ) RLC Circuits
R
U
i
Voltage
DC Voltage Source
U C
Example : Battery
L
Time
t Time constant = 2 L / R
1
Voltage = U = R * i + L di / dt +
C ?I * dt
Current
-t/2?
0
Sin ( ? ? 2 - 1 / 4 ? )
Current = i = U * 1 * 1 2
? e t
?
R
1/4?
2
? 2
- t
TT= =2L / R == Time
R*C Time Constant
Constantof
ofthe
the circuit
circuit
?? == ?? 11/ LC
/ LC == angular
angularfrequency
frequencyofofthe
thecircuit
circuit

a ) LC Circuits
L
U
i
Voltage
DC Voltage Source
U C
Example : Battery
Time
t
1
Voltage = U = L di / dt +
C ?I * dt
0
Sin ?
Current = i = U *
t Current
? L/C
T = R*C = Time Constant of the circuit

t
?? == ?? 11/ LC
/ LC == angular
angularfrequency
frequencyofofthe
thecircuit
circuit

Currents and Voltage Phasors in AC Systems (1)
u
a ) General Concepts
?
u= 2 U cos ( ? t + ? ) I
ACVoltage Source
Example : AC Generator
~ Z u
Period = T
Voltage in Time Domain
Imaginary
Note : j is an operator
U 2 which rotates the phasor
Period T = 1 / f seconds ( f = frequency in Hertz) by 90 0 in the positive direction
?
Angular velocity of the phasor = ? = 2 p f = 2 p / T radians / Second Real
Voltage as a Phasor
Example : f = 50 Hz (Hertz) J?
u = U 2 e Note : j = -1
Period T = 1 / f = 0.02 seconds = 20 milliseconds
Angular velocity ? = 2 p f = 314.16 radians per second =U 2 ( Cos ? + j Sin ? ) = u1 + j u 2

Currents and Voltage Phasors in AC Systems (2)
b) Effective and Average Values of Voltage and Current Phasors
u= 2 U cos ( ? t + ? )
Effective (Root Mean Square) value of a Phasor
T
2
Laut definiton RMS value is =
?
1 / T u dt
0
For a sinusoidal signal u, the RMS value using the integral above is = U
Average (mean) value of a Phasor

T/2
Laut definiton Average value is = 2/T ?u dt
0
For a sinusoidal signal u, the average value using the integral above is = 2 U 2 / p

Currents and Voltage Phasors in Resistive Circuits
Imaginary
I
u= 2 U cos ( ? t + ? )
~ R u
I
?
U
Real
Voltage and Current as Phasors
Current i u = i . R = u1 + j 0
i= u/R = 2 U cos ( ? t + ? )
R
Result : Current and Voltage are in phase

Currents and Voltage Phasors in Inductive Circuits
Imaginary
I
u= 2 U cos ( ? t + ? )
~ X u
?
U
0
Real
90
Current i I
0
i= 1/L
?u dt = 2 U cos ( ? t + ? - 90 ) u = L di / dt = 0 + j ? L i
?L
Note : ? L = X and is called the inductive reactance
L
Result : Voltage across the inductance leads the current through the inductance by 90 0

Currents and Voltage Phasors in Capacitive Circuits
Imaginary
I
u= 2 U cos ( ? t + ? )
~ XC u
I
90
0
?
U
Real

Current i
=0+ i/ j? C
0
?
u =1 / c i dt
i = C dv / dt = 2 ? C U cos ( ? t + ? + 90 )
Note : ????? ?C = X and is called the capacitive reactance
C
Result : Voltage across the capacitance lags the current through the capacitance by 90 0

Currents and Voltage Phasors in R,L,C Circuits
Imaginary
R XL
I
iXL
u= 2 U cos ( ? t + ? )
~ XC i X L- i X
C
? i
iR Real
iXC
u= i[R + j( X - X )] Phasor diagrams of voltages and current

L C
= iZ
j?
Z is called the complex impedance and is written as Z e
Z Is the modulus of the impedance and ? is the angle of the impedance
Note : R = Z Cos ? and

( X - X ) = Z Sin ?
L C

Resonance in AC Networks (1) : Series Resonance
ZZ==[ [RR++j j( ( XX - - XX ) )] ]
LL CC
R XL
I If X L = X C , Z If=XRL = X C , Z = R
Current
Current is
is limited
limited only
only byby the
the resistance.
resistance.
u= 2 U cos ( ? t + ? )
~ XC This
Thiscondition
conditionisiscalled Series
calledseries Resonance
Resonance
At resonance ? ?L = 1 / ? ?C
f = ( 1 / 2 ? ) * ? 1 / LC

Resonance in AC Networks (2) : Parallel Resonance
I Z = [ R + j X L * X C / ( X L - X C) ]
R If X L = X C , ZIf=XRL = X C , Z = ?
CurrentVoltage
is limited = IZ is very
only high.
by the resistance.
i= 2 I cos ( ? t + ? )
~ XL XC This
Thiscondition
conditionisiscalled
calledseries Resonance
Parallel Resonance
At resonance ? ?L = 1 / ? ?C
f = ( 1 / 2 ? ) * ? 1 / LC

Excercise : Calculation of various values in a RLC-Network
R = 30 O L = 95.493 mH
C = 25.385 µ F
V = 100 v 2 sin ? t ~
f = 50 Hz
Calculate :
1. RMS- Value of the current
2. Maximum value of the current
3. Angle between the source voltage and the current
4. Resonant frequency of the network
5. Time constant of the network
6. Power loss in the resistance
Also draw the phasor diagram of the current and voltages across the resistance, inductance and capacitance

Alternating Current and Voltage on a Complex Plane
UR UX
im re
U U I
Reference : Current
I re im
im re
U U I
Reference : Voltage
re im
I

Derivation of the Power of an Alternating-Current System
The instantaneous power p(t) of an electric system is the product of voltage u (t) and current i (t)
p(t) = u(t ) ?i(t) (Equ. 3.34)
Assume that:
? The current and voltage are sinusoidal
? There is only one frequency (no harmonics)
then following applies :
p ?t ? = u ?t ?? i ?t ? = 2 U 2 I cos ( ? t + ? u ) cos ( ? t + ? i ) (Equ. 3.35)
??cos ( ? ? ? ) ? cos ( ? ? ? ) ?
1
with cos ? ?cos ? ? (Equ. 3.36)
2
? ?
p ?t ? = U I ?cos ( ? u ? ? i ) + cos ( 2 ? t + ? u + ? i ) ? (Equ. 3.37)
?? ??konstant
? ? ?? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?? ?
? pulsierend mit doppelter
constant pulsating with double frequency nz ?
a networkNetzfreque
The average of this power is called effective power.

t? T
1
T ?
P? p(t)dt
(Equ. 3.38a-c)
t
? U ?I ?cos ( ? u ? ? i ) with ? u-? i = ?

? U ?I ?cos ?
Definition of Electrical Power
p(t) = um• sin ? t • im• sin (? t + ? )
? = 0° ? = 60° ? = 90°
u, i
u, i u, i
t t t
p(t) p(t) p(t)
t t t
Active Power Active and Reactive Power Reactive Power

Power-Related Terms
Complex apparent power S ? U ?I* Electrical behaviour (Equ. 3.50)
Apparent power S ? U ?I Thermal design (Equ. 3.51)
Active power P ? Re? U ?I *? ? S ?cos ? (Equ. 3.52)
Reactive power Q ? Im? U ?I *? ? S ?sin ? (Equ. 3.53)
Complex alternating power S ~ ? U ?I Mechanical design (Equ. 3.54)
P
Power factor cos ? ? (Equ. 3.55)
S
P
Loss factor tan ? ? (Equ. 3.56)
Q

Representation of Power Terms by Vectors
Reactive
current = Active current
Since
S ? U ?I *
? U ?(I w ? jI b ) (Equ. 3.57)
what applies is
Qind ? 0
Representation of Power p(t) in the Complex Plane
Im
S S ? U Ie j2 ? t
2?
S~ = U I
???
i
?u ? ?i
-? i S = U I* = P + jQ
U
Q
?
I
? ? ?u ? ?i ?u ?i
P Re
p( ? t ? 0 )

Signs of Power and Reactive Power in the 4 Quadrants of the Complex Plane
(+) Active Power (+) Active Power

re
(-) Reactive Power (+) Reactive Power
U
im I
(-) Active Power (-) Active Power

(-) Reactive Power (+) Reactive Power

Active-, Reactive- und Apparent Power (1)
P = U • I • cos ? S
100
%
Q = U • I • sin ? 75
50 Q P
S = U•I 25
0
S = P² + Q² 0° 15° 30° 45° 60° 75° 90°
?

Active-, Reactive- and Apparent Power (2)
Q = S² - P²
p(t) p(t) p(t)
P S Q
P
t t t
Current and Voltage Angle 60° between Angle 90° between

Current and Voltage Voltage and Current
In Phase

Notation for the Three-Phase AC System
Abbreviations:
1 3 Note : a is an operator
a = e j120 ? = cos 120 ? + j sin 120 ? = - ? j
2 2 which rotates the phasor
by 120 0 in the positive direction
1 3
a = e j240 ? = cos 240 ? + j sin 240 ? = - ? j
2
2 2 I L3 Im
(Equ. 3.67 a-b) 240°
240°
Following is valid: 120°
1 + a + a = 1 + e j120 ? + e j240 ? = 0
2
-240°
(Equ. 3.68) I L1 Re
If abbreviations are used following results: -120°
IL1 = I
IL2 = I ?a
2
I L2
IL3 = I ?a (Equ. 3.69 a-c)

Three-Phase AC System
i
iL1
L1 iL2
L2 iL3 here: ? = 0
L3
e-j240°
- j120 2 0 0 1
e = a = cos 120 - j Sin 120 = - 0.5 – j 0.866
- j240 0 0
e = a = cos 240 - j Sin 240 = - 0.5 + j 0.866 e-j120°
iL1(t) = î ?cos ( ? t + ? ) IL1 = I
î
iL2 (t) = î ?cos ( ? t + ? - 120 ?) IL2 = I ?e - j120 ? =
2
a I with I? ?e j ?
2
iL3 (t) = î ?cos ( ? t + ? - 240 ?) IL3 = I ?e - j240 ? = a I
(Equ. 3.65a-c) IL1 ? IL2 ? IL3 = I ?(1 ? e - j120 ? + e - j240 ? )
?0
2
= 1+a + a (Equ. 3.66a-e)
Three Independent Single-Conductor Systems
UL1
IL1 = UL1 / ZL1 ZL1 UL1
IL1 = UL1 / ZL1 ZL1
UL2
IL2 = UL2 / ZL2 ZL2
UL3
IL3 = UL3 / ZL3 ZL3
I0 = IL1 + IL2+ IL3 = 0?

Voltage Customer
source

Change from Single-Conductor Systems Over to a Three-Phase AC System
If it can be proved that

I L1 = I
I L2 = I ? a
2
I L3 = I ? a (Equ. 3.70a-c)
the back conductor, which has remained, can also be omitted without no need to vary
the electrical properties of the system.
UL1 IL1 = UL1 / ZL1 ZL1
A simple solution is:
UL1 = U
UL2 = U ? a
2
UL3 = U ? a (Equ. 3.71a-c)

and ZL1 = ZL2 = ZL3 (Equ. 3.72)
? Symmetric three-phase AC system

U0 = 0

Power Types in the Three-Phase AC Network
Complex apparent power

UL1 L1 S ? U L 1 ?IL 1* ? U L 2 ?IL 2 * ? U L 3 ?IL 3 *
S ~ ? U L 1 ?IL 1 ? U L 2 ?IL 2 ? U L 3 ?IL 3
UL2 L2
Symmetry
(Equ. 3.77), (Equ. 3.78)
U L1 = U
UL3 L3 U L 2 = U ?a
2
U L 3 = U ?a (Equ. 3.79a-c)
IL1 IL2 IL3
I L 1 = I ?e j ? i I L 1* = I ?e ? j ? i
ZL1 ZL2 ZL3
IL 2 = I ?a ?e j? i
2
IL 2 * = I ? a ? e ? j ? i
IL 3 = I ?a ?e j? i IL 3 * = I ?a ? e ? j? i
2
(Equ. 3.80a-c), (Equ. 3.81a-c)

S = U ?I ?e -j ? i + a ?a ?U ?I ?e -j ? i + a ?a ?U ?I ?e -j ? i
2 2
= 3 ?U ?I ?e -j ? i
= 3 ?(P ? jQ) = constant (Equ. 3.82a-c)
S ~ = U ?I ?e j? i + a ?a ?U ?I ?e j? i + a ?a ?U ?I ?e j ? i
2 2
= U ?I ?e j? i (1 ? a ? a )
2
= 0 ! (Equ. 3.83a-c)

Power types in Symmetric Three-phase AC System
Apparent power
S ? 3 ?U? ?I (Equ. 3.84)
? 3 ?U? ?I (Equ. 3.85)
Effective power
P ? 3 ?U? ?I ?cos ? (Equ. 3.86)
? 3 ?U? ?I ?cos ? (Equ. 3.87)
Reactive power
Q ? 3 ?U? ?I ?sin ? (Equ. 3.88)
? 3 ?U? ?I ?sin ? (Equ. 3.89)

Active-, Reactive- und Apparent Power (1)
P = 3 • U • I • cos ? S
100
%
Q = 3 • U • I • sin ? 75
50 Q P
S = 3 •U•I 25
0
S = P² + Q² 0° 15° 30° 45° 60° 75° 90°
?

Benefits of Three-Phase AC Systems as Compared to Single-phase or Direct Current Systems
? Savings of material
? No alternating current powers
? Revolving and no pulsating magnetic fields
? Transformation readily possible on various voltage levels

Large transmission distances at low losses
? Two voltage levels are at the customer‘s disposal
? The system can be broken up into three single-phase systems at any time

2.Symmetrical Components and Short Circuit

Calculations

Why Symmetrical Components ?
? A Power System is in a balanced state most of the time

i.e. the currents and voltages in all the three phases are
equal in magnitude and the angle between the phases is
equal to 1200
? During system faults (Short circuits and open circuits) and unbalance load
conditions, the magnitudes and angles may not be equal
? A mathematical tool is required to analyze the behaviour of the power

system during such disturbances. Symmetrical components are one
such tool

What are Symmetrical Components ? (1)
Basic Approach
Any phasor of a three phase system can be represented as a linear combination

of three arbitrary phasors :
AR a1 a2 a3 A1
As ? b1 b? b? A2
AT c1 c2 c3 A3
System Phasors Arbitrary Arbitrary

coefficients Phasors
In the year 1918, C.L.Fortescue of Westinghouse presented a paper

at a AIEE-meeting and presented his symmetrical components

Network Calculation - Symmetrical Components
U1L1
U1 1 a a2 U L1
1
U2 ? 3 1 a2 a UL2
U0 1 1 1 UL3 U1L3 U1L2
1
UL1 Positive sequence U1 = (U + a UL2+ a² UL3)
3 L1
U2 L1
U2 L2 U2 L3
UL3 1
UL2 Negative sequence U2 = (U + a² UL2+ a UL3)
3 L1
U L1 1 1 1 U1
UL2 ? a2 a 1 U2
UL3 a a2 1 U0 U0 L1
1
Zero sequence U0 = (U + UL2 + UL3)
3 L1
Advantages of Symmetrical components
? Positive and negative sequence networks are balanced three phase

systems and hence easy to handle
? Zero sequence network is a single phase system and hence calculations

are simple
? Calculations with sequence components can be made independently

and the results combined to get back the system phasors
Note : Symmetrical Components cannot be used if the input signals

have more than one frequency

Display Methods for System Values
UL1 UL1
UL1(t) = ÛL1 sin? t
t
t Mathematical
equations
Time characteristic Vector(Phasor) display
Positive sequence
Negative sequence
UL1
Zero sequence
Phase-related display
Symmetrical components

Symmetrical Component Networks
0 0
I Z
m m m g g g
U I Z U I Z
~ ~ • •
• ~ • • ~ • • •
~ ~ 0 3I
0
U ~
Positive Sequence Network Negative Sequence Network
Zero Sequence Network
m g 0
U U 0
U
m g
Z = m Z = Z = 0
g
I I I
m
Note : Only U is nonzero, since electrical generators produce only positive sequence
g 0
voltages. Hence U and U are = 0

Equivalent Circuits for Positive, Negative and Zero Sequence Systems
Since positive and negative sequence networks are symmetrical and

zero sequence network is a single phase system, the following
equivalent circuits result
m m
I m m qm m m
qm Z U U = U - Z • I
U ~
g g g g qg g g g g
qg Z I U U = U - Z • I = - Z • I
U ~
=0
0 0 q0 0 0 0 0
q0 0 I U
0
U = U - Z • I = - Z • I
U ~ Z
=0

Fault Current Calculations : Line to Line Faults
Positive sequence ~
Negative sequence
No Zero sequence
UN
I =
k2
Z1 ? Z 2
Note : U N is the line to line Voltage

Fault Calculations : 3-Phase Faults
Positive sequence ~
No Negative sequence and

Zero sequence
UN
IK =
3 ?Z

Fault Current Calculations :Double Line to Ground Faults
Positive sequence ~
Negative sequence
2
-j U N [(1 + a ) Z 2 + Z 0 ]
IS =
Zero sequence
Z1 Z 2 ? Z 2 Z 0 ? Z1 Z 0
j UN [(1 + a ) Z 2 + Z 0 ]
IT =
Z1 Z 2 ? Z 2 Z 0 ? Z1 Z 0 Note : U N is the line to line Voltage

Fault Current Calculations : Single Line to Ground Faults
Positive sequence ~
Negative sequence
Zero sequence
3 ?U N
I k1 = 3 I 0 =
Z1 ? Z 2 ? Z0

Vector Diagram for Solidly Grounded Systems
UL1
UL1 = 0
UL2 UL2
Normal operation 1-phase short circuit

Low-Impedance Neutral Grounding
Ik1
Ik1 – 1-phase short-circuit current
Low-impedance neutral earthing
?Transient overvoltages for earthing via resistor kt ? 1.8

?Voltage rise of the fault-free phases cf ?
?Ik1 = f (Neutral impedance, fault location) 3 Ik1 ? ? Ik3
?Selective fault clearing

Fault current calculation : Low-Impedance Neutral Grounding
Positive sequence ~
Negative sequence
Zero sequence
3 ?U N
I k1 = 3 I 0 =
Z1 ? Z 2 ? Z0
Examples for Zero-Sequence Impedances of Lines
Line type Voltage level Zero sequence Zero sequence

resistance R'0 reactance X'0
Overhead lines
110 kV 0.4 ... 0.2 ? /km 1.0 ... 1.5 ? /km

20 kV 0.6 ... 0.2 ? /km 1.5 ? /km
10 kV 0.6 ... 0.2 ? /km 1.6 ? /km
Cables
Oil cable 110 kV 0.8 ... 0.4 ? /km 0.4 ... 0.2 ? /km
XLPE cable 110 kV 0.6 ... 0.5 ? /km 0.3 ... 0.2 ? /km
Lead-sheath cable 20 kV 0.6 ... 0.4 ? /km 0.4 ... 0.3 ? /km
Lead-sheath cable 10 kV 2.0 ... 1.1 ? /km 0.5 ... 0.2 ? /km

Zero Sequence Equivalent Circuits for Transformers (1)
P S
? ?
P S
?
Z PS
P S
P S
Z PS
P S
P S
Z PS
P S
?
P S
Z PS
P S
P S
Z PS

Zero Sequence Equivalent Circuits for Transformers (2)
ZP ZS
P S
? ?
?
P S ZT
T
T
ZP ZS
P S
P S ZT
T
T
ZP ZS
P S
?
P S ZT
T
T
S
P S Z PS 3ZE
ZE

Per Cent and Per Unit Values (1)
Definition of a Per Unit and Per Cent value
The numerical per unit value of any quantity is its ratio to the chosen base quantity of the same dimensions, expressed as a
Decimal. If the same value is multiplied by 100, it becomes the Per Cent value.
Note that the per unit and per cent values are dimensionless.
For example if base voltage is chosen as 30 kilovolts(kv), voltages of 20 kv, 30 kv and 45 kv become 0.67, 1.00 and
1.5 per unit respectively. Percent wise they become 67%, 100% and 150%
Advantages of this form of representation
The performance of a whole line of apparatus (Transformers, machines etc.) regardless of its size can often be expressed
By a sigle set of constants.
Another advantage of this method, is that it permits the comparison of the performance of apparatus of different ratings.

Single Phase Systems
Normally voltage (kv) and kva (or mva) are chosen as the two independent base quantities.
Base power is then numerically equal to base kva(or mva). With these base quantities following
equations result :
Base current in amperes = base kva / base voltage in kv.

2 3
Base impedance in ohms = base voltage in volts / base current in amperes = (base kv) x 10 / base kva

Three Phase Systems
For three phase equipment, rated kva(mva) is generally given for the three phases and rated voltage
is line to line voltage.
Base kva per phase is 1/3 of the 3 phase kva and the base line to neutral voltage is base line to line
voltage divided by v 3 .
Base phase current in amperes = base kva per phase / base voltage line to neutral in kv. =
3 phase base kva / base line to line voltage x v 3

2 3
Base impedance in ohms = ( base line to line voltage in kv ) / base 3 phase kva x 10

Change in Base values
In Power systems, it is quite common that different components of the system have different
specified base quantities.
For short circuit calculations, it is necessary to use one common base system.
The following equations permit the conversion from one base to another.
Per unit impedance on new kva base =
per unit impedance on given kva base x new kva base / given kva base
Per unit impedance on new kv base =

2
per unit impedance on given kv base x ( given kv base / new kv base)

Example for a Fault Calculation using Symmetrical components and per unit values (1)
Find the per unit values of the symmetrical components of current and voltage, the line currents and the line to ground
and the line to line voltages for a zero impedance fault on phase a of a generator with following data :
Generator ratings : 15000 kva, 13.8 kv
Positive sequence impedance : 0.007 + j 0.35 per unit
Negative sequence impedance : 0.05 + j 0.45 per unit
Zero sequence impedance : 0.007 + j 0.06 per unit

Solution :
The given conditions are
Ea = 1.0; Z1 = 0.007 + j 0.35 ; Z2 = 0.05 + j 0.45 0.007 + j 0.35
and Z0 = 0.007 + j 0.06 V a1

I a1
Positive sequence Ea ~
Ia1 = Ia2 = Ia0 = 1.0 / (Z1 + Z2 + Z0)
0
= 1.160 85.7 = 0.086 – j 1.156
0.05 + j 0.45
Va0 = - Ia0 x Z0 = -0.070 + j0.003
Negative sequence V a2
I a2
Va2 = - Ia2 x Z2 = -0.524 - j0.022
Va1 = Ia1 x ( Z2 + Z0 ) = 0.594 - j0.022 0.007 + j 0.06
Line Currents : Zero sequence V a0

I a0
Current in phase a Ia = Ia1 + ia2 +ia0 = 3 x Ia1
= 0.258 – j3.468

Line Currents ( contd) : 0.007 + j 0.35
Current in phase b V a1
I a1
Ib = ( a 2x Ia1 +a x ia2 + ia0 ) = Positive sequence ~ Ea
2
= Ia1 x ( 1 + a + a ) = 0
Current in phase c
0.05 + j 0.45
2
Ib = ( a x Ia1 +a x ia2 + ia0 ) = V a2
Negative sequence
2 I a2
= Ia1 x ( 1 + a + a ) = 0
Voltage of phase a
0.007 + j 0.06
Va = ( Va1 + va2 + va0 ) = 0 ( Faulted phase)
Zero sequence I a0
V a0
Voltage of phase b
2
Vb = ( a x Va1 +a x Va2 + Va0 ) =
= - 0.140 – j 0.964

Voltages (contd)
0.007 + j 0.35
Voltage of phase c
V a1
2 I a1
Vc = ( a x Va1 +a x Va2 + Va0 ) =
Positive sequence ~ Ea
= - 0.070 + j 0.973
Line to line Voltages

0.05 + j 0.45
Vab = Vb – Va = - 0.140 – j 0.964
Negative sequence V a2
Vbc = Vc – Vb = 0.070 + 1.937 I a2
Vca = Va – Vc = 0.070 – j 0.973

0.007 + j 0.06
Zero sequence I a0
V a0

Short Circuit –Current Waveforms for different Fault Locations and Fault Instants
Fault at voltage maximum Fault at voltage zero
Minimum DC Transient Maximum DC Transient
t t
Network Faults
Fault at generator
terminals
Very high fault

current t

Short Circuit Current and Short Circuit Power

Short Circuit levels at Different Voltage Levels
350 MVA 30 MVA 400 kVA
380 kV 110 kV 20 kV 400 V
SK“ = 32 GVA SK“ = 4.6 GVA SK“ = 350 MVA SK“ = 10 MVA
IK“ = 45 kA IK“ = 24 kA IK“ = 10 kA IK“ = 15 kA
bei 10 kV
SK“ = 350 MVA I K“ = 20 kA

Short Circuit Calculations
Dahlem 20 kV SS Schmitz
WEA Reetz
Nato
~
Hallschlag SS1
UN = 20 kV
Dahlem 110 kV SS IK = 3,97 kA WEA
? K = 79,1° Collas
SK = 137,64 MVA
~
110 kV Netz
SK = 2,8 GVA 3,5 km NA2XSY
Kyllerberg
1x150mm²
Backes

Formula for Simplified Calcualtions in % / MVA
Transformer
Network
Sk‘‘ • SN, uK Line
Z, l, UN
• •
Synchrongenerator
SN, xd‘‘ • „
S K in MVA
1,1 • 100 xd“ in %
XNetwork =
SK“
SN in MVA
xd“ „ 1,1 • 100
XSynchron. = SK = uK in %
SN ? X
Z in ? / km
uK „
XTransfor.. = „ SK l in km
SN IK =
3 • UN UN in kV
Z • l • 100
XLine = X in % / MVA
U²N
Power Transmission and Distribution T PoweISPSE
r
s Example for Simplified Calculations in % / MVA
raini
Cent g
n
er
110 kV 20 kV
• •
Network Transformer Line
3 GVA 110/20 kV NA2XS2Y, 1x150mm2
30 MVA, uk=12% 3 km, Z=0,227 ? /km
1,1 • 100
Xnetwork = = 0,037 % / MVA
3000
„ 1,1 • 100
12 SK = = 181,2 MVA
XTrafo = = 0,400 % / MVA 0,607
30
0,227 • 3 • 100 „ 181,2

XLine = = 0,170 % / MVA IK = = 5,3 kA
20² 3 • 20
? X = 0,607 % / MVA
r
s Short Circuit Voltage of Transformers
raini
Cent g
n
er
„
IN .
„
SN.
100 100
Ik max = S k max =
u k [%] u k [%]
Example
Ratio Capacity uk I k max S k max
20 / 0,4 kV 400 kVA 4% 25 • I N 10 MVA
110 / 20 kV 30 MVA 12 % 8,33 • I N 250 MVA
380 / 110 kV 350 MVA 21 % 4,76 • I N 1670 MVA

r
s Short Circuit Currents in 3. Ph Networks (1)
raini
Cent g
n
er
L1
ZL IK IK
L1
U L2
L3
L3 L2 1 2
IL1
U
1 3 Ph. Fault IK = (100%)
3 • ZL IL3 IL2
U
2 2 Ph. Fault IK = (85%) IL2 IL1
2 • ZL

Short Circuit Currents in 3. Ph Networks (2)
L1
ZL
L1
U L2
IK
L3
L3 L2 ZE
N
U
1. Ph Fault Four wire network I K = (50% assuming ZL = ZE)
3 • (ZL + ZE)
3•U
1. Ph Fault Three wire network IK =
(Zm + Zg + Z0)

Damping of Short Circuit Currents
30 MVA NA2XSY 3x1x150 mm² Z = 0,227 ? / km

110 / 20 kV
uK 12 %
5 10 15 20 km
kA
10
?„
Ik
5
5 10 15 20 km
Line length ?

Short Circuit Power with Parallel Operation of Transformers
110 kV
40 MVA 40 MVA
uK 12% uK 12%
333 MVA 333 MVA
20 kV
666 MVA

1.Phase Fault
IK
ZL
L1
U1
L2
L3 ? K
ZN IK
N
L1 In general :
U
IK =
3 • ? ZL + ZN ?
L3 L2

2.Phase Fault without Ground
ZL
L1 U 23
L2 ? K
L3
IK
IK
L1
In general :
U
IK =
2 • ZL
L3 L2

Two Phase to Ground Fault
ZL
L1
L2
L3
IK
ZE
L1 L1
L3 (L3) (L2) L2 L3 (L3) (L2) L2

2 ph. Fault without ground 2.Ph fault with ground

3.Phase Fault
IK
ZL U1
L1
L2 ?K IK
L3
L1
In general :
U
IK =
3 • ZL
L3 L2

Simultaneous Fault (1)
ZL
L1
L2
L3
IK
ZE

Simultaneous Fault (2)
L1
L2
L3
IL2 , IM
1. Fault point
IL2 , IL3 L1
L2
L3
IL3 , IM
2. Fault point

Short Circuit Current Waveform for different Fault Locations
Far from Generator Close to Generator

IK'' = Anfangs-Kurzschlußwechselstrom
Strom obere Einhüllende Strom
ip = Stoßkurzschlußstrom
IK = Dauerkurzschlußstrom obere Einhüllende
abklingende DC-Komponente
iDC = abklingende DC-Komponente des abklingende DC-Komponente
2 2 I k ? 2 2 I k' ' Kurzschlußstromes
2 2 Ik ' ' A = Anfangswert der abklingenden 2 2 Ik ' '
ip
ip
DC-Komponente 2 2 Ik
A
A
Zeit
Zeit
untere Einhüllende
untere Einhüllende
Constant AC Component 50 / 60 Hz Constant AC Component 50 / 60 Hz

Decaying DC Component Decaying DC Component
Time Constants Time Constants
Medium Voltage 10 ms ... 50 ms Medium Voltage 10 ms ... 100 ms
High Voltage 50 ms ... 100 ms High Voltage 50 ms ... 250 ms
EHV 80 ms ... 150 ms EHV 80 ms ... 250 m
Generator level bis zu 500 ms

Short Circuit Current Waveform for Faults at Generator Terminals
?
N [ ( 1 / X d – 1 / X d ) exp(- t / T
? ?
Ik= ?2 U d)
+ ( 1 / X?d – 1 / X d) exp (- t / T ?d) + 1 / X d cos ? t [

+ ?2 U
?
N / X d exp ( - t / Tg)
Subtransient Time Constant T ?d

Transient Time Constant T ?d
Steady State Time Constant Td
Note : Resistance of generator stator neglected

Characteristic Values for 3.Phase Synchronous Generators

2.Planning of Transmission and

Distribution Networks
Design Criteria

Topics
? Basics
? Medium Voltage Networks
? Low Voltage Networks
? Transmission Tasks
? Planning of Urban Networks

Tasks of Electrical Networks
? Transmission
? Distribution
? Reliability of Supply
? Compensation
? Synchronisation

Demands on Electrical Networks
? High Availability
? Low Losses
? Less Space Requirements
? Environmental friendly
? Low Costs
? Flexible
? High Quality of Supply

Users of High Voltage Networks
? Public Power Supply Companies

Power Grids, National Netwotks, Regional Networks, Urban Networks
? Industrial users
Steel, Cement. Chemical Industries, Automobile Industry
? Generating Systems
? Traction Networks
Remote Trains, Local Trains
? Special Networks
Airports, Hospitals, Laboratries, yards

Voltage Levels
Extra High Voltage 1200 kV

Transmission 765 kV
380/ 400 kV
275 kV
High Voltages
220 kV
150 kV
110 kV
60 kV
Medium Voltages
30 kV
20 kV
10 kV
6 kV Distribution
Low Voltages
600 V
400 V

From Generation to Consumer
380 kV
110 kV
10 kV
20 kV
0,4 kV

Reasons for Network Planning
? State analysis
?New Structuring
? Retrofit oder Strenghthening
? Choice of Voltage level
? Switchgear Concept
? Comparison of alternatives
? Determination of Investment costs
? Layout of Protection Concepts
? Network calculations
? reduction of losses
? Training
? Solution of operational Problems

Planning Criteria
? Imax Load Current
??U Voltage drop
? Ik min, Ik max Short Circuit Currents
? n-1 Reliability
?€ Costs
? Availability of Trenches
? Network Dynamics
? Future Developments

Quality of Supply with Electric Energy
? Power
? Sufficient
? Voltage
? Amount Umin < U < Umax
? Frequency fmin < f < fmax
? Symmetry U0 < U0,max Zero-sequence voltage
U2 < U2,max Negative-sequence voltage
? Harmonics Uh < Uh,max Harmonic voltages
Ih < Ih,max
? Reliability
Hu < Hu,max Frequency of breaks
Tu < Tu,max Duration of breaks
? Price
? Price to be as low as possible

Methods of Neutral Earthing of Power Transformers
Neutral point connection (see VDE 0141)

Designation Schematic circuit diagram Notes
Small MV networks for
Insulated neutral
power plant internal use
point
Distribution networks
10 kV to 110 kV networks
Ground-fault
having a large open-wire
compensation
portion
using a Petersen
coil
Low-resistance 110 kV to 380 kV networks

neutral point
(with short interruptions)
grounding
Transmission networks
(immediate direct
grounding) Interconnected networks
Low-resistance
neutral point 10 kV to 110 kV networks
grounding having a large cable
(curren- limiting Distribution networks
grounding)

3. Power System Stability

Power Transmission – The basic Equation
P
V1 , ? 1 V2 , ? 2
G~ G~
X
V1 V2
P = ( 1 - ? 2)
sin (?
X
Power-Flow Control

Power Transmission – Types of Stability

Generator Operation Motor Operation
Power Pe
Stable Operation Unstable Operation
Mechanical Power Input Pm

Power Angle (? 1 - ? 2)
Steady State ( Dynamic) Stability
The capability of synchronous machines to remain stable under the condition of small load changes
is referred to as steady state(dynamic) stability.
Since modern power systems do not just have one machine but many machines supplying a network,
the steady state(dynamic) stability refers to the network of machines.

Transient Stability
The capability of synchronous machines or systems to remain stable under large impacts for example
Faults or loss of a major generating unit is called „Transient Stability“

Power Transmission – Power Swing Equation

Power Swing
The dynamic state of a synchronous machine is governed by the power swing
equation : Pa = M d2 ? / dt 2
For single synchronous machines, ? is called torque or rotor angle.
For a network of machines, ? could be referred to as power angle.
M = angular Momentum of the machine (network)
Pa = Accelerating power of the rotor = Mechanical Power Input Pm – Electrical Power Output Pe
Unstable power swing
Stable power swing

d
Rotor angle
Time in sec
Example of a typical swing curve
System Stability – Equal Area Criterion

System Stability – Equal Area Criterion with Faults
A2

4. Protection Principles

Tasks of Power System Protection

The protection device can not prevent
a power system fault • but:
?Minimize the consequences
• by:
• Fast and selective tripping of
devices effected by the fault
• automatic reclosure in case of
transient failures
• Providing all necessary
information for failure clarification
That will not happen with the right and rapid restoration of the power
protection system!
system

Cosequences of Power System Faults
? Danger to Operating Personnel
? Damage to Power Equipment
? Loss of System Stability and

Power Interruption

Typical Reasons for Faults
Faults on OHL
Atmospheric impact (lighting, ice,wind)
fast plant growth (trees, bush fires)
mechanical impact (cranes, planes)
Faults on cables
Isolation-flashover (i.e water in cable joints)
Thermical overload
Mechanical damage (i.e. shovel excavator)
Faults on transformers, CTs/VTs and Motors
Break down of the insulation (ageing, transient overvoltages)
Thermal overload
Faults on busbars
Short circuit caused by external elements (isolators falling down, exploded
CTs/VTs)
(in MV by animals)
Switching Errors (i.e. switch onto earth or switching off of the sectionalizers
under load)

Fault-Statistics
(VDEW fault- and damage statistics 1986)
20 kV: 110 kV: 380kV
18042 2385 357 faults

(13 per 100 km) (4,9 per 100 km) (3,4 per 100 km)
of which: of which: of which:
60 % 31 % 51 % atmospheric impact
11 % 4% 4% external impact
2% 5% 8% internal impact
23 % 40 % 11 % no defined reason
4% 20 % 26 % feedback from other power systems

Types of Faults
• 3-pol. short circuit 3-pol. interruption
HV EHV
5% 1%
2-pol. short circuit 2-pol. interruption
25 % 6%
1-pol. short circuit 1-pol. interruption
70 % 93 %

Basic Requirements of Protection Systems (1)

Speed : Clear the fault
as fast as necessary, (Time grading !) Se
e.g. short-circuits should be cleared within the ivity ns
itiv
ct ity
le
critical tripping time (i. e. <100 ms in power Se
transmission systems)
to reduce damage and to ensure stability of the
power system.
Reliability : Function correctly when required

1. Must operate during faults which are within its
Sp ity
ee il
d
liab
zone of protection (Dependability).
Re
2. Should not operate for faults outside its protective
zone or no operation during unfaulty condittions
(Security).

Basic Requirements of Protection Systems (2)

Selectivity : Selective isolation
of the faulty component of the power system Se
ivity ns
itiv
network.
lect ity
Se
Realised through grading of a protective device
threshold, timing or operating characteristics.
Sensitivity : Ability of the device to initiate

protective action, when the sensed quantities Sp
ee ility
exceed the threshold (Pick-up or set value). d
liab
Re

Protection Zones
Protection Zones
1. Generator
2. Transformer
3. Busbar
4. Feeder
5. Motors

Definition of Basic Terms used in System Protection (1)

Primary Protection :
are protective relays within a given protection zone that should operate for
prescribed abnormalities within that zone.
Sometimes such relays are referred to as „ main protection „.
Pickup Value 1) :
The minimum input that will cause a device to complete contact operation or
similar designated action.
This value is also sometimes called „ threshold value „ or „ set value „
Dropout 1) :
A term for contact operation (opening or closing) as a relay just departs

from pickup. Also identifies the maximum value of input quantity which will
allow the relay to dropout. 1) IEEE Standard Dictionary of Electrical and Electronics Terms

Definition of Basic Terms used in System Protection (2)

Local Relay Backup protection 1) :
A form of protection that operates independently of specified components

in the primary protective system and that is intended to operate if the
primary protection fails or is temporarily out of service
Local Breaker Backup protection :
A form of protection that is triggered by the local protection and detects

breaker fail conditions. If such a condition is identified, this protection gives
a trip command to all the breakers necessary to clear the fault.
Remote Backup protection 1) :
A form of backup protection in which the protection is at a station or

stations other than that which has the primary protection
1) IEEE Standard Dictionary of Electrical and Electronics
Terms Copyright © SIEMENS AG PTD EA 2007. All rights reserved.

Measuring Signals and Criteria for Fault Detection and Clearence
Current I I> I I>> ? I SI dI

dt
Voltage V V> V< dV
dt
Impedance Z Z< dZ
dt
Frequency f f> f< ?f df

dt
Phase angle f ?f df
dt
Power S P Q S(t)
Note : In numerical systems, only the
currents and voltages are the input signals.
Temperature ? ?> ? ? d?
Other measuring quantities are derived
dt
(calculated) from these two inputs

General Block Diagram of a Protective Relay
Bus Bar
Bus isolator Trip Command to

Circuit Breaker Trip Coil
Breaker
Currents +
CT
Protective
Voltages Relay
VT
Line isolator
+ -
DC Power Supply
from Station Battery
Note : Earthing Switches not shown Note : Other Binary Inputs and Outputs not shown

Measuring Principle of Overcurrent Protection (1)

Tripping characteristics of a two-step definite-time protection (DMTL)
t [sec]
2.0
1.5 Tripping area
1.0
0.5
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 x IN

I> I>>

Measuring Principle of Overcurrent Protection (2)
Tripping characteristics of an inverse-time protection (IDMTL)
I Inverse
t [sec] D definite
2.0 M Minimum
T Time
1.5
L Lag
Characteristical curves:
?IEC
1.0 ?ANSI
?British Standard
0.5
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 x IN

Measuring Circuit of Overcurrent Protection
L1
Definite Time
IL1
Tripping area
L2
IL2 OR - Inverse
- Very Inverse
L3 Inverse Time
IL3 - Extremely Inverse
- Long inverse
N
IN

Time – Current Characteristic acc. IEC 60255-3 / BS
0.14 .Tp
Inverse : t =
( I / I p ) 0.02 - 1
13.5 .Tp
Very Inverse : t =
( I/Ip)- 1
120 .Tp
Long Inverse : t =
( I/Ip)- 1
80 .Tp
Extremely Inverse : t =
( I/Ip)2- 1
T p = Time multiplier Setting

I p = Current Setting
I = Short Circuit (Fault) Current
Time – Current Characteristic acc. IEEEE / ANSI
8.9341
Inverse : t = ( 2.0938
+ 0.17966 ).D
( I/Ip) - 1
3.922
Very Inverse : t = ( 2
+ 0.0982 ).D
( I/Ip) - 1
5.6143
Long Inverse : t = ( 2.0938
+ 2.18592 ).D
( I/Ip) - 1
5.64
Extremely Inverse : t = ( 2-
+ 0.02434 ).D
( I/Ip) 1
D = Time Dial Setting

I p = Current Setting
I = Short Circuit (Fault) Current
Principle of Directional Measurement (1)
Notes : 1. For directional measurement, a reference measuring signal is required

2. Only in the faulty section, currents at both line ends are in the forward direction
Current
Short circuit angle (> 90 0 )

Voltage as reference
Voltage as reference
Short circuit angle (< 90 0 )
Current
Forward Fault Reverse Fault

Measuring Circuit of Directional Overcurrent Protection
I>> t
IL1
I> t
Direction
& TRIP
UL1
Fast stage (I>>): directional
Back-up stage (I>): non-directional

Fundamentals of Distance Protection
Why Distance Protection ???

1. Transmission circuits are invariably multi-source loop systems, which
transmit huge blocks of power from the generating sources to the the distribution
centres. Fault levels are generally high, and if faults are not cleared rapidly, they
can cause system instability , extensive damage and hazards to personnel.
Faults on transmission line must be cleared as soon as possible (Fault clearing
time < 100 ms for EHV-systems). Since they carry huge blocks of power, system
restoration demands a rapid automatic reclosing.
2. Simple overcurrent relays (directional or non-directional ) cannot be used, since

they are too slow and their performance is dependent on infeed conditions at the
time of fault. Further, the fault current must be much higher than the maximum load
current, which is not always true for transmission line faults.

Basic Measuring Principle
Currents
Calculation of Impedances
and
Voltages Comparison with the settings
Distance Relay –Block Diagram

I
U
?Z
U Load
Load
I
I
U
U Load
?Z Fault
I
Since Impedance is proportional to Distance to fault,
this protection is called Distance Protection

Z Fault
?? Z Load

Representation of Impedance on a Complex Impedance Plane

X
Example : 380 kV line loaded with 600 MW,
Unity Power Factor. Line Z = l ? Z'
Fault Line
The line is 200 Kms long and has
following line data :
Z = 0.26 ohms / Km at an angle of 80 0.
X (4.51 + j 25.6 ) O
UN
2
Fault at the middle of the line

Z Load =
80 0 S Load
X
I R 241 O
U Load
Load
2
UN
Z Load = = 241 Ohms = R
S Load
U Load
Z = 0.26 x 100 = 26 O 80 0. = (4.51 + j 25.6) O

Fault
Mathematical Basis for Impedance Calculations (1)

L1 Note : Voltages , currents and impedances I1
Zs1 Z1
L2 are complex
L3
Positive sequence ~ U1 U F1
I2
Zs2 Z1
Zs1 : Positive sequence impedance of the infeed
Negative sequence U F2
U2
Zs2 : Negative sequence impedance of the infeed
I0
Zs0 : Zero sequence impedance of the infeed Zs0 Z0
Zero sequence U0 U F0
Z1 und Z0 : Positive (negative) and zero sequence
impedance of the line upto fault respy
UL1 = U1 + U2 + U0 = UF1 + I1 x Z1 + UF2 + I2 x Z1 + UF0 + I0 x Z0 Relay Location

= (UF1 + UF2 + UF0) + Z1 x (I1 + I2 + I0) + I0 x (Z0 – Z1)
= Z1 x IL1 + IE x (Z0 – Z1 ) / 3 = Z1 x IL1 + IE x ZE
Phase to ground Fault
= Z1 x ( IL1 + IE x ZE / Z1 )
UL1 / ( IL1 + IE x ZE / Z1 ) = Z1 Impedance measured by the relay


L1
Note : Voltages , currents and impedances I1
L2 Zs1 Z1
are complex
L3
I2
Zs2 Z1
U2
Relay Location
Z1 : Positive (negative) sequence
impedance of the line upto fault
Phase to Phase Fault
2 2
UL2 = a x U1 + a x U2 = a x (UF1 + I1 x Z1) + a x (UF2 + I2 x Z1)
UL3 = a x U1 + a 2 x U2 = a x (UF1 + I1 x Z1) + a 2 x (UF2 + I2 x Z1)
UL2 - UL3 = (a 2 – a ) x [ (UF1 - UF2) + Z1 x ( I1 - I2 ) ]= (a 2 – a ) x [ Z1 x ( I1 - I2 ) ]
IL2 - IL3 = (a 2 – a ) x ( I1 - I2 )
UL2 - UL3
= Z1 Impedance measured by the relay
IL2 - IL3

Mathematical Basis for Impedance Calculations (3a)

L1
L2 Zs1 Z1
are complex
L3
I2
Zs2 Z1
U2
I0
Z1 : Positive (negative) sequence Zs0 Z0
impedance of the line upto fault Zero sequence U0 U F0
UL2 = a 2 x U1 + a x U2 + Uo = a 2 x (UF1 + I1 x Z1) + a x (UF2 + I2 x Z1) +( UF0 + I0 x Z0)

UL3 = a x U1 + a 2 x U2 + U0 = a x (UF1 + I1 x Z1) + a 2 x (UF2 + I2 x Z1) +( UF0 + I0 x Z0)
UL2 - UL3 = (a 2 – a ) x [ (UF1 - UF2) + Z1 x ( I1 - I2 ) ]= (a 2 – a ) x [ Z1 x ( I1 - I2 ) ] Relay Location
IL2 - IL3 = (a 2 – a ) x ( I1 - I2 )
UL2 - UL3 2 Phase to ground Fault

= Z1 Impedance measured by the relay
IL2 - IL3

Mathematical Basis for Impedance Calculations (3b)

L1
L2 Zs1 Z1
are complex
L3
I2
Zs2 Z1
It can also be shown, for this fault type, : Negative sequence U F2

U2
I0
UL2 / ( IL2 + IE x ZE / Z1 ) = Z1
Zs0 Z0
and
Zero sequence U0 U F0
UL3 / ( IL3 + IE x ZE / Z1 ) = Z1
Summarizing :
Relay Location
For a 2 phase to ground fault, the phase to phase loop of the faulty phases
as well as the phase to ground loops of the faulty phases measure the same
Impedance. 2 Phase to ground Fault


L1
L2 Zs1 Z1
are complex
L3
UL1 = U1 + U2 + Uo = (UF1 + I1 x Z1) = I1 x Z1

IL1 = ( I1 + I2 + I0 ) = I1 Relay Location
UL2 = a 2 x U1 + a x U2 + Uo = a 2 x (UF1 + I1 x Z1) = a 2 x I1 x Z1
3 Phase (to ground) Fault
IL2 = a 2 x I1 + a x I2 + Io = a 2 x I1
UL3 = a x U1 + a 2 x U2 + U0 = a x (UF1 + I1 x Z1) = a x I1 x Z1
IL3 = a x I1 + a 2 x I2 + Io = a x I1
Hence the impedances measured by the 6 loops are :
UL1 / IL1 = Z1
UL2 / IL2 = Z1 1. The Currents and Voltages are symmetrical
UL3 / IL3 = Z1 2. All the 6 loops measure the same Impedance

(UL1 – UL2) / (IL1-IL2) = Z1
(UL2 – UL3) / (IL2-IL3) = Z1
(UL3 – UL1) / (IL3-IL1) = Z1

Measured Impedance with Resistance Faults (1)

L1 Note : Voltages , currents and impedances
I1
L2 are complex Zs1 Z1
L3
Fault Resistance RF Positive sequence ~ U1 U F1
I2 3RF
Zs2 Z1
U2
Impedance measured by the relay : I0

Zs0 Z0
UL1 / ( IL1 + IE x ZE / Z1 ) = Z1 + 3 RF Zero sequence U0 U F0
Relay Location
Phase to ground Fault with fault Resistance


L1 Note : Voltages , currents and impedances I1
Zs1 Z1
L2 are complex
L3
Fault Resistance RF RF
I2
Zs2 Z1
U2
Relay Location
Impedance measured by the relay :
UL2 - UL3 Phase to Phase Fault with Fault Resistance

= Z1 + R F
IL2 - IL3


L1
L2 Zs1 Z1
are complex
L3
Fault Resistance RF
I2
Zs2 Z1
Impedance measured by the relay : Negative sequence
U2 U F2
3RF
UL2 - UL3 I0
= Z1
IL2 - IL3 Zs0 Z0
UL2 / ( IL2 + IE x ZE / Z1 ) = Z1 + 3 RF Zero sequence U0 U F0
and
UL3 / ( IL3 + IE x ZE / Z1 ) = Z1 + 3 RF
Relay Location
Phase to Phase Fault with Fault Resistance

Fundamental Equations for Impedance (Distance) Calculations (1)
IL1 ZL
ZL = RL + j XL
IL2
IL3
ZE = RE +j XE
IE ZE
UL1 UL2 UL3

6 loops: 3 phase- phase loops and
3 phase- ground loops
phase- phase -loop: UL1-L2 = ZL ( IL1 - IL2)
Measured current
measured voltage
The same applies to the other phases

Fundamental Equations for Impedance (Distance) Calculations (2)
IL1 ZL
ZL = RL + j XL
IL2
IL3
ZE = RE +j XE
IE ZE
UL1 UL2 UL3
phase-ground-loop: UL1 = ?L1 · ( RL + j XL )- ?E · ( RE +j XE)
?L1, ?E measured current

measured voltage
The same applies to the other phases

Directional Measurement with Distance Relays

Current I Current I
A B C
Z< Z< Z< Z<
Summary : 1 2 3 4
1. Both relays 2 and 3 measure the same
X Line C Line
impedance magnitude but different X
angles.
e
Voltag
2. In this example, the relay 3, which sees
the fault in the forward direction, measures
Fault
X
an impedance angle of 80 0 and relay 2 80 0
0.
80 0
measures an angle of - 100
B
e
R B
Voltag
R
Current as
3. Distance Relay 3 gives a trip command Current as reference
X
Fault
reference
to ist breaker, since fault in the forward 00 Z=U 00
Z=U
direction and relay 2 does not, since fault - 80 0
I 100 0 I
in reverse direction
Measuring Signals for Directional Measurement (1)

The measuring signals for the six measuring loops for distance measurements
are :
Phase to ground Loops Phase to Phase Loops
UL1 and ( IL1 + IE x ZE / Z1 ) ( UL1 – UL2 ) and ( IL1 – IL2 )
UL2 and ( IL2 + IE x ZE / Z1 ) ( UL2 – UL3 ) and ( IL2 – IL3 )
UL3 and ( IL3 + IE x ZE / Z1 )

( UL3 – UL1 ) and ( IL3 – IL1 )
Can we use the same signals for the six directional measuring loops ?

Can we use the same distance measuring signals for the six directional measuring loops ?
Current I Current I
F2 F1
A B C
Z< Z< Z< Z<
1 2 3 4
For a close in fault (Fault at the beginning of the line section ahead (F1) and behind the
relay location (F2) ) the voltage is almost zero.
Measurement of direction with the faulty voltage will not give a unique result.


~ ~ ~
~ ~ ~
fault L1-E
~ ~ ~
VL1 Zgrid Relay Zline
Vf
VN
If
VL3 VL2 VL3
fault-free VL2
faulty phase voltage VL1
Vf
VN
If
If
VL3 VL2 VL3 VL2
Vdir
sound-phase voltages voltage memory
for single and two phase For
faults 3-phase faults

Example of Pickup Characteristics of Distance Protection (1)

X
Line Characteristic
Dis
tan
X1
ce
Ch
ara
cte
ris
tic
R1
R1E
Di
R
re
ct
io
na
l
Ch
ar
ac
te
ris
tic
Quadrilateral Pickup Characteristic ( Electronic and Numerical)

Example of Pickup Characteristics of Distance Protection (2)
Mho Pickup Characteristic Quadrilateral Pickup Characteristic

( Electromechanical,Electronic ( Electronic and Numerical)
and Numerical)

Grading (Remote Backup) with Distance Protection
grading time
(s)
0.6
0.3
X X X X X X X
X Circuit Breaker
Grading with Infeed from two ends

Teleprotection Schemes
Why use tele-protection?
1 2
Faults in this area Faults in this area Faults in this area

are cleared after t2 are cleared without additional are cleared after t2
at line end 2 time delay at both line ends at line end 1
Faults on approximately 75% of the line length are cleared
without delay at both line ends
Faults in the remaining 25% of the line length

are cleared with a time delay (Not acceptable in HV and EHV Systems) .
Solution: Exchange of information between the two line ends
Required: Communication channel (PLC, microwave radio, fibre optic, etc.)

Teleprotection logic (dedicated device or internal
function in numerical protection devices)
High Resistance Ground Fault Protection (1)

Why necessary?
Many clients do not accept distance relays for detecting and clearing high resistance earth faults,
due to the difficulty in setting.
A common practice is to use directional overcurrent relay . A block diagram is shown below.
I o > Setting
Earth fault in
& Forward direction
Forward direction
Two Issues !
1. How to measure the direction ?
2. All the faults in the forward direction (beyond the line section) are measured without
selectivity
Current I Current I
F2 F1
A B C

Method for Directional Measurement
Measure the angle between Io of the line and a reference (polarising) quantity.
The polarising signals are either the zero sequence voltage (from an open delta) or
the zero sequence current in the transformer neutral connected to the bus.
_ _ ?
F2 F2
A B A B
3 x Uo ( Open delta voltage )
_
OR ? _
Zig-Zag Transformer Delta-Star Transformer
Note : In numerical relays, this open delta voltage can be calculated Source of polarizing current

Method to ensure selectivity
Current I Current I
F2 F1
A B C
Transmit a signal to remote end
I o > Setting Earth fault in Phase selection and hence single pole
& Forward direction breaker opening not possible
using this method
Forward direction
Received signal from remote end

& Trip command to breaker
Fault at F2 Fault at F1
-A sends a signal to B, indicating a forward fault
-Relay at end A sends a signal to B, indicating a forward fault
-Relay at end B sends a signal to A, indicating a forward fault -B sees a reverse fault and does not send any signal to A
- Both the breakers in line AB trip - Line AB remains in service
- Relay C in the line BC sends a signal to B indicating a forward fault - C in the line BC sends a signal to B indicating a forward fault
- Relay B in line BC meaures a reverse fault and does not send a signal to C - B in line BC also sends a signal to C indicating a forward fault
- Line BC remains in service - Both the breakers in line BC trip

Logically dependent Supplementary Functions to Distance Relay (1)
1. Single and three pole autoreclosing

For faults within the proteced zone (line section) the distance relay trips without
intentional time delay. In cases where single pole breakers are used, single phase faults
result in the opening of the faulty phase. Once the breaker opens at both line ends,
the fault current gets interrupted and the arc at the fault location extinguishes. After a
certain delay (around 1 s for single phase faults and is called the dead time), a reclosing
command is given to the closing coil of the circuit breaker. If the fault still hangs on
(permanent fault), in most of the cases the breakers at both line ends open out in all the
three phases and the breakers lockout.
In the case of a mutiphase fault, all three poles of the breaker open at both line ends.
Depending upon the network, a fast reclosing after a dead time of around 0.3-0.5 s may
follow. If the fault is permanent, the breakers at both line ends open out and are locked.
Note : Single pole breaker opening and reclosing is not practiced with cable networks,
since, cable faults are generally permanent.

SIPROTEC 4 - 7SA Automatic reclosure (ARC)
Trip Close Trip Close Final

1-pole Trip
3-pole
*
Close
Trip
1st 2nd
t1 dead time t2 dead time tgrading
ADT = close after successful ARC at remote end

* DLC = reclose only when line is dead
RDT = reduced dead time after non-selective trip
2. Dead line check and Check-Synchronizing

When breakers get locked out after unsuccesful reclosure, or if the line has to be chraged,
it is necessary to ensure that the bus voltages and the line voltages are synchronous, before
the breaker is closed.
When the breakers at both line ends are open, normally at one line end, a dead line check is
made and if the line is dead, the breaker is closed. After charging the line at one end,
the voltages of the line and the bus must be synchronous, before closing the breaker.
For the voltages to be synchronous, following conditions must be satisfied :
1. The voltage difference | ? U | < set value
2. AND the difference in frequency of the voltages | ? f | < set value
3. AND the difference in the phase angle of the voltages| ? f | < set value
If required, these tests can be carried out for all the three phases and also can be ensured
that the phase sequence of the line and bus voltages are the same.

3. Distance to Fault Location

If distance relays trip and open the breakers due to faults, it is very useful to know,
the distance of the fault from the line end. Using this data, the maintenance staff can
carry out the necessary repairs and ensure fast restoration. The result of distance
measurement is an indication of the location of the fault. The reactance measured by the
distance relay is a more accurate indication of the fault location than the impedance, since
the fault resistance can influence the accuracy of fault location based on impedance
calculations.
In numerical relays, the fault calculation can be done very accurately, since the fault data
(currents and voltages) is stored.
A fast distance estimation is used for breaker tripping and a slow and accurate distance
determination is done using the stored fault data.


4. Overvoltage Protection (Ferranti effect)
Transmission line model using distributed parameters
IC
IC
-I CX L
I CX VS VR
L
A VS VR B V S= V R + I CX L
Under light (no) load conditions or if the breaker at the remote end is open, the voltage at the remote end
is higher than the sending end voltage. Longer the line higher is this voltage .
The voltage has to be monitored and if it increases beyond a certain value, the breaker has to be opened.

Current Differential Protection (1)

Principles of differential protection
Determination of a current difference ( Based on Kirchoff‘s law)
A hole is in
the bucket! ?
I1 I2 I1 I2
Protected unit Protected unit
i1 i1
i2 i2
i1
? I> ? I=I1 - I2 ? I> ? I=I1 + I2
=0 i2
External fault, Internal fault

or load
Current Differential Protection (2)

IP1 IP2 IP1 IP2
I1F I2F IF
Protected Protected
object object
IS1 IS2 IS1 IS2
IS1 IS2
?I IDiff =¦ I1 + I2¦ ?I IDiff =¦ I1 + I2¦
internal fault external fault or load
Assumption: CT- ratio: 1/1 Assumption: CT- ratio: 1/1

IP1 = I1F IP1 = IF
IP2 = I2F IP2 = -IF
IDiff = ¦ IP1 + IP2 ¦ = ¦ I1F + I2F ¦ IDiff = ¦ IP1 + IP2 ¦ = IF - IF = 0
? Trip ? no Trip
Used for Protecting :

Requirements for Differential Protection:
?Lines / Cables
Internal faults ( between CT-sets ) ? Trip ?Generators / Motors (> 1MVA)
External faults ? no Trip ?Transformers (> 1MVA)
?Busbars
Transformer Differential Protection

Basic Measuring Principle
CT 1:
CT 2:
e1= - 5%
I P1 e2 = + 5% I P2 = -I P1
IF
Protected
object
IRest I Rest =¦ I S1¦ +¦ I S2¦

I Rest = 2·I P1
I S2=
I S1= 1.05·I P2
0.95·I P1
I Diff= ¦ I S1+ I S2¦
IDiff
I Diff = 0.1·I P1

Busbar Differential Protection
Fault detecting Principle
Uses Kirchoff‘s law

?I
0 which states :
Vectorial sum of a current at a node is zero
G M
Grid-
infeed Load

IEEE Std C37.2.1996 Device Numbers (1)
3.1.21 Device number 21—distance relay

A device that functions when the circuit admittance, impedance, or
reactance increases or decreases beyond a predetermined value.
3.1.25 Device number 25—synchronizing or synchronism-check relay

A synchronizing device produces an output that causes closure at zero-phase angle difference between
two circuits. It may or may not include voltage and speed control. A synchronism-check relay permits
the paralleling of two circuits that are within prescribed limits of voltage magnitude, phase angle,
and frequency.
3.1.27 Device number 27—undervoltage relay

A device that operates when its input voltage is less than a
predetermined value.
3.1.30 Device number 30—annunciator relay

A nonautomatically reset device that gives a number of separate visual indications upon the
functioning of protective devices and that may also be arranged to perform a lockout function.


3.1.49 Device number 49—machine or transformer thermal relay
A device that functions when the temperature of a machine armature winding or other load-carrying
winding or element of a machine or power transformer exceeds a predetermined value.
3.1.50 Device number 50—instantaneous overcurrent relay

A device that operates with no intentional time delay when the current exceeds a preset value.
3.1.51 Device number 51—ac time overcurrent relay

A device that functions when the ac input current exceeds a predetermined value, and in which the input
current and operating time are inversely related through a substantial portion of the performance range.
3.1.52 Device number 52—ac circuit breaker

A device that is used to close and interrupt an ac power circuit under normal conditions or to interrupt this
circuit under fault or emergency conditions.
3.1.59 Device number 59—overvoltage relay

A device that operates when its input voltage exceeds a predetermined value


3.1.62 Device number 62—time-delay stopping or opening relay
A device that imposes a time delay in conjunction with the device that initiates the shutdown, stopping,
or opening operation in an automatic sequence or protective relay system.
3.1.63 Device number 63—pressure switch

A device that operates at a given pressure value or at a given rate of change of pressure.
3.1.67 Device number 67—ac directional overcurrent relay

A device that functions at a desired value of ac overcurrent flowing in a predetermined direction.
3.1.68 Device number 68—blocking or “out-of-step” relay

A device that initiates a pilot signal for blocking of tripping on external faults in a transmission line or
in other apparatus under predetermined conditions, or cooperates with other devices to block
tripping or reclosing on an out-of-step condition or on power swings.
3.1.74 Device number 74—alarm relay

A device other than an annunciator, as covered under device function 30, that is used to operate,
or that operates in connection with, a visual or audible alarm

3.1.79 Device number 79—reclosing relay
A device that controls the automatic reclosing and locking out of an ac circuit interrupter.
3.1.81 Device number 81—frequency relay

A device that responds to the frequency of an electrical quantity, operating when the frequency or
rate of change of frequency exceeds or is less than a predetermined value.
3.1.85 Device number 85—carrier or pilot-wire relay

A device that is operated or restrained by a signal transmitted or received via any communications
media used for relaying.
3.1.86 Device number 86—lockout relay

A device that trips and maintains the associated equipment or devices inoperative until it is reset
by an operator, either locally or remotely.
3.1.87 Device number 87—differential protective relay

A device that operates on a percentage, phase angle, or other quantitative difference of two or
more currents or other electrical quantities.

3.1.94 Device number 94—tripping or trip-free relay
A device that functions to trip a circuit breaker, contactor, or equipment; to permit immediate
tripping by other devices; or to prevent immediate reclosing of a circuit interrupter if it should
open automatically, even though its closing circuit is maintained closed.

Local Breaker Back up Protection

B2
B3
Current I Current I
F2
B1
A B C
Z< Z< Z< Z<
1 2 3 4
For a fault at F2, distance relays 1 and 2 give a trip command to the respective breakers.
If one of the breakers fails to open, all the breakers connected to the same bus section as the
faulty breaker have to be opened out to interrupt the fault current.
This breaker fail detection is done by breaker fail protection which is initiated by trip commands
of all the relays which trip the breaker.
Task of Breaker Failure Protection
I> :
CT current
50BF
To trip only the bus section,
& to which the bay with the faulty
Start BFP t2
breaker is connected!

Example of a Protection System using IEEE-Device numbers
ON
OFF
+ –
59 Overvoltage
59 25 79 ST = 25 Check synchronism
= 79 Autoreclosure
ST Control
21 Distance protection
21 FO M FR 49 FO Fault locator
FR Fault recorder
M Measurement
Back-up 85 67N 49 Overload
Protection 67N Earthfault determination
85 Teleprotection
Modem
opp.
line end

Redundancy Concept for EHV Lines : 2 Main Relays
52 TC 52 TC
87 BB
B2
50 BF + - B2
B1
B1
+ -
87 L
21
VT Protection Group B
Protection Group A (Main 2 )
( Main 1 )

Redundancy Concept for HV Lines : 1 Main Relay
52 TC
87 BB
50 BF
B1
B1
+ -
21
VT
Protection Group A
( Main 1 )

5. Basics of Generator Protection

Machine Protection - What Does it Mean ?
Machine Protection includes

all devices which are able to detect faults
and abnormal operation situation in machines
and react to this.
? Rotating Machines
Generators (synchronous / asynchronous)
Motors (synchronous / asynchronous)
? Static Units
Transformers
Special Features of Generator Protection
? Multitude of different Protection Functions
? Several trip circuits with different voltage levels
? Phase sequence switch-over (Pump Storage PP)
? Individual Power Plant Control System
G
Protection device has to be :
Sensitive Fast Selective Reliable

Faults in Synchronous Generators 1
Internal Faults:
Stator: Rotor, Excitation circuit:
? Earth Faults ? Earth Fault
? Short Circuits (2- and 3 phases) (single, double)
? Interturn faults ? Underexcitation
(with split stator winding) (partly respec. complete)
? Overload ? Over voltage
? Over excitation (U/f)

Faults in Synchronous Generators 2
External Faults:
Grid/Transformer: Turbine, Regulator:
? Earth Faults ? Loss of Prime mover
? Short Circuits (Reverse Power)
? Overload (Stator, Rotor) ? Over- and Under voltage
? Negative Phase Sequence ? Over- and Under Frequency
? Asynchronous operation ? Over Excitation (U/f)
(cap.Load, long fault duration) (Influenced by regulator)
? Torsionalstress
? Under frequency (PG < PU)
Short Circuits
A) Internal Faults
1) Isolated neutral 2) Low resistance
(or high resistance grounding) (or solidly grounded neutral)
L1
3phase short circuit
L2
L3
Single phase short
Interturn fault circuit
Phase to phase short circuit (Resistor limits the
fault current)
B) External Faults In 1) earth faults are also possible
Generator is the e.m.f. for the short circuit

Transformer currents and becomes to stress
? Back-up protection
Grid

Main Components of Machine Protection (Part 1)
Generator - Differential Protection; 87G

Transformer - Differential Protection; 87T
Overcurrent Time Protection; 50, 51V
Impedance Protection; 21
Stator Earth Fault Protection for:
Generators directly connected to the busbar; 67N
Generators connected to the busbar via unit transformer
Protection Range 90 % ; 64
Protection Range 100 %; 64 100%
Rotor Earth Fault Protection; 64R
Unbalanced Load (Negative Sequence) Protection; 46
Reverse Power Protection; 32R

Main Components of Machine Protection (Part 2)
Overvoltage Protection (Undervoltage); 59, (27)

Over and Underfrequency Protection; 81
Underexcitation (Loss of field) Protection; 40
Stator Overload Protection; 49
Overexctation (U/f) Protection; 24
Out of Step Protection; 78
Breaker Failure Protection; 50BF
Rotor Overload Protection; 49R
(Overcurrent at excitation transformer)
Interturn Fault Protection
(separate Stator windings - hydro generators)
Tripping matrix (Software matrix)

Typical Short Circuit Current Waveforms
I??SC= Subtransient short-circuit current

I?SC = Transient short-circuit current
- t
? ?
2 ? ?' ' - ?' ?e T' 'd
k k
ISC = Steady state short-circuit current
- t
2 ?? ' '
k ? k k
?
2 ? ?' - ? ?e T' d
2 ??
k
- t
2 ??' 'k ?e Tg
Driving Voltages U??p < U?p < Up
Actual reactances X??d < X?d < Xd
Time Constants T??d < T?d < Td
Short circuit current Subtransient part transient part Steady state DC - current
short circuit current
? t t t ?
? ? ? ?
? - - - ?
ik ? 2 ? I ' ' ? I ' ?e T' ' d sin?? t - ? ?? I ' - I ?e T' d sin?? t - ? ?? I sin?? t - ? ?? I' ' ?e Tg sin? ?
k k k k k k
? ?
? ?

Example of a Short-Circuit Current Waveform
Data: SN = 200 MVA (Synchronous generator)

xd = 1,78 x´d = 0,24 x´´d = 0,16
TG = 0,097s T´d = 1,125s T´´d = 0,05s
Rotor (e.m.f) voltages Short circuit currents

2,25 1,11
Up Up´ Up´´ IK ? ? I N ? 1,26I N I ´K ? ? I N ? 4,6 IN
.U Xd X?d
Turbo generator 2,25 1,11 1,07 N
.U 1,07
Salient pole generator 1,8 1,2 1,13 N I ´´K ? ? I N ? 6,7 I N
X?d?
Fully asymmetrical DC component Without Dc offset

Requirement for Rotor Earth Fault Protection
Stator
Rotor +
Earth (ground) fault Excitation
in the rotor system
-
RE CE
? in case of an earth fault, only small currents flow due to non earthing
Problem:
Double earth faults and interturn faults as a consequence of an earth fault cause:
• magnetic unbalance
• high currents at the fault location
? Destruction of the Rotor

Task: Detect an earth fault immediately when it starts to build up

Protection Principle for Rotor Earth Fault Detection
+ Coupling Voltage
Measuring Source
Unit
Excitation
system
-
„Earthing brush “
Methods:
- Coupling of an AC voltage (50 Hz or 60 Hz)
- Measuring of the earth fault current Higher
- Measuring of the earth fault resistance Sensitivity
- Coupling of low frequency square wave voltage

Connection Block Diagram (50 Hz/60Hz - Injection)
L1 L2 L3
Connection
to the earthing
brush
>40V
105? 4? F
IE,Stray IE
If stray current is too high

Pick-up limit:
IE,Fault > IE,Stray...
IE,Fault 0,75H
coordinated Relay
resonant circuit to fN

Basic Diagram: Injection of Low Frequency (1- 3 Hz) Square Wave Voltage
7XR6004
RV
Controlling device
IE (7XT71)
+
RV
-
UH Ucontrol
Excitation
Digital
CE RE Protection (7UM62)
RM Umeas.
RE Fault resistance
RV Coupling resistor
UH Auxiliary supply ( ? 50V) Measuring transducer
RM Measuring shunt resistor
CE Rotor capacitance

Basic Principle: Injection of Low Frequency Square Wave Voltage
Equivalent circuit: 50V

UH
RV
2 t
UH - 50V
CE RE
UM
RM UM
1,88V
? ?
RV
?CE
2 ? UM ? 0 RE ? ?
iE t
UM ? RM ?i E
RV - 1,88V
? 20k?
2 UM
RM ? 375 ?
? UM ~
1 RE ? 5k?
U H ? ? 50V 0,75V RE
t
- 0,75V

Need for Reverse Power Protection
Turbine
Active power Situations:
G Network • Steam loss of the turbine

(e. g. valve leakage)
iL1,iL2,iL3 uL1,uL2,uL3
• Normal shutdown of the unit
Protection Device (opening of the valves)
• In both cases an active power is flowing from the network to the generator,
generator runs as a motor and drives the turbine
• This condition leads to overheating of the turbine blades
• The network circuit breaker must be interrupted in a short time

Ranges of Reverse Power
Turbine
Active power
P mach
steam turbine: (1 ? 3)%
Network
S N ,mach
G
P mach
gas turbine: (3 ? 5)%
iL1,iL2,iL3 uL1,uL2,uL3 S N ,mach
diesel drive: P mach

Protection Device ? 5%
S N , mach

Unbalanced Load (or Negative Sequence) Protection
Negative Overheating
Physics:
sequence of the rotor
Results:
1. The negative sequence heats the rotor
2. This heating is the reason for using a thermal model
(differential equation first order)
3. The transient behaviour of such a thermal model is an exponential function
(For a step negative sequence, the temperature increases exponentially)
4. The curve, given by generator manufacturer, takes only into consideration
the heating but not the cooling. The simplest form of this curve is
(I2/IN)2 t = C.
5. It's necessary to calculate the parameters (k-factor and time constant)
from the generator manufacturer data

Negative Sequence Curve of a Generator (supplied by Generator Manufacturer)
Formula 1: Formula 2:
[(I2/IN)2 - (K2)2] t = K1 [(I2/IN)2] t = K1
with: I2/IN actual negative sequence

K2 constant permissible negative sequence (0,02 -0.2)
K1 constant depends on the generator design (5 - 30s)
Permissible time [sec.]
10000
Example:
1000 K1 = 10 s
Formula 1 K2 = 0.1
Formula 2
100
10
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
Negative Sequence [p.u.]

Trip Characteristic of the Negative Sequence Function (Unbalanced Load Protection)
Unbalanced load
alarm stage I2>
t
T WARN
Tripping area
Thermal
tripping stage
Unbalanced load
tripping stage I2>>
Thermal
alarm stage
T >>TRIP
I2perm I2>> I2

Reasons for Underexcitation

- Failure of the excitation device
• short circuit in the excitation circuit
ZLoad
• interruption in the excitation circuit
- Maloperation of the automatic voltage regulator
- Incorrect handling of the voltage regulator
(generator, transformer)
- Generator running with capacitive load
GS excitation
3~ device
- Countermeasure:
Underexcitation Protection
Note: This protection is also called

Loss of Field Protection

Capability Curve of a Turbo Generator
0,975
0,975
0,95
0,95
0,85
0,9
0,8
0,9
MW
type of generator: TLRI 108/46
0,85 220
nominal apparent power SN = 200 MVA
nominal voltage VN = 15.750 kV
200 nominal current IN = 7.331 kA
nominal frequency fN = 50.0 Hz
power factor cos? N = 0.8
180 cold-air temperature Tx = 40.00 °C
0,7
0,8
160
140
0,7 0,6
120
0,6 100
80
0,4
60
0,4
40
0,2
cosphi
cosphi
0,2
Q
MVAr 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 MVAr
underexcited overexcited

Load Diagram of a Synchronous Machine (Cylindrical-rotor Machine)
turbine limit
steady P
state stator limit
dynamic stability
stability limit
limit
theoretically
limit VP If
SN rotor limit
?N
?N
Q
2
VN
VN
2 Xd
? ; ? SN Xd: synchronous reactance
X 'd
X‘d: transient reactance
underexcited overexcited
The generator capability curve describes

the stability limits of the generator

in the Case of ISPSE
Power Transmission and Distribution
Per Unit Capability Diagram of a Synchronous Generator
Undervoltage (90% VN)
P [p.u]
1 U=1; I=1;
0.85
U=0.9; I= 1.11
Stability
limit
overexcited
under-excited
Q [p.u]
0.81/xd
1/xd
In the case of an under-voltage the generator capability curve

moves to right and reduces the stability limits of the generator

Definitions for Converting the Generator Diagram into the Admittance Diagram
Complex Power: Admittance:

G: Conductance
? I
S ? V ?I S? P ? jQ Y? Y ? G ? jB
V B: Susceptance
Conversion:
?
I ?V S* P - jQ P Q
Y? ?
? ? ? - j
V ?V V2 V2 V2 V2
In the per unit
+ P + G
representation
P
G? the diagrams are
V2 the same, only
Q there is a phase
B? - 2
Q V B shift in the reactive
+ +
part of 180°
Note: in the per unit calculation is VN = 1

Underexcitation Protection with the Criterion Admittance Y>
? Admittance calculation guarantees a right

char.3 char.2 char.1 behaviour, if the voltages decreases
G[p.u.]
? 3 independent characteristics
and 3 timer
? characteristic 1,2 is adaptated on the

steady state curve;
? additional inquiry of the field voltage
(release a short trip time)
?1
? characteristic 3 is adaptated on the
B[p.u.] ?3 ?2 dynamic stability limit curve
1 1 1
x d3 x d1 x d2
? blocking of the protection at U<25% UN
Settings: Can direct read out from the generator diagram
1 1 1 ? 0.9 ? 1
x d1 ? x
1 2
? 1 = 80° x
d2
x
d1
? 2 = 90° x d3 ? 1 or ? x d ? 3 = 100° or 110°
d
Differential Interturn Protection – Connection and Settings
Generator Differential Protection

22454 A -F11 7UM622 (87G-A)
0.748 A
30000/1A CT Setting: 30000A Differential S1
2?0.748 A CT Setting: 15000A Differential S2

Loss of Field
Neg. Seq.
777.8 MVA Loss of Synchr.
20 kV Gen Overload
22454 A Gen-Tfr Backup
Generator Interturn Protection
(Transverse Differential Protection)
-F12 7UT612 (87GUP-A)
8981 A
0.748 A CT Setting: 30000A
12000/1A
13472 A
0.748 A
18000/1A CT Setting: 30000A

Impedance Protection
tNetz +? t
I>
Z 1 ? 0,7X T
Z<
0,1s
Z1
G
XG XT
Z<
? Correct measuring of the transformer reactance

? Measuring of a fictitious generator reactance (short circuit at the generator
terminals: U ? 0, I =ISC,G ? Z ? 0)
? Settings value of the protection is the unit transformer reactance

(Requirement: Z1 ? 0,7 · XT)

Scheme with an Impedance or Distance Protection
ZG ZT
ZL
I > (ZG)
t ZT (backward)
ZG
ZL
Z
2. Stage (ZT) ZT
ZG: Generator ZT: Transformer ZL: Line

Transformer Line
Line
? Fast back-up protection for the whole system.

Basics of the Overexcitation
Protected objects: Transformer and generators
Equivalent network for a transformer
1. Overvoltage
The result of a overvoltage is
LM a higher magnetizing current
2. Underfrequency
A low frequency increases
the magnetizing losses
1 U
Induction: B=
4.44 w A f
w - windings
A - cross section Thermal overheating of iron
BS U/UN
~
BN f/f N A thermal model is required

Basic Idea of Algorithm Design
1. The manufactors give a curve U/f = f (t) U/f
?t isn't possible to describe this with one ln-function.

It's must be a polynom n-th order.
2. A good model to describe a thermal process t

is the differential equation first order
Calculation of the
d ? (t) thermal losses Q
Q= ? + ? (t)
dt
? thermal time constant transformation
U
(tx)
? actual temperature f 1
Q
Q=
Q thermal losses curve (1 - exp(-tx/ ?)

Trip Characteristic of the Overexcitation Function
Tripping area
Thermal
tripping stage
Definite time
tripping stage U/f>
Thermal
warning stage
TU/f>
U/f (1) U/f> U/f

(1st setting value of (Setting value of
thermal characteristic) definite time stage)

Why Out of Step Protection is necessary ?
Xd XTr
Stiff system
XN U= const.
Tm ?
Protection
1. If generator feeds into the short circuit too long, the rotor accelerates
and the permissible angle ? perm.exceeds the limit
2. Active power swings appears after the clearing of the short circuit,
because the generator had fallen out of step
3. If the out of step condition persists for a long time, inadmissible

mechanical (torsional vibration) and thermal stress of the system
(generator, turbine) appears

Equivalent Circuit for the Out of step condition
Measuring point
X’d Protection X
T XN
R
ZG ZT ZN U‘N Measured Impedance:

U’p UR
U 'P Z
ZR ? ' - ZG
UP ? UN '
'
UN U 'N - jd
Z ? ZG ? ZT ? Z N '
? ' e
ZG Generator UP UP
impedance
ZT Transformer- ? Z
impedance ZR ? '
- ZG
U ZR = f(?)
ZN Network 1 ? N' e - jd
impedance UP

Why Inadvertent Energization Protection?
ns
Protection
io
at
tu
Si
1. The generator stands still or rotates but it is not energized (or is

being energized). The circuit breaker is closed through a
maloperation (e.g. in 1 1/2 CB-schemes).
2. Arc flashover on the circuit breaker before synchronisation or

during shut down of the generator.
Damage of Generator due to the high current stress

(Generator starts to run as a asynchronous motor or
situation is similar to a wrong synchronisation).
Damage of turbine is also possible.
(Protection mainly used in USA)
Measuring Principle of Inadvertent Energization Protection (ANSI 50/27 - IEC I> and U<)
1. For a fast reaction, an instantaneous current measuring

principle is used. In that case a trip delay of approx. 25 ms is
possible.
2. The positive sequence voltage and the detected changing

into the operational condition 1 (valid measured quantities
are available; conditions: U> 0.1 Un or I > 0.1In and f > 10Hz)
blocks the overcurrent function.
3. A timer with a pick-up and drop out delay controls the

reaction of the protection function.

Recommendations for Protection Functions

Protection ANSI /IEEE) Generator – Rated Power (MVA)
<5 5 - 50 50 - 200 > 200
Stator earth fault 90 % 64, 59N, 67N X X X X
Stator earth fault 100 % 64(100%) X X
Differential 87G, 87T o X X X
Overcurrent time 50, 51V X X o o
Impedance 21 X X
Interturn fault X
Rotor earth fault 64R o X X X
Unbalanced load 46 X X X
Underexcitation 40 o X X X
Out of step 78 X
Stator overload 49 X X X X
Rotor overload 49R X
Overvoltage 59 X X X X
Frequency f > 81 X X X X
Frequency f < 81 X X X
Reverse power 32 X X X X
Undervoltage 27 Y Y Y Y
Overexcitation (U/f) 24 o X X
Y: Pump storage stations (motor /phase shift operation
o option
Tripping Concept (Matrix)

The number of breakers, the generator protection has to trip
depends on the fault type, the plant design and plant operation,
generator operation and general operation philosophy of the client .
? Generator Breaker
? Excitation Breaker
Breakers
? Turbine Rapid Shut Down
Protection Functions
? HV Network Breaker
? Auxiliary Supply Breaker 1
? Auxiliary Supply Breaker 2
? Aux. Supply Changeover
? SEE/SFC, Unit-trafo
? SEE/SFC, Aux.-Trafo
? Reserve
? Special Trips at Hydro
Stations (e.g. braking)

Redundancy Concepts (Large Units) : Each Object Protected by 2 Devices
Protection Group A Protection Group B
7UM6 7UM6

Alternatives to Full Redundancy
Without Redundancy Partly Redundant

(also limitations of the Ct’s and Vt’s
and trip circuits)
7UM62
7UM62
7UM61
G
G
Investment cost optimisation

System/-cost optimisation


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Initiative for Spreading Power System Education (ISPSE)

Faults , Stability and Protection Principles

Copyright © SIEMENS AG PTD EA 2007. All rights reserved.

a ) Resistance Circuits a ) Inductive Circuits

Voltage = U = L* di = 0 (Since Current is Constant )

Copyright © SIEMENS AG PTD EA 2007. All rights reserved.

Currents, Voltages and Power in DC Systems (2)

Copyright © SIEMENS AG PTD EA 2007. All rights reserved.

Transients in DC Systems (1)

Copyright © SIEMENS AG PTD EA 2007. All rights reserved.

Transients in DC Systems (2)

Copyright © SIEMENS AG PTD EA 2007. All rights reserved.

Copyright © SIEMENS AG PTD EA 2007. All rights reserved.

T = R*C = Time Constant of the circuit

Copyright © SIEMENS AG PTD EA 2007. All rights reserved.

Currents and Voltage Phasors in AC Systems (1)

Voltage in Time Domain

Copyright © SIEMENS AG PTD EA 2007. All rights reserved.

Currents and Voltage Phasors in AC Systems (2)

b) Effective and Average Values of Voltage and Current Phasors

Average (mean) value of a Phasor

Copyright © SIEMENS AG PTD EA 2007. All rights reserved.

Currents and Voltage Phasors in Resistive Circuits

Voltage and Current as Phasors

Result : Current and Voltage are in phase

Copyright © SIEMENS AG PTD EA 2007. All rights reserved.

Currents and Voltage Phasors in Inductive Circuits

Copyright © SIEMENS AG PTD EA 2007. All rights reserved.

Currents and Voltage Phasors in Capacitive Circuits

Voltage and Current as Phasors

Copyright © SIEMENS AG PTD EA 2007. All rights reserved.

Currents and Voltage Phasors in R,L,C Circuits

u= i[R + j( X - X )] Phasor diagrams of voltages and current

Z Is the modulus of the impedance and ? is the angle of the impedance

Note : R = Z Cos ? and

Copyright © SIEMENS AG PTD EA 2007. All rights reserved.

Resonance in AC Networks (1) : Series Resonance

Copyright © SIEMENS AG PTD EA 2007. All rights reserved.

Resonance in AC Networks (2) : Parallel Resonance

Copyright © SIEMENS AG PTD EA 2007. All rights reserved.

Excercise : Calculation of various values in a RLC-Network

Copyright © SIEMENS AG PTD EA 2007. All rights reserved.

Alternating Current and Voltage on a Complex Plane

Copyright © SIEMENS AG PTD EA 2007. All rights reserved.

Derivation of the Power of an Alternating-Current System

The average of this power is called effective power.

? U ?I ?cos ( ? u ? ? i ) with ? u-? i = ?

Definition of Electrical Power

p(t) = um• sin ? t • im• sin (? t + ? )

p(t) p(t) p(t)

Active Power Active and Reactive Power Reactive Power

Copyright © SIEMENS AG PTD EA 2007. All rights reserved.

Complex apparent power S ? U ?I* Electrical behaviour (Equ. 3.50)

Apparent power S ? U ?I Thermal design (Equ. 3.51)

Active power P ? Re? U ?I *? ? S ?cos ? (Equ. 3.52)

Reactive power Q ? Im? U ?I *? ? S ?sin ? (Equ. 3.53)

Complex alternating power S ~ ? U ?I Mechanical design (Equ. 3.54)

Copyright © SIEMENS AG PTD EA 2007. All rights reserved.