ASEN 3112 - Structures

22
Example Analysis
of MDOF Forced
Damped Systems

ASEN 3112 Lecture 22 – Slide 1

 ASEN 3112 - Structures

Objective

This Lecture introduces damping within the context of modal analysis.

To keep the exposition focused we will primarily restrict the kind of
damping considered to be linearly viscous, and light.

Linearly viscous damping is proportional to the velocity. Light

damping means a damping factor that is small compared to unity.
In the terminology of Lecture 17, lightly damped mechanical systems
are said to be underdamped.

ASEN 3112 Lecture 22 – Slide 2

 ASEN 3112 - Structures

Good and Bad News

Accounting for damping effects brings good and bad news. All real
dynamical syste, experience damping because energy dissipation is like
death and taxes: inevitable. Hence inclusion makes the dynamic model
more physically realistic.

The bad news is that it can seriously complicate the analysis process.
Here the assumption of light viscous damping helps: it allows the
reuse of major parts of the modal analysis techniques covered
in the previous three Lectures.

ASEN 3112 Lecture 22 – Slide 3

 ASEN 3112 - Structures

What is Mechanical Damping?

Damping is the (generally irreversible) conversion of mechanical

energy into heat as a result of motion.

For example, as we scratch a match against a rough surface, its motion

generates heat and ignites the sulphur content. When shivering under cold,
we rub palms against each other to warm up.

Those are two classical examples of the thermodynamic effect of

friction. In structural systems, damping is more complex, appearing in
several forms. These may be broadly categorized into

internal versus external

distributed versus localized

ASEN 3112 Lecture 22 – Slide 4

 ASEN 3112 - Structures

Internal versus External Damping

Internal damping is due to the structural material itself.

Various sources: microstructural defects, crystal grain slip,
eddy currents (in ferromagnetic materials), dislocations in metals,
chain movements in polymers.

Key macroscopic effect: a hysteresis loop. Loop area represents

energy dissipated per unit volume of material and per stress cycle.
Closely linked to cyclic motions.

ASEN 3112 Lecture 22 – Slide 5

 ASEN 3112 - Structures

Internal versus External Damping (cont'd)

External damping comes from boundary effects. An important form
is structural damping, produced by rubbing friction, stick and
slip contact or impact. May take place beween structural components
such as joints, or between a structural surface and non-structural media
such as soil. This form is often modeled as Coulomb damping, which
describes the energy dissipation of rubbing dry friction.

Another form of external damping is fluid damping. When a material

is immersed in a fluid such as air or water and there is relative motion
between the structure and the fluid, a drag force appears. This force
causes energy dissipation through internal fluid mechanisms such as
viscosity, convection or turbulence. A well known instance is
a vehicle shock absorber: a fluid (liquid or air) is forced
through a small opening by a piston.

ASEN 3112 Lecture 22 – Slide 6

 ASEN 3112 - Structures

Distributed versus Localized Damping

All damping ultimately comes from frictional effects, which may take
place at several scales. If the effects are distributed over volumes or
surfaces at macro scales, we speak of distributed damping.

But occasionally the engineer uses damping devices intended to produce

beneficial effects. For example:

shock absorbers, airbags, parachutes

motion mitigators for structures in seismic or hurricane zones
active piezoelectric dampers for space structures

These devices can be sometimes idealized as lumped objects, modeled as

point forces or moments, and said to produce localized damping.
The distinction beteen distributed and localized appears at the modeling
level, since all motion-damper devices ultimately work as a result of
some kind of internal energy dissipation at material micro scales.

ASEN 3112 Lecture 22 – Slide 7

 ASEN 3112 - Structures

Distributed versus Localized Damping (cont')

Localized damping devices may in turn be classified into

passive: no feedback
active: responding to motion feedback

But this would take us too far into control systems, which
are beyond the scope of the course.

ASEN 3112 Lecture 22 – Slide 8

 ASEN 3112 - Structures

Modeling Damping in Structures

In summary: damping is complicated business. It often is
nonlinear, and level may depend on fabrication or construction
details that are not easy to predict.

Balancing those complications is the fact that damping in most

structures is light. In addition the presence of damping is
usually beneficial to safety in the sense that resonance effects
are mitigated, This gives the structural engineer some leeway:

o A simple model, such as linear viscous damping, can be assumed

o Mode superposition is applicable because the EOM is linear.

Frequencies and mode shapes for the undamped system can
be reused if additional assumptions, such as Rayleigh damping
or modal damping, are made

ASEN 3112 Lecture 22 – Slide 9

 ASEN 3112 - Structures

Modeling Damping in Structures (cont')

It should be stressed that the foregoing simplifications are not
recommended if precise modeling of damping effects is important
to safety and performance. This occurs in the following scenarios:

o Damping is crucial to function or operation. Think, for

instance, of a shock absorber, airbag, or parachute.

o Damping may destabilize the system by feeding energy instead

of removing it. This can happen in active control systems
and aeroelasticity.

The last two scenarios are beyond the scope of this course. In this
Lecture we focus attention on linear viscous damping, which
usually will be assumed to be light.

ASEN 3112 Lecture 22 – Slide 10

 Matrix EOM of Two-DOF Example ;;
ASEN 3112 - Structures

;;
Consider again the two-DOF k1 c1
Static equilibrium
mass-spring-dashpot example system position
of Lecture 19. This is reproduced on u1 = u1(t)
the right for convenience. Mass m1
p1(t)

The physical-coordinate EOM Static equilibrium k2 c2

derived in that Lecture are, position

in detailed matrix notation:

u 2 = u2(t)
Mass m 2

p2 (t)

m1 0 ü 1 c + c2 −c2 u̇ 1 k + k 2 −k 2 u1 p1
+ 1 + 1 =
0 m2 ü 2 −c2 c2 u̇ 2 −k 2 k2 u2 p2

ASEN 3112 Lecture 22 – Slide 11

 ASEN 3112 - Structures

Matrix EOM of Two-DOF Example (cont')

Passing to compact matrix notation,

.. .
Mu+Cu +Ku=p

Here M, C and K denote the mass, damping and stiffness matrices,

. ..
respectively, p, u, u and u are the force, displacement, velocity and
acceleration vectors, respectively. The latter four are functions of time:
u = u(t), etc., but the time argument will be often omitted for brevity.

As previously noted, matrices M, C and K are symmetric, whereas M

is diagonal. In addition we will assume that M is positive definite
(PD) whereas K is nonnegative definite (NND).

ASEN 3112 Lecture 22 – Slide 12

 ASEN 3112 - Structures

EOM Using Undamped Modes

This technique attempts to reuse modal analysis methods covered in
Lecture 19-21. Suppose that damping is removed so that C = 0.
Get the natural frequencies and mode shapes of the undamped and
..
unforced system governed by M u + K u = 0, by solving the
eigenproblem K Ui = ω2i M U i. Normalize the vibration mode
shapes U i into φ i so that they are orthonormal wrt M:

φiT M φj = δ ij

in which δ ij denotes the Kronecker delta. Let Φ be the modal matrix

constructed with the orthonormalized mode shapes as columns, and denote
by η the array of modal amplitudes, also called generalied coordinates.
As before, assume modal superposition is valid, so that physical DOF
are linked to mode amplitudes via

u = Φη

ASEN 3112 Lecture 22 – Slide 13

 ASEN 3112 - Structures

Matrix EOM of Damped System (cont')

Following the same scheme as in previous Lectures, the transformed
EOM in modal coordinates are:

ΦT M Φ ü + ΦT C Φ u̇ + ΦT K Φ u = ΦT p(t)

Define the generalized mass, damping, stiffness and forces as

Mg = ΦT M Φ Cg = ΦT C Φ Kg = ΦT K Φ f = ΦT p

Of these the generalized mass matrix Mg and the generalized stiffness

matrix Kg were introduced in Lecture 20. If Φ contains mode shapes
orthonormalized wrt M, it was shown there that
Mg = Iγ Kg = diag[ωi2 ]γ
are diagonal matrices. The generalized forces f were introduced
in the previous Lecture.

ASEN 3112 Lecture 22 – Slide 14

 ASEN 3112 - Structures

Matrix EOM of Damped System (cont')

The new term in the modal EOM is the generalized damping matrix Cg ,
also called the modal damping in the literature. Substituting the
definitions we arrive at the modal EOM for the damped system:

η̈(t) + Cg η̇ (t) + diag [ωi2] η ( t) = f (t)

Here we run into a major difficuty: Cg generally will not be diagonal.

If that happens, the above modal EOM will not decouple. We seem
to have taken a promising path, but hit a dead end.

ASEN 3112 Lecture 22 – Slide 15

 ASEN 3112 - Structures

Three Ways Out

There are three ways out of the dead end:

• Diagonalization. Stay with the modal EOM, but make Cg

diagonal through some artifice

• Complex Eigensystem. Set up and solve a different eigenproblem

that diagonalizes two matrices that comprise M, C and K as
submtarices. [The name comes from the fact that it generally leads
to frequencies and mode shapes that are complex numbers.]

• Direct Time Integration, or DTI. Integrate numerically the

EOM in physical coordinates.

Each approach has strengths and weaknesses. (Obviously,

else we would mention only one.)

ASEN 3112 Lecture 22 – Slide 16

 ASEN 3112 - Structures

Diagonalization
Advantages

Diagonalization allow straightforward reuse of undamped frequencies

and mode shapes, which are fairly easy to obtain with standard
eigensolver software. The uncoupled modeal equations often have
straightforward physical interpretation, allowing comparison with
experiments. Only real arithmetic is necessary.

Disadvantages

We don't solve the original EOM, so some form of approximation is

generally inevitable. This is counteracted by the fact that structural
damping is often difficult to quantify since it can come from many sources.
Thus the approximation in solving the EOM may be tolerable in view of
modeling uncertainties. This is particularly true if damping is light.

ASEN 3112 Lecture 22 – Slide 17

 ASEN 3112 - Structures

When Diagonalization Fails

There are problems, however, in which diagonalization cannot adequately
represent damping effects within engineering accuracy. Three such
scenarios:

(1) Structures with localized damper devices: shock absorbers,

piezoelectric dampers, ...

(2) Structure-media interaction: building foundations, tunnels,

aeroelasticity, parachutes, marine structures, surface ships, ...

(3) Active control systems

In those situations one of the two remaining approaches: complex

arithmetic or direct time integration (DTI) must be taken.

ASEN 3112 Lecture 22 – Slide 18

 ASEN 3112 - Structures

Complex Eigensystem

The complex eigensystem approach is mathematically irreproachable and

can solve the original EOM in physical coordinates without additional
approximations. No assumptions as to light versus heavy damping
are needed.

However, it involves a substantial amount of preparatory work because

the EOM must be transformed to the so-called state-space form. For a
large number of DOF, solving complex eigensystems is unwieldy.
Physical interpretation of complex frequencies and modes is
less immediate and may require substantial expertise in math as well as
engineering experience. Finally, it is restricted in scope to linear dynamic
systems unless some convenient form of linearization is available.

ASEN 3112 Lecture 22 – Slide 19

 ASEN 3112 - Structures

Direct Time Integration (DTI)

DTI has the advantages of being completely general. Numerical time
integration can in fact handle not only the linear EOM, but nonlinear
systems, which occur for other types of damping (e.g. Coulomb
friction, turbulent fluid drag). No transformation to mode coordinates
is necessary and no complex arithmetic emerges.

The main disadvantage is that requires substantial expertise

in computational handling of ODE, which is a hairy topic onto itself.
Since DTI can only handle numerically specified models, the approach
is not particularly useful during preliminary design stages,
when many design parameters float around.

Beacuse the last two approcahes (complex arithmetic and DTI) lie
outside the scope of an introductory course (they are usually taught
at the graduate level) our choice is easy: diagonalization it is.

ASEN 3112 Lecture 22 – Slide 20

 ASEN 3112 - Structures

Example System With Specific Data

& 3 Free Parameters
          
m1 0 ü 1 c + c2 −c2 u̇ 1 k + k2 −k2 u1 p1
+ 1 + 1 =
0 m2 ü 2 −c2 c2 u̇ 2 −k2 k2 u2 p2

m 1 = 2, m 2 = 1, k1 = 6, k2 = 3, c2 = c1 = c, p1 = 0, p2 = F2 cos t

          
2 0 ü 1 2c −c u̇ 1 9 −3 u1 0
+ + =
0 1 ü 2 −c c u̇ 2 −3 3 u2 F2 cos t

       
2 0 2c −c 9 −3 0
M= , C= , K= , p=
0 1 −c c −3 3 F2 cos t

ASEN 3112 Lecture 22 – Slide 21

 ASEN 3112 - Structures

Generalized Mass, Damping, Stiffness and Forces

In Terms of The Undamped Modal Matrix Φ
 1 
√ √1  
3 3  = 0.4082 0.5773
ω12 = , ω22 = 6, Φ = [ φ1 φ2 ] =  6
2 √2 − √1 0.8165 −0.5773
6 3

 c c 
  3 − √
1 0 3 2
Mg = ΦT M Φ = = I, Cg = ΦT C Φ = 
0 1 c
− √ 5c
3 2 2

  2
√
Kg = Φ K Φ = 3/2 0
T
= diag[3/2, 6], f (t) = ΦT p (t) = F2 cos t 6
0 6 1
√
3

ASEN 3112 Lecture 22 – Slide 22

 ASEN 3112 - Structures

Modal EOMs Are Coupled Through Cg

η̈ (t) + Cg η̇ (t) + diag[3/2, 6] η (t) = f (t)

 c c 
3 − √
3 2
Cg = ΦT C Φ = 
c
− √ 5c
3 2 2

ASEN 3112 Lecture 22 – Slide 23

 ASEN 3112 - Structures

Diagonalization Device: Rayleigh Damping

Often used in Civil Engineering structures. Assume that the damping
matrix is a linear combination of the mass and stiffness matrices:
assume
C = a0 M + a1 K

in which a 0 and a 1 are numerical coefficients with physical dimensions

of (1/T) and T, respectively, T being a time unit. Transforming to modal
coordinates gives the generalized damping matrix (a.k.a. modal matrix):
T
C g = Φ C Φ = a 0 Mg + a1 K g

which is a diagonal matrix. If the modes in Φ are orthonormal with

respect to the mass matrix, the diagonal entries of C are

Cgii = a 0 + a1 ωi2

ASEN 3112 Lecture 22 – Slide 24

 ASEN 3112 - Structures

Choosing the Rayleigh Damping Coefficients

Recall that for the single-DOF oscillator with viscous damping, the
coefficient of the velocity term in the canonical form is
2ξω
where ξ is the dimensionless damping ratio and ω the natural frequency.
By analogy the i th diagonal entry of the Rayleigh-damping diagonalized
Cg can be taken to be 2 ξ i ω i . Equating that to C gii = a 0 + a 1 ω i2
(from previous slide) shows that the i th damping ratio is


1 a0
ξi = + a1 ωi
2 ωi
The assignment of values to a 0 and a1 is often done by matching the
damping ratios of two modes. For example, matching ξ1 for mode 1
and ξ 2 for mode 2 gives two linear equations



a0 a0
ξ1 =
1
ξ2 = 1 ω 2 + a 1 ω2
2 ω1 + a1 ω1 2

from which a 0 and a 1 can be determined.

ASEN 3112 Lecture 22 – Slide 25

 ASEN 3112 - Structures

A Second Diagonalization Device

Also Bears The Name Rayleigh
(but for a different purpose)

The Rayleigh Quotient (RQ) was introduced by Lord Rayleigh

as a device to approximate the fundamental frequency of a
linear acoustic system if an approximate mode shape is known.

The RQ is frequently used in linear algebra just for

eigenvalue calculations. Here we will use it in another
context: conservation of dissipation energy over a cycle
when the damping matrix is diagonalized

ASEN 3112 Lecture 22 – Slide 26

 ASEN 3112 - Structures

"Rayleigh Quotient" (abbrev. RQ)

Diagonalization Of Damped Matrix C

 
C1R Q 0
CgR Q = diag[C1R Q , C2R Q ] =
0 C2R Q

φ1T Cφ1 2c φ2T Cφ2 5c

C1R Q = = , C2R Q = =
φ1T φ1 5 φ2T φ2 2

The effective modal damping factors are

2c 5c
ξ1R Q = = 0.1633 c ξ2R Q = = 0.5103 c
5(2ω1 ) 2(2ω2 )

ASEN 3112 Lecture 22 – Slide 27

 ASEN 3112 - Structures

RQ-Damped Modal EOM Now Decouple

2c 3 2
η̈1(t) + η̇1 (t) + η1(t) = √ F2 cos t
5 2 6

5c 1
η̈2 (t) + η̇2 (t) + 6η2 (t) = − √ F2 cos t
2 3

But an approximation has been introduced

(Is it serious?)

ASEN 3112 Lecture 22 – Slide 28

 ASEN 3112 - Structures

We Will Investigate This Issue

By Comparing Two Solutions ;;
k1 c1
Exact responses of original EOM of example
system in physical coordinates (obtained by
Direct Time Integration, aka DTI) u1(t)
Mass m1
p1(t)
Approximate responses obtained by solving
the RQ modal EOM and transforming to k2 c2
physical coordinates by the undamped
modal matrix Φ u2(t)
Mass m2

p2 (t)

m 1 = 2, m 2 = 1, k1 = 6, k2 = 3, c2 = c1 = c,
p1 = 0, p2 = F2 cos t

ASEN 3112 Lecture 22 – Slide 29