Drinking Straw

Background
A straw is a prepared tube used to suck a beverage out of a container. Historians
theorize the first straws were cut from dried wheat shafts and they were named
accordingly. With the advent of industrial age, methods were developed to mass
produce straws by rolling elongated sheets of wax-coated paper into a cylindrical,
hollow tubes. This was accomplished by coiling paraffin-coated paper around a rod-
shaped form and then securing the paper with an adhesive. The entire straw was then
coated with wax to further water-proof it. The wax coating was important since the straw
was paper and would eventually absorb some of the liquid being sucked up it. Thus,
inevitably these paper straws became soggy and useless. In the 1960s, paper was
largely replaced by plastic which were becoming less expensive and increasingly more
sophisticated. The explosion of plastic technology led to techniques to manufacture
plastic straws via extrusion. Today, straws are made in a wide variety of shapes, colors,
and functions.

Raw Materials
Straws are made from a formulated blend of plastic resin, colorants, and other additives.

Plastic
Historically, straws have been made from paper but today polypropylene plastic is the
material of choice. Polypropylene is a resin made by polymerizing, or stringing together,
molecules of a propylene gas. When a very large number of these molecules are
chemically hooked together they form this solid plastic material. Polypropylene was first
developed in the mid-1950s and has many properties, which make it suitable for use in
straw manufacturing. This resin is light-weight, has fair abrasion resistance, good
dimensional stability, and good surface hardness. It typically does not experience
problems with stress cracking and it offers excellent chemical resistance at higher
temperatures. Most importantly for this application, it has good thermoplastic properties.
This means it can be melted, formed into various shapes and, upon reheating, can be
melted and molded again. Another key attribute of this plastic is that it is safe for contact
with food and beverage. Polypropylene is approved for indirect contact with food and, in
addition to drinking straws, is used to make many types of food packaging such
as margarine and yogurt containers, cellophane-type wrapping, and various bottles and
caps.

Colorants
Colorants can be added to the plastic to give the straws an aesthetically pleasing
appearance. However, in the United States, the colorants used must be chosen from a
list of pigments approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for food contact. If
the colorants are not food grade, they must be tested to make sure they will not leach
out of the plastic and into the food or beverage. These pigments are typically supplied in
powdered form, and a very small amount is required to impart bright colors. Through
use of multiple colorants, multi-colored straws can be made.

Other additives
Additional materials are added to the plastic formula to control the physical properties of
the finished straw. Plasticizers (materials which improve the flexibility of the
polypropylene) may be added to keep the resin from cracking. Antioxidants are used to
reduce harmful interactions between the plastic and the oxygen in the air. Other
stabilizers include ultraviolet light filters, which shield the plastic from the effects of
sunlight and prevent the radiation from adversely effecting the plastic. Finally, inert
fillers may be added to increase the bulk density of the plastic. All these materials must
meet appropriate FDA requirements.

Packaging materials
Straws are typically wrapped in paper sleeves for individual use or bulk packed in
plastic pouches or cardboard boxes.

The Manufacturing
Process
Straw manufacturing requires several steps. First, the plastic resin and other
components are mixed together; the mixture is then extruded in a tube shape; the straw
may under go subsequent specialized operations; and finally the straws are packaged
for shipment.

Plastic compounding
 1 The polypropylene resin must first be mixed with the plasticizers, colorants,
antioxidants, stabilizers, and fillers. These materials, in powder form, are dumped
into the hopper of an extrusion compounder that mixes, melts, and forms beads
of the blended plastic. This machine can be thought of as a long, heated, motor
driven meat grinder. The powders are mixed together and melted as they travel
down the barrel of the extruder. Special feeder screws are used to push the
powder along its path. The molten plastic mixture is squeezed out through a
series of small holes at the other end of the extruder. The holes shape the plastic
into thin strands about 0.125 inch (0.3175 cm) in diameter.
One compounding method ejects these strands into cooling water where a series
of rotating knives cut them into short pellets. The pellet shape is preferred for
subsequent molding operations because pellets are easier to move than a fine
powder. These pellets are then collected and dried; they may be further blended
or coated with other additives before packaging. The finished plastic pellets are
stored until they are ready to be molded into straws.

Straw extrusion
 2 The pellets are transferred to another extrusion molder. The second extruder is
fitted with a different type of die, which produces a hollow tube shape. The pellets
are dumped in a hopper on one end of the machine and are forced through a
long channel by a screw mechanism. This screw is turned in the barrel with
power supplied by a motor operating through a gear reducer. As the screw
rotates, it moves the resin down the barrel. As the resin travels down the heated
channel, it melts and becomes more flowable. To ensure good movement and
heat transfer, the screw fits within the barrel with only few thousands of an inch
clearance. It is machined from a solid steel rod, and the surfaces almost touching
the barrel are hardened to resist wear. By the time the resin reaches the end of
the barrel, it is completely melted and can be easily forced out through the
opening in the die.
 3 The resin exits the die in a long string in the shape of a straw. It is then moved
along by a piece of equipment known as a puller which helps maintain the shape
of the straw as it is moved through the rest of the manufacturing process. In
 some processes, it is necessary to pull the straw through special sizing plates to
better control the diameter. These plates are essentially metal sheets with holes
drilled in them. Eventually, this elongated tube is directed through a cooling
stage—usually a water bath. Some operations run the plastic over a chilled metal
rod, called a mandrel, which freezes the internaldimension of the straw to that of
the rod. Ultimately, the long tubes are cut to the proper length by a knife
assembly.

Special operations
 4 Straws with special design requirements may undergo additional processing.
For example, so called "crazy" straws, which have a series of loops and turns,
may be bent into shape using special molding equipment. Another type of straw
with special manufacturing requirements is the "bendable" straw. This type of
straw can bend in the middle and is made using a special device that creates

Plastic drinking straws are extruded through an injection molding machine.

a series of grooves that allow the straw to flex. These grooves can be crimped
into the straws in a two step process. First, it is first necessary to "pick up" the
straw so it can be manipulated. This can be accomplished by spreading the
straws across a flat plate, which has slots cut in it. The straws will tend to roll into
the slots and remain there. The slots are evenly spaced and are adjacent to a
 separate metal plate, which has a series of metal pins extending from it. The pins
are aligned in a parallel fashion with the slots on the plate. Once the straws have
come to rest in the slots, the pins can be easily inserted into the straws. The
straws can then be easily lifted up and moved around in any orientation by simply
manipulating the plate that holds the pins. The steel pins holding the straws have
a series of parallel rings cut into them. As the straws are wrapped around the pin,
they are gripped by a pair of semi-circular steel jaws, which have a
complementary set of rings. The jaws crimp a series of rings into the straw. The
crimp pattern allows the straws to bend without closing off. After these
operations, the straws can then by proceed to packaging.

Packaging
 5 Straws are typically packaged in individual paper sleeves after manufacturing.
This packaging is widely used for applications where each straw must be kept
sanitary. One method of packaging involves loading the finished straws into a
supply funnel. At the bottom of the hopper is a wheel with straw receiving
grooves cut in it around its outer edge. The straws drop out of the hopper and are
picked up one at a time by this rotating wheel. As the wheel rotates, it moves the
straws along to a second wheel, which has grooves connecting to a vacuum
source. Sheets or packaging material (paper wrap) are moved onto this wheel
from a supply roller. The vacuum holds the paper in place while the main wheel
feeds straws on top of the paper. Another layer of paper is guided over the first
and the assembly then passes through a sealing roller. The two layers of paper
are then crimped together with the application of pressure or otherwise sealed
together. The sealed sheet of straws then travels along the conveyor to a
punching region where a die presses down and cuts out individual
 Flexible grooves can be cut into the straws in a two step process. As the straws rest in
slots, they are gripped by a pair of semi-circular steel jaws, which crimp a series of rings
into the straw. The crimp pattern allows the straws to bend without closing off.

straws. The die cut pieces then move along a conveyor to a collection area. The
individual straws can then be bundled together and packed in boxes or pouches
for shipping.

Quality Control
Drinking straw quality is determined at a number of key steps during the compounding
and extrusion phases of the manufacturing process as well as after extrusion is
complete. During compounding, the mixing process must be monitored to ensure the
formula components are blended in the proper ratios. Before beginning the extrusion
process, it is a common practice to purge some resin through the extruder. This purging
helps clean out the barrel and acts as a check to make sure all molding systems are
operating properly. At this stage, sample straws can be checked to make sure they
achieve the proper dimensions. These samples can also be used to ensure
manufacturing equipment is operating at the proper line speed.
During the extrusion process, it is critical that the resin is be kept at the proper
temperature. Depending on the processing temperature (and the molecular weight of
the polymer), plastic can flow as slowly as tar or as quickly as corn syrup. If the
temperature is too cool, the viscosity increases dramatically, and the resin will not flow
through the die. If the temperature is too high, thermal breakdown can occur. Over-
heating can cause chemical changes in the resin, weakening the plastic and rendering it
unsuitable for use in straw manufacturing. Under certain circumstances, die buildup
occurs. When this happens, a glob of plastic gets stuck somewhere in the die. This glob
eventually breaks free, becomes attached to the molded straw, and ruins its
appearance. Unwanted chemical interactions can also effect the quality of the finished
straws during the extrusion process. One problem is oxidation, which results from
contact with air. This reaction can negatively impact the plastic. Similarly, the plastic
interacts with any moisture that is present; too little moisture can make certain plastic
blends too brittle.

After the manufacturing process is complete, it is critical that the extruder be properly
cleaned. Thorough cleaning is necessary because different types of different colored
plastics can be left behind in the extruder barrel. This residue can cause contamination
in the next batch that is made. Die cleaning is done when the machine is still hot and
traces of resin can be easily scraped from the metal.

Byproducts/Waste
The major waste product from straw manufacturing is the plastic resin. Resin, which is
contaminated, overheated, or otherwise ruined must be discarded. However, straws,
which fail for other reasons, can be reworked. This process of reusing plastic is known
as regrinding and involves pulverizing the straws and remelting them. This can be done
without loss of quality because of the thermoplastic nature of polypropylene.

The Future
There are a number of interesting new developments in straw technology. First, new
and improved plastic blends are constantly being evaluated. This is necessary to keep
costs down, meet regulatory requirements, and improve quality. In addition, new
processing and design methods are being developed. These can expand the straws into
new areas. For example, thermoliquid crystals, a special colorant that responds to
changes in temperature, can be added to straws to make them change color when they
come in contact with hot or cold liquid. Other unique applications include ways of
printing straws with the identity of the beverage (e.g., diet, root beer, etc.). The straw
can then be used to mark what the drink contains. Other advances include straws made
by a blow molding process, which creates faces or other artifacts in the middle of the
straw.

Read more: http://www.madehow.com/Volume-4/Drinking-Straw.html#ixzz4a45PwMvg

Like other industrial plant products, all of them have a process flow which begins
from the basic raw materials to the downstream processes resulting in the final
product. This website describes a typical bioprocess flow of any penicillin
production facility, it is noted that in reality, companies generally have their own
specific set of standards and hence modification of the process flow is necessary
to meet their demands to optimise quality and quantity.
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Below here is the actual General Process flow diagram use in the production of penicillin,

Process_flow_for_penicillin.jpg

The actual process flow of penicillin

Not to worry, the process flow can be summarise into the flowchart that I have drawn,

img052g.jpg

As you can see, in any bioprocess facility, there has to be an upstream and downstream

process,

the upstream processes in this case are refering to processes before input to the fermenter,

while the downstream processes refers to the processes that are done to purify the output of the
fermenter until it reaches to the desired product.

Medium.jpg

Medium for Penicillium

Medium preparation is necessary in bioprocesses which as it generally involve the use of
microorganism to achieve their products. In the case of the Penicillium fungus, the medium
usually contain its carbon source which is found in corn steep liquorand glucose. Medium also
consist of salts such as Magnesium sulphate, Potassium phosphate and Sodium nitrates. They
provide the essential ions required for the fungus metabolic activity.

Corn_steep_liquor.jpg

Corn steep syrup

Sterilisation.jpg

Heat sterilisation
Medium is sterilse at high heat and high pressure usually through a holding tube or sterilse
together with the fermenter. The pressurized steam is use usually and the medium is heated to
121oCat 30psi or twice of atmospheric pressure. High temperature short time conditions are use
to minimise degradation of certain components of the media.

heat_sterilization.jpg

Sterilisation machine

Fermentation.jpg

Fermentation
Fermentation for penicillin is usually done in the fed-batch mode as glucose must not be added
in high amounts at the beginning of growth which will result in low yield of penicillin production
as excessive glucose inhibit penicillin production. In addition to that, penicillin is
a secondary metabolite of the fungus, therefore, the fed-batch mode is ideal for such products
as it allows the high production of penicillin. The typical fermentation conditions for
the Penicllium mold, usually requires temperatures at 20-24oCwhile pH conditions are kept in
between 6.0 to 6.5. The pressure in the bioreactor is usually much higher than the atmospheric
pressure(1.02atm) this is to prevent contamination from occurring as it prevents external
contaminants from entering. Sparging of air bubbles is necessary to provide sufficient oxygen
the viability of the fungus. Depending on the volume of medium, for 2 cubic metres of culture,
the sparging rate should be about 2.5 cubic metres per minute. The impeller is necessary to mix
the culture evenly throughout the culture medium, fungal cells are much hardy and they are able
to handle rotation speed of around 200rpm.

Fermenters.jpg

Fermentors

Seed_culture.jpg

Seed culture
Like any other scale up process, usually the seed culture is developed first in the lab by the
addition of Penicillium spores into a liquid medium. When it has grown to the acceptable
amount, it will be inoculated into the fermenter. In some cases,the spores are directly inoculated
into the fermenter.

Penicilium_2.jpg

The Penicillium fungus

Removal_of_biomass.jpg

Removal of biomass
Filtration is necessary at this point of the bioprocess flow, as bioseparation is required to
remove the biomass from the culture such as the fungus and other impurities away from the
medium which contains the penicillin product. There are many types of filtration methods
available today, however, the Rotary vacuum filter is commonly employed as it able to run in
continuous mode in any large scale operations. Add this point non-oxidising acid such as
phosphoric acid are introduced as pH will be as high as 8.5. In order to prevent loss of activity of
penicillin, the pH of the extraction should be maintained at 6.0-6.5.

Rotary_vacuum_filter.jpg

Rotary Vacuum Filter

Adding_of_solvent.jpg

Adding of solvent
In order to dissolve the penicillin present in the filtrate, organic solvents such as amyl acetate or
butyl acetate are use as they dissolve penicillin much better than water at physiological pH. At
this point, penicillin is present in the solution and any other solids will be considered as waste.

solvent.jpg

Amyl Acetate as Solvent

centrifugation.jpg

Centrifugal extraction
Centrifugation is done to separate the solid waste from the liquid component which contains the
penicillin. Usually a tubular bowl or chamber bowl centrifuge is use at this point.The supernatant
will then be transferred further in the downstream process to continue with extraction.
disk_centrifuge.jpg

Disk centrifuge- One of the most common type of centrifuge for large scale production

extraction.jpg

Extraction
Penicillin dissolve in the solvent will now undergo a series of extraction process to obtain better
purity of the penicillin product. The acetate solution is first mixed with a phosphate buffer,
followed by a chloroform solution, and mixed again with a phosphate buffer and finally in an
ether solution. Penicillin is present in high concentration in the ether solution and it will be mixed
with a solution of sodium bicarbonate to obtain the penicillin-sodium salt, which allow penicillin
to be stored in a stable powder form at room temperature. The penicillin-sodium salt is obtained
from the liquid material by basket centrifugation, in which solids are easily removed.

Batch_extraction.jpg

Batch extraction unit

basket_centrifuge.JPG

Basket Centrifuge- Extremely using in the removal of solids in this case Penicillin salt
fluid.jpg

Fluid bed drying

Drying is necessary to remove any remaining moisture present in the powdered penicillin salt. In
fluid bed drying, hot gas is pump in from the base of the chamber containing the powdered salt
inside a vacuum chamber. Moisture is then remove in this manner and this result in a much
drier form of penicillin.

Fluid bed drying tube

spray_powder.jpg

Powdered penicillin being blowned by hot air

storage.jpg

Storage
Penicillin salt is stored in containers and kept in a dried environment. It will then be polished and package
into various types of products such as liquid penicillin or penicillin in pills. Dosage of the particular
penicillin is determined by clinical trials that are done on this drug.

Penicilin_sodium.jpg

The White Penicillin-Sodium salt