Professional Documents
Culture Documents
The Gist of NCERT-Geography PDF
The Gist of NCERT-Geography PDF
D u e c a r e h a s b e e n t a k e n t o e n s u r e t h a t th e i n f o r m a t i o n p r o v i d e d i n t h i s b o o k
is correct. However, the publishers bear no responsibility for any damage resulting
from any inadvertent omission or inaccuracy in the book.
Edition : 2015
Price : ` 95/-
ISBN: 9789382732761
Note:
1. All right reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means
without the prior written permission of the publishers.
2. Any disputes arising due to any issues/issue related to the publication of this book shall be subject to the
jurisdiction of Delhi Courts only.
3. All trade marks are properties of their respective owners.
CONTENTS
1. INDIA - LOCATION ............................................................................................................ 1
Structure and Physiography......................................................................................................... 2
The Peninsular Block ................................................................................................................... 2
The Himalayas and other Peninsular Mountains ........................................................................... 2
Indo-Ganga-Brahmaputra Plain ..................................................................................................... 2
Physiography .............................................................................................................................. 3
North and North Eastern Himalaya: .............................................................................................. 3
The Himalayan Mountains ........................................................................................................... 3
Karewas ...................................................................................................................................... 4
Longitudinal division ................................................................................................................... 4
Kashmir or Northwestern Himalayas ............................................................................................. 4
The Himachal and Uttaranchal Himalays ....................................................................................... 5
The Darjeeling and Sikkim Himalayas ............................................................................................ 5
The Arunachal Himalayas ............................................................................................................ 6
The Eastern Hills and Mountains ................................................................................................. 6
The Northern Plains ..................................................................................................................... 6
The Peninsular Plateau ................................................................................................................. 7
The Deccan Plateau ..................................................................................................................... 8
The Central Highlands ................................................................................................................. 8
The Northeastern Plateau ............................................................................................................. 9
The Indian Desert ........................................................................................................................ 9
The Coastal Plains ....................................................................................................................... 9
The Islands ............................................................................................................................... 10
2. DDRAINAGE SYSTEM ....................................................................................................... 11
Drainage systems of India .......................................................................................................... 12
Important Drainage Patterns ....................................................................................................... 12
The Himalayan Drainage ............................................................................................................ 12
Evolution of the Himalayan Drainage .......................................................................................... 12
The river Systems of the Himalayan Drainage ............................................................................. 13
The Indus system ...................................................................................................................... 13
The Ganga System ..................................................................................................................... 14
The Brahmaputra System ........................................................................................................... 15
The peninsular drainage system ................................................................................................. 16
The Evolution of Peninsular Drainage System ............................................................................ 16
River systems of the peninsular drainage .................................................................................... 16
Smallar Rivers flowing towards the West .................................................................................... 17
3. CLIMATE ....................................................................................................................... 19
Factors determining the climate of India ...................................................................................... 19
II Contents
INDIA - LOCATION
The mainland of India, extends from climate, soil types and natural vegetation in
Kashmir in the north to Kanniyakumari in the country.
the south and Arunachal Pradesh in the east There is a general understanding among
to Gujarat in the west. India’s territorial limit the countries of the world to select the
further extends towards the sea upto 12 standard meridian in multiples of 7º30 of
nautical miles (about 21.9 km) from the coast. longitude. That is why 82º30 E has been
(See the box for conversion). selected as the ‘standard meridian’ of India.
Statute mile= 63,360 inches Indian Standard Time is ahead of Greenwich
Nautical mile= 72,960 inches Mean Time by 5 hours and 30 minutes.
1 Statute mile= about 1.6 km (1.584 km) There are some countries where there
1 Nautical mile= about 1.8 km (1.852 km) are more than one standard meridian due to
Our southern boundary extends upto their vast east-to-west extent. For example,
6º45 N latitude in the Bay of Bengal. If you the USA has seven time zones.
work out the latitudinal and longitudinal Now, let us observe the extent and its
extent of India, they are roughly about 30 implications on the Indian people. From the
degrees, whereas the actual distance values of longitude, it is quite discernible that
measured from north to south extremity is there is a variation of nearly 30 degrees, which
3,214 km, and that from east to west is only causes a time difference of nearly two hours
2,933 km. What is the reason for this between the easternmost and the
difference? westernmost parts of our country. What is
This difference is based on the fact that the use of the standard meridian? While the
the distance between two longitudes sun rises in the northeastern states about two
decreases towards the poles whereas the hours earlier as compared to Jaisalmer, the
distance between two latitudes remains the watches in Dibrugarh, Imphal in the east and
same everywhere. Jaisalmer, Bhopal or Chennai in the other
parts of India show the same time. Why does
From the values of latitude, it is
this happen?
understood that the southern part of the
country lies within the tropics and the Name a few place in India through
northern part lies in the sub-tropical zone or which the standard meridian passes?
the warm temperate zone. This location is India with its area of 3.28 million sq. km
responsible for large variations in land forms, accounts for 2.4 per cent of the world’s land
2 Gist of NCERT (Geography)
surface area and stands as the seventh largest subjected to various vertical movements and
country in the world. block faulting. The rift valleys of the
Structure and Physiography Narmada, the Tapi and the Mahanadi and
the Satpura block mountains are some
Current estimation shows that the earth
examples of it. The Peninsula mostly consists
is approximately 4600 million years old.
of relict and residual mountains like the
Based on the variations in its geological
Aravali hills, the Nallamala hills, the Javadi
structure and formations, Indian can be
hills, the Veliconds hills, the Palkonda range
divided into three geological divisions. These
and the Mahendragiri hills, etc. The river
geological regions broadly follow the physical
valleys here are shallow with low gradients.
features:
Most of the east flowing rivers form
(i) The Peninsular Block
deltas before entering into the Bay of Bengal.
(ii) The Himalayas and other Peninsular The deltas formed by the Mahanadi, the
Mountains Krishna, the Kaveri and the Godavari are
(iii) Indo-Ganga-Brahmaputra Plain important examples.
The Peninsular Block The Himalayas and
The northern boundary of the other Peninsular Mountains
Peninsular Block may be taken as an irregular The Himalayas along with other
the running from Kachchh along the western peninsular mountains are young, weak and
flank of the Aravali Range near Delhi and flexible in their geological structure unlike the
then roughly parallel to the Yamuna and the rigid and stable peninsular Block,
Ganga as far as the Rajmahal Hills and the Consequently, they are still subjected to the
Ganga delta. Apart from these, the Karbi interplay of exogenic and endogenic forces,
Anglong and the Meghalaya Plateau the the resulting in the development of faults, folds
northeast and Rajasthan in the west are also and thrust plains. These mountains are
extensions of this block. The northeastern tectonic in origin, dissected by fast-flowing
parts are separated by the Media fault in rivers which are in their youthful stage.
West Bengal from the Chotanagpur plateau. Various landforms like gorges, V-shaped
In Rajasthan, the desert and other desert-like valleys, rapids, waterfalls, etc. are indicative
features overlay this block. of this stage.
The Peninsula is formed essentially by Indo-Ganga-Brahmaputra Plain
a great complex of very ancient gneisses and The third geological division of India
granites, which constitutes as major part of comprises the plains form by the river Indus,
it. Since the Cambrian period, the Peninsula the Ganga and the Brahmaputra. Originally,
has been standing like a rigid block with the it was a geo-synclinal depression which
exception of some of its western coast which attained its maximum development during
is submerged beneath the sea and some other the third phase of the Himalayan during the
parts changed due to tectonic activity without third phase of the Himalayan mountain
affecting the original basement. As a part of formation approximately about 64 million
the Indo-Australian Plate, it has been years ago. Since then, it has been gradually
India - Location 3
filled by the sediments brought by the of extensive alluvial deposits led to the
Himalayan and Peninsular rivers. Average formation of the northern plains of India.
depth of alluvial deposits in these plains The land of India displays great physical
ranges from 1,000-2,000 m. variation. Geologically, the Peninsular Plateau
Physiography constitutes one of the ancient landmasses on
‘Physiography’ of an area is the outcome the earth’s surface. It was supposed to be one
of structure, process and the stage of of the most stable land blocks. The
development. Himalayans and the Northern Plains are the
most recent landforms. From the view point
Based on these macro variations, India
of geology, Himalayan Mountains form an
can be divided into the follow physiographic
unstable zone. The whole mountain system
divisions:
of Himalaya represents a very youthful
(i) The Northern and Northeastern
topography with high peaks, deep valleys
Mountains
and fast flowing rivers. The northern plains
(ii) The Northern Plain are formed of alluvial deposits. The
(iii) The Peninsular Plateau peninsular plateau is composed of igneous
(iv) The Indian Desert and metamorphic rocks with gently rising
(v) The Coastal Plains hills and wide valleys.
(vi) The Islands. The Himalayan Mountains
North and North Eastern Himalaya: The Himalayas, geologically young and
structurally fold mountains stretch over the
Formation of Physical features of north
northern borders of India. These mountain
and north-eastern Himalay is a result of
ranges run in a west-east direction from the
“Plate tectonics” According to Plate Tectonic
Indus to the Brahmaputra. The Himalayas
theory earth is divided into several plateau.
represent the loftiest and one of the most
The formation of Himalaya & north eastern
rugged mountain barriers of the world. They
mountain is due to convergent of two plates
form an arc, which covers a distance of about
Eurasia (North of Himalaya) and Gondwana
2,400 Km.
(Indian subcontinents Australia, South Africa,
Their width varies from 400 Km in
South America). Both the plates came close
Kashmir to 150 Km in Arunachal Pradesh.
to each other and tethys sediment called
The altitudinal variations are greater in the
geosynclines was pressed from two sides
eastern half than those in the western half.
gave birth to current Himalaya mountains.
The Himalaya consists of three parallel ranges
The Himalayan uplift out of the Tethys
in its longitudinal extent. A number of valleys
sea and subsidence of the northern flank of lie between these ranges. The northern most
the peninsular plateau resulted in the
range is known as the Great or Inner
formation of a large basin. In due course of Himalayas of the ‘Himadri’. It is the most
time this depression, gradually got filled with
continuous range consisting of the loftiest
deposition of sediments by the rivers flowing
peaks with an average height of 6,000 metres.
from the mountains in the north and the
It contains all the prominent Himalayan
peninsular plateau in the south. A flat land
4 Gist of NCERT (Geography)
peaks. The folds of Great Himalayas are There are large-scale regional variations
asymmetrical in nature. The core of this part within the Himalayas. On the basis of relief,
of Himalayas is composed of granite. It is alignment of ranges and other
perennially snow bound, and a number of geomorphological features the Himalayas can
glaciers descend from this range. be divided into the following sub-divisions:
The range lying to the south of the Longitudinal division
Himadri forms the most rugged mountain (i) Kashmir or Northwestern
system and is known as Himachal or lesser Himalayas
Himalaya. The ranges are mainly composed
(ii) Himachal and Uttaranchal
of highly compressed and altered rocks. The
Himalayas
altitude varies between 3,700 and 4,500 metres
and the average width is of 50 Km. While (iii) Darjeeling and Sikkim Himalayas
the Pir Panjal range forms the longest and (iv) Arunachal Himalayas
the most important rage, the Dhaula Dhar (v) Eastern Hills and Mountains
and the Mahabharat ranges are also Kashmir or Northwestern Himalayas
prominent ones. This range consists of the
It comprise a series of ranges such as
famous valley of Kashmir, the Kangra and
the Karakoram. Ladakh. Zaskar and Pir
Kullu Valley in Himachal Pradesh. This region
Panjal. The northeastern part of the Kashmir
is well known for its hill stations.
Himalayas is a cold desert, which lies
Karewas between the Greater Himalayas and the
Karewas are the thick deposits of glacial Karakoram ranges. Between the Great
clay and other materials embedded with Himalayas and the Pir Panjal range, lies the
moraines. The outer most range of the world famous valley of Kashmir and the
Himalayas is called the Shiwaliks. They famous Dal Lake. Important glaciers of South
extend over a width of 10.50 Km and have Asia such as the Baltoro and Siachen are also
an altitude varying between 900 and 1100 found in this region. The Kashmir Himalayas
metres. These ranges are composed of are also famous for Karewa formations, which
unconsolidated sediment brought down by are useful for the cultivation of Zafran, a local
rivers from the main Himalayans ranges variety of saffron. Some of the important
located farther north. These valleys are passes of the region are Zoji La on the Great
covered with thick gravel and alluvium. The Himalayas. Banihal on the Panjal, Photu La
longitudinal valley lying between lesser on the Zaskar and Khardung La on the
Himalaya and the Shiwaliks are known as Ladakh range. Some of the important fresh
Duns. Dehra Dun, Kotli Dun and Patli Dun lakes such as Dal and Wular and salt water
are some of the well-known Duns. lakes such as Pangong Tso and Moriri are also
An Interesting Fact in Kashmir Valley, in this region. This region is drained by the
the meanders in Jhelum river are caused by river Indus, and its tributaries such as the
the local base level provided by the erstwhile Jhelum and the Chenab. The Kashmir and
larger lake of which the present Dal lake is a northwestern Himalayas are well-known for
small part. their scenic beauty and picturesque
India - Location 5
Lepcha tribes while the southern part, these communities practice Jhumming. It is
particularly the Darjeeling Himalayas, has a also known as shifting or slash and Figure:
mixed population of Nepalis, Bengalis and Eastern Himalayas communities. Due to
tribals from Central India. The British, taking rugged topography, the inter-valley
advantage of the physical conditions such as transportation linkages are nominal. Hence,
moderate slope, thick soil cover with high most of the interactions are carried through
organic content, well distributed rainfall the duar region along the Arunachal-Assam
throughout the year and mild winters, border.
introduced tea plantations in this region. As The Eastern Hills and Mountains
compared to the other sections of the
These are part of the Himalayan
Himalayas, these along with the Arunachal mountain system having their general
Himalayas are conspicuous by the absence of
alignment from the north to the south
the Shiwalik formations. In place of Shiwaliks direction. They are known by different local
here, the ‘duar formations’ are important, names. In the north, they are known as Patkai
which have also been used for the
Bum, Naga hills, the Manipur hills and in the
development of tea gardens. Sikkim and south as Mizo or Lushai hills. These are low
Darjeeling Himalayas are also known for
hills, inhabited by numerous tribal groups
their scenic beauty and rich flora and fauna, practicing Jhum cultivation.
particularly various types of orchids.
Most of these ranges are separated from
The Arunachal Himalayas each other by numerous small rivers. The
These extend from the east of the Bhutan Barak is an important river in Manipur and
Himalayas upto the Diphu pass in the east. Mizoram. The physiography of Manipur is
The general direction of the mountain range unique by the presence of a large lake known
is from southwest to northeast. Some of the as ‘Loktak’ lake at the centre, surrounded by
important mountain peaks of the region are mountains from all sides. Mzoram which is
Kangtu and Namcha Barwa. These rangers also known as the ‘Molassis basin’ which is
are dissected by fast-flowing rivers from the made up of soft unconsolidated deposits.
north to the south, forming deep gorges. Most of the rivers in Nagaland form the
Brahmaputra flows through a deep gorge tributary of the Brahmaputra. While two
after crossing Namcha Barwa. Some of the rivers of Mizoram and Manipur are the
important rivers are the Kameng, the tributaries of Barak river, which in turn is
Subansiri, the Dihang and the Lohit. the tributary of Meghna; the rivers in the
These are perennial with the high rate eastern part of Manipur are the tributaries
of fall, thus, having the highest hydro-electric of Chindwin, which in turn is a tributary of
power potential in the country. An important the Irrawaddy of Myanmar.
aspect of the Arunachal Himalayas is the The Northern Plains
numerous ethnic tribal community inhabiting
The northern plains are formed by the
in these areas. Some of the prominent ones
alluvial deposits brought by the rivers- the
from west to east are the Monpa, Daffla,
Indus, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra.
Abor, Mishmi, Nishi and the Nagas. Most of
These plain extend approximately 3,200 km
India - Location 7
from the east to the west. The average width sea level. The states of Haryana and Delhi
of these plains varies between 150-300 km. form a water divide between the Indus and
The maximum depth of alluvium deposits the Ganga river systems. As opposed to this,
varies between 1,000-2,000 m. From the north the Brahmaputra river flows from the
to the south, these can be divided into three northeast to the southwest direction before
major zones: the Bhabar, the Tarai and the it takes an almost 90º southward turn at
alluvial plains. The alluvial plains can be Dhubri before it enters into Bangladesh.
further divided into the Khadar and the These river valley plains have a fertile alluvial
Bhangar. soil cover which supports a variety of crops
Bhabar is a narrow belt ranging between like wheat, rice, sugarcane and jute, and
8-10 km parallel to the Shiwalik foothills at hence, supports a large population.
the break-up of the slope. As a result of this, The Peninsular Plateau
the streams and rivers coming from the Rising from the height of 150 m above
mountain deposit heavy materials of rocks the river plains up to an elevation of 600-900
and boulders, and at times, disappear in this m is the irregular triangle known as the
zone. South of the Bhabar is the Tarai belt, peninsular plateau. Delhi ridge in the
with an approximate width of 10-20 km northwest, (extension of Aravalis), the
where most of the streams and rivers re- Rajmahal hills in the east, Gir range in the
emerge without having any properly west and the Cardamom hills in the south
demarcated channel, thereby, creating constitute the outer extent of the peninsular
marshy and swampy conditions known as the plateau. However, an extension of this is also
Tarai. This has a luxurious growth of natural seen in the northeast, in the form of Shillong
vegetation and houses a varied wild life. Karbi-Anglong plateau. The peninsular India
The south of Tarai is a belt consisting of is made up of a series of patland plateaus such
old and new alluvial deposits known as the as the Hazaribagh plateau, the Palamu
Bhangar and Khadar respectively. These plateau, the Ranchi plateau, the Malwa
plains have characteristic features of mature plateau, the Coimbatore plateau and the
stage of fluvial erosional and depositional Karnataka plateau, etc. This is one of the
landforms such as sand bars, meanders, oldest and the most stable landmass of India.
oxbow lakes and braided channels. The The general elevation of the plateau is from
Brahmaputra plains are known for their the west to the east, which s also proved by
riverine islands and sand bars. Most of these the pattern of the flow of rivers. Name some
areas are subjected to periodic floods and rivers of the peninsular plateau which have
shifting river courses forming braided their confluence in the Bay of Bengal and the
streams. Arabian sea and mention some landforms
The mouths of these mighty rivers also which are typical to the east flowing rivers
form some of the largest deltas of the world, but are absent in the west flowing rivers.
for example, the famous Sunderbans delta. Some of the important physiographic features
Otherwise, this is a featureless plain with a of this region are tors, block mountains, rift
general elevation of 50-150 m above the mean valleys, spurs, bare rocky structures, series
8 Gist of NCERT (Geography)
of hummocky hills and wall-like quartzite Eastern Ghats comprising the discontinuous
dykes offering natural sites for water storage. and low hills are highly eroded by the rivers
The western and northwestern part of the such as the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the
plateau has an emphatic presence of black Krishna, the Kaveri, etc. Some of the
soil. This peninsular plateau has undergone important ranges include the Javadi hills, the
recurrent phases of upliftment and Palconda range, the Nallamala hills, the
submergence accompanied by crustal faulting Mahendragiri hills, etc. The Eastern and the
and fractures. (The Bhima fault needs special Western Ghats meet each other at the Nilgiri
mention, because of its recurrent seismic hills.
activities). These spatial variations have The Central Highlands
brought in elements of diversity in the relief They are bounded to the west by the
of the peninsular plateau. The northwestern
Aravali range. The Satpura range is formed
part of the plateau has a complex relief of by a series of scarped plateaus on the south,
ravines and gorges. The ravines of Chambal, generally at an elevation varying between
Bhind and Morena are some of the well-
600-900 m above the mean sea level. This
known examples. forms the northernmost boundary of the
On the basis of the prominent relief Deccan plateau. It is a classic example of the
features, the peninsular plateau can be relict mountains which are highly denuded
divided into three broad groups: (i) The and form discontinuous ranges. The extension
Deccan Plateau (ii) The Central Highlands (iii) of the Peninsular plateau can be seen as far
The Northeastern Plateau. as Jaisalmer in the West, where it has been
The Deccan Plateau covered by the longitudinal sand ridges and
This is bordered by the Western Ghats crescent-shaped sand dunes called barchans.
in the west, Eastern Ghats in the east and This region has undergone metamorphic
the Satpura, Maikal range and Mahadeo hills processes in its geological history, which can
in the north. Western Ghats are locally be corroborated by the presence of
known by different names such as Sahyadri metamorphic rocks such as marble, slate,
in Maharashtra, Nilgiri hills in Karnataka and gneiss, etc.
Tamil Nadu and Anaimalai hills and The general elevation of the Central
Cardamom hills in Kerala. Western Ghats are Highlands ranges between 700-1,000 m above
comparatively higher in elevation and more the mean sea level and it slopes towards the
continuous than the Eastern Ghats. Their north and northeastern directions. Most of
average elevation is about 1,500 m with the the tributaries of the river Yamuna have their
height increasing from north to south. origin in the Vindhyan and Kaimur ranges.
‘Anaimudi’ (2,695 m), the highest peak of Banas is the only significant tributary of the
Peninsular plateaus is located on the river Chambal that originates from the
Anaimalai hills of the Western Ghats Aravalli in the west. An eastern extension of
followed by Dodabetta (2,670 m) on the the Central Highland is formed by the
Nilgiri hills. Most of the Peninsular rivers Rajmahal hills, to the south of which lies a
have their origin in the Western Ghats. large reserve of mineral resources in the
India - Location 9
DRAINAGE SYSTEM
A river drains the water collected from the Krishna, etc. is oriented towards the Bay
a specific area, which is called its ‘catchment of Bengal while 23 per cent comprising the
area’. Indus, the Narmada, the Tapi, the Mahi and
The flow of water through well-defined the Periyar systems discharge their waters
channels is known as ‘drainage’ and the in the Arabian Sea.
network of such channels is called a ‘drainage On the basis of the size of the
system’. The drainage pattern of an area is watershed, the drainage basins of India are
the outcome of the geological time period, grouped into three categories: (i) Major river
nature and structure of rocks, topography, basins with more than 20,000 sq. km. of
slope, amount of water flowing and the catchment area. It includes 14 drainage basins
periodically of the flow. such as the Ganga, the Brahmaputra, the
An area drained by a river and its Krishna, the Tapi, the Narmada, the Mahi,
tributaries is called a drainage basin. The the Pennar, the Sabarmati, the Barak, etc. (ii)
boundary line separating one drainage basin Medium river basins with catchment area
from the other is known as the watershed. between 2,000- 20,000 sq. km. incorporating
The catchments of large rivers are called river 44 river basins such as the Kalindi, the
basins while those of small rivulets and rills Periyar, the Meghna, etc. (iii) Minor river
are often referred to as watersheds. There is basins with catchment area of less than 2,000
however, a slight difference between a river sq. km. include fairly good number of rivers
basin and a watershed. Watersheds are small flowing in the area of low rainfall.
in area while the basins cover larger areas. The Narmada and Tapi are two large
Indian drainage system may be divided rivers which are exceptions. They along with
on various bases. On the basis of discharge many small rivers discharge their waters in
of water (orientations to the sea), it may be the Arabian Sea.
grouped into: (i) the Arabian Sea drainage; On the basis of the mode of origin,
and (ii) the Bay of Bengal drainage. They are nature and characteristics, the Indian
separated from each other through the Delhi drainage may also be classified into the
ridge, the Aravalis and the Sahyadris (water Himalayan drainage and the peninsular
divide is shown by a line in Figure. Nearly drainage. Although it has the problem of
77 per cent of the drainage area consisting of including the Chambal, the Betwa, the Son,
the Ganga, the Brahmaputra, the Mahanadi, etc. which are much older in age and origin
12 Gist of NCERT (Geography)
than other rivers that have their origin in the Besides deep gorges, these rivers also form
Himalayas, it is the most accepted basis of V-shaped valleys, rapids and waterfalls in
classification. their mountainous course. While entering the
Drainage systems of India plains, they form depositional features like
flat valleys, ox-bow, lakes, flood plains,
Indian drainage system consists of a
braided channels, and deltas near the river
large number of small and big rivers. It is
mouth. In the Himalayan reaches, the course
the outcome of the evolutionary process of
of these rivers is highly tortuous, but over
the three major physiographic units and the
the plains they display a strong meandering
nature and characteristics of precipitation. tendency and shift their courses frequently.
Important Drainage Patterns River Kosi, also know as the ‘sorrow of
(i) The drainage pattern resembling the Bihar’, has been notorious for frequently
branches of a tree is known as changing its course. The Kosi brings huge
“dendritic” the examples of which quantity of sediments from its upper reaches
are the rivers of northern plain. and deposits in the plains. The course gets
(ii) When the rivers originate from a hill blocked, and consequently the river changes
and flow in all directions, the its course.
drainage pattern is known as ‘radial’. Evolution of the Himalayan Drainage
The rivers originating from the There are difference of opinion about
Amarkantak range present a good the evolution of the Himalayan rivers.
example of it. However, geologists believe that a mighty
(iii) When the primary tributaries of river called Shiwalik or Indo-Brahma
rivers flow parallel to each other and traversed the entire longitudinal extent of the
secondary tributaries join them at Himalaya from Assam to Punjab and onwards
right angles, the pattern is known to Sind, and finally discharge into the Gulf
as ‘trellis’. of Sind near lower Punjab during the
(iv) When the rivers discharge their Miocene period some 5-24 million years ago.
waters from all directions in a lake The remarkable continuity of the Shiwalik
or depression, the pattern is know and its lacustrine origin and alluvial deposits
as ‘centripetal’. consisting of sands, silt, clay, boulders and
conglomerates support this viewpoints.
The Himalayan Drainage
It is opined that in due course of time
The Himalayan drainage system has Indo-Brahma river was dismembered into
evolved through a long geological history. It three main drainage systems: (i) the Indus
mainly includes the Ganga, the Indus and the and its five tributaries in the western part;
Brahmaputra rivers basins. Since these are fed
(ii) the Ganga and its Himalayan tributaries
both by melting of snow and precipitation,
in the central part: and (iii) the stretch of the
rivers of this system are perennial. These riv-
Brahmaputra in Assam and its Himalayan
ers pass through the giant gorges carved out
tributaries in the eastern part. The
by the erosional activity carried on simulta-
dismemberment was probably due to the
neously with the uplift of the Himalayas.
Drainage System 13
Pleistocene upheaval in the western other important tributaries joining the right
Himalayan, including the uplift of the Potwar bank of the Indus are the Khurram, the Tochi,
Plateau (Delhi Ridge), which acted as the the Gomal. The Viboa and the Sangar. They
water divide between the Indus and Ganga all originate in the Sulaiman ranges. The river
drainage systems. Likewise, the down flows southward and receives Panjnad’ a little
thrusting of the Malda gap area between the above Mithankot. The Panjnad is the name
Rajmahal hills and the Meghalaya plateau given to the five rivers of Punjab, namely the
during the mid-Pleistocene period, period, Satluj, the Beas, the Ravi, the Chenab and the
diverted the Ganga and the Brahmaputra Jhelum. It finally discharges into the Arabian
systems to flow towards the Bay of Bengal. Sea, east of Karachi. The Indus flows in India
The river only through the Leh district in Jammu and
Systems of the Himalayan Drainage Kashmir.
The Himalayan drainage consists of The Jhelum an important tributary of the
several river systems but the following are Indus, rises from a spring at Verinag situated
the major river systems: at the foot of the Pir Panjal in the south-
The Indus system eastern part of the valley of Kashmir. It flows
through Srinagar and the Wular lake before
It is one of the largest river basins of entering Pakistan through a deep narrow
the world, covering an area of 11,65,000 sq. gorge. It joins the Chenab near Jhang in
km (in India it is 321, 289 sq. km and a total Pakistan. The Chenab is the largest tributary
length of 2,880 km (in India 1,114 km). The of the Indus. It is formed by two streams,
Indus also known as the Sindhu, is the the Chandra and the Bhaga, which join at
westernmost of the Himalayan rivers in India. Tandi near Keylong in Himachal Pradesh.
It originates from a glacier near Bokhar Chu Hence, it is also known as Chandrabhaga.
(31º 15’ N latitude and 81º40’ E longitude) in The river flows for 1,180 km before entering
the Tibetan region at an altitude of 4,164 m into Pakistan.
in the Kailash Mountain range. In Tibet, it is
The Ravi is another important tributary
known as ‘Singi Khamban; or Lion’s mouth.
of the Indus it rises west of the Rohtang pass
After flowing in the northwest direction
in the Kullu hills of Himachal Pradesh and
between the Ladakh and Zaskar ranges, it
flows through the Chamba valley of the state.
passes through Ladakh and Baltistan. It cuts
Before entering Pakistan and joining the
across the ladakh range, forming a
Chenab near Sarai Sidhu, it drains the area
spectacular gorge near Gilgit in Jammu and
lying between the southeastern part of the
Kashmir. It enters into Pakistan near Chillar
Pir Panjal and the Dhauladhar ranges.
in the Dardistan region.
The Beas is another important tributary
The Indus receives a number of
of the Indus, originating from the Beas Kund
Himalayan tributaries such as the Shyok, the
near the Rohtang Pass at an elevation of 4,000
Gilgit, the Zaskar, the Hunza, the Nubra, the
m above the mean sea level. The river flows
Shigar, the Gasting and the Dras. It finally
through the Kullu valley and forms gorges
emerges out of the hills near Attock where it
at Kati and Largi in the Dhaoladhar range. It
receives the Kabul river on its right bank. The
14 Gist of NCERT (Geography)
enters the Punjab plains where it meets the river system is the largest in India having a
Satluj near Harike. number of perennial and non-perennial rivers
The Satluj originates in the Rakas lake originating in the Himalayas in the north and
near Mansarovar at an altitude of 4,555 m in the Peninsula in the south, respectively. The
Tibet where it is known as Langchen Son is its major right bank tributary. The
Khambab. It flows almost parallel to the Indus important left bank tributaries are the
for about 400 km before entering India, and Ramganga, the Gomati, the Ghaghara, the
comes out of a gorge at Rupar. It passes Gandak, the Kosi and the Mahananda. The
through the Shipki La on the Himalayan river finally discharges itself into the Bay of
ranges and enters the Punjab plains. It is an Bengal near the Sagar Island.
antecedent river. It is a very important The Yamuna, the western most and the
tributary as it feeds the canal system of the longest tributary of the Ganga, has its source
Bhakra Nangal project. in the Yamunotri glacier on the western
The Ganga System slopes of Banderpunch range (6,316 km). It
joins the Ganga at Prayag (Allahabad). It is
The Ganga is the most important river
joined by the Chambal, the Sind, the Betwa
of India both from the point of view of its
and the Ken on its right bank which originates
basin and cultural significance. It rises in the
from the Peninsular plateau while the
Gangotri glacier near Gaumukh (3,900 m) in
Hindan, the Rind, the Sengar, the Varuna,
the Uttarkashi district of Uttarankhand. Here,
etc. join it on its left water feeds the western
it is known as the Bhagirathi. It cuts through
and eastern Yamuna and the Agra canals for
the Central and the Lesser Himalayas in
irrigation purposes.
narrow gorges. At Devprayag, the Bhagirathi
meets the Alaknanda; hereafter, it is known The Chambal rises near Mhow in the
as the Ganga. The Alaknanda has its source Malwa plateau of Madhya Pradesh
in the Satopanth glacier above Badrinath. The northwards through a gorge up wards of
Alaknanda consists of the Dhaul and the Kota in Rajasthan, where the Gandhisagar
Vishnu Ganga which meet at Joshimath or dam has been constructed. From Kota, it
Vishnu Prayag. The other tributaries of traverses down to Bundi, Sawai Madhopur
Alaknanda such as the Pindar join it at Karna and Dholpur, and finally joins the Yamuna.
Prayag while Mandakini or Kali Ganga meets The Chambal is famous for its badland
it at Rudra Prayag. The Ganga enters the topography called the Chambal ravines.
plains at Haridwar. From here, it flows first The Gandak comprises two streams,
to the south, then to the south-east and east namely Kaligandak and Trishulganga. It rises
before splitting into two distributaries, in the Nepal Himalayas between the
namely the Bhagirathi and the Hugli. The Dhaulagiri and Mount Everest and drains the
river has a length of 2,525 km. It is shared by central part of Nepal. It enters the Ganga
Uttarakhand (110 km) and Uttar Pradesh plain in Champaran district of Bihar and joins
(1,450 km), Bihar (445 km) and West Bengal the Ganga at Sonpur near Patna.
(520 km). The Ganga basin covers about 8.6 The Ghaghara originates in the glaciers
lakh sq. km area in India alone. The Ganga of Mapchachungo. After collecting the waters
Drainage System 15
of its tributaries- Tila, Seti and Beri, it comes The Brahmaputra System
out of the mountain, cutting a deep gorge at The Brahmaputra, one of the largest
Shishapani. The river Sarda (Kali or Kali rivers of the world, has its origin in the
Ganga) joins it in the plain before it finally Chemayungdung glacier of the Kailash range
meets the Ganga at Chhapra. near the Mansarovar lake. From here, it
The Kosi is an antecedent river with its traverses eastward longitudinally for a
source to the north of Mount Everest in Ti- distance of nearly 1,200 km in a dry and flat
bet, where its main stream Arun rises. After region of southern Tibet, where it is known
crossing the Central Himalayas in Nepal, it as the Tsangpo, which means ‘the purifier’.
is joined by the Son Kosi from the West and The Rango Tsangpo is the major right bank
the Tamur Kosi from the east. It forms Sapt tributary of this river in Tibet. It emerges as
Kosi after uniting with the river Arun. a turbulent and dynamic river after carving
The Ramganga is comparatively a small out a deep gorge in the Central Himalayas
river rising in the Garhwal hills near Gairsain. near Namcha Barwa (7,755 m). The river
It changes its course to the southwest emerges from the foothills under the name
direction after crossing the Shiwalik and of Siang or Dihang. It enters India west of
enters into the plains of Uttar Pradesh near Sadiya town in Arunachal Pradesh. Flowing
Najibabad. Finally, it joins the Ganga near southwest, it receives its main left bank
Kannauj. The Damodar occupies the eastern tributaries, viz., Dibang or Sikang and Lohit;
margins of the Chotanagpur Plateau where thereafter; it is known as the Brahmaputra.
it flows through a rift valley and finally joins The Brahmaputra receives numerous
the Hugli. The Barakar is its main tributary. tributaries in its 750 km long journey through
Once known as the ‘sorrow of Bengal’, the the Assam valley. Its major left bank
Damodar has been now tamed by the tributaries are the Burhi Dihing, Dhansari
Damodar Valley corporation, multipurpose (South) and Kalang whereas the important
project. right bank tributaries are the Subansiri,
The Sarda or Saryu river rises in the Kameng, Manas and sankosh. The Subansiri
Milan glacier in the Nepal Himalayas where which has its origin in Tibet, is an antecedent
it is known as the Goriganga. Along the Indo- river. The Brahmaputra enters into
Nepal border, it is called Kali or Chauk, Bangladesh near Dhubri and flows
where it joins the Ghaghara. southward. In Bangladesh, the Tista joins it
The Mahananda is another important on its right bank from where the river is
tributary of the Ganga rising in the known as the Yamuna. It finally merges with
Darjeeling hills. It joins the Ganga as its last the river Padma, which falls in the Bay of
left bank tributary in West Bengal. Bengal. The Brahmaputra is well-known for
The Son is a large south bank tributary floods, channel shifting and bank erosion.
of the Ganga, originating in the Amarkantak This is due to the fact that most of its
plateau. After forming a series of waterfalls tributaries are large, and bring large quantity
at the edge of the plateau, it reaches Arrah, of sediments owing to heavy rainfall in its
west of Patna, to join the Ganga. catchment area.
16 Gist of NCERT (Geography)
The peninsular drainage system and deltaic deposits in these rivers, (iii) Slight
The peninsular drainage system is older tilting of the peninsular block from northwest
than the Himalayan one. This is evident from to the southeastern direction gave orientation
the broad, largely-graded shallow valleys, to the entire drainage system towards the
and the maturity of the rivers. The Western Bay of Bengal during the same period.
Ghats running close to the western coast act River systems of the peninsular drainage
as the water divide between the major There are a large number of river
peninsular rivers, discharging their water in systems in the peninsular drainage. A brief
the Bay of Bengal and as small rivulets joining account of the major peninsular river systems
the Arabian Sea. Most of the major peninsular is given below:
rivers except Narmada and Tapi flow from The Mahanadi rises near Sihawa in
west to east. The Chambal, the Sind, the Raipur district of Chhattisgarh and runs
Betwa, the Ken, the Son, originating in the through Orissa to discharge its water into
northern part of the peninsular belong to the the Bay of Bengal. It is 851 km long and its
Ganga river system. The other major river catchment area spreads over 1.42 lakhs sq.
systems of the peninsular drainage are- the km. Some navigation is carried on in the lower
Mahanadi the Godavari, the Krishna and the course of this river. Fifty three per cent of
Kaveri, Peninsular rivers are characterized by the drainage basin of this rivers lies in Madhya
fixed course, absence of meanders and no Pradesh and Chhattisgarh, while 47 per cent
perennial flow of water. The Narmada and lies in Orissa.
the Tapi which flow through the rift valley
The Godavari is the largest peninsular
are, however, exceptions. They meet in
river system. It is also called the Dakshin
Arabian sea.
Ganga. It rises in the Nasik district of
The Evolution of Maharashtra and discharges its water into the
Peninsular Drainage System Bay of Bengal. Its tributaries run through the
Three major geological events in the states of Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh,
distant past have shaped the present Chhattisgarh, Orissa and Andhra Pradesh. It
drainage systems of peninsular India: (i) is 1,465 km long with a catchment area
Subsidence of the western flank of the spreading over 3.13 lakh sq. km 49 per cent
peninsula leading to its submergence below of this, lies in Maharashtra, 20 per cent in
the sea during the early tertiary period. Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh, and the
Generally, it has disturbed the symmetrical rest in Andhra Pradesh. The Penganga, the
plan of the river on either side of the original Indravati, the Pranhita, and the Manjra are
watershed. (ii) Upheavel of the Himalayas its principal tributaries. The Godavari is
when the northern flank of the peninsular subjected to heavy floods in its lower reaches
block was subjected to subsidence and the to the south of Polavaram, where it forms a
consequent trough faulting. The Narmada picturesque gorge. It is navigable only in the
and The Tapi flow in trough faults and fill deltaic stretch. The river after Rajamundri
the original cracks with their detritus splits into several branches forming a large
materials. Hence, there is a lack of alluvial delta.
Drainage System 17
The Krishna is the second largest east Madhya Pradesh and the remaining 6 per cent
flowing peninsular river which rises near in Gujarat.
Mahabaleshwar in Sahyadri. Its total length Luni is the largest river system of
is 1,401 km. The Koyna, the Tungbhadra and Rajasthan, west of Aravali. It originates near
the Bhima are its major tributaries. Of the Pushkar in two branches. i.e. the Saraswati
total catchment area of the Krishna, 27 per and the Sabarmati, which join with each other
cent lies in Maharashyra, 44 per cent in at Govindgarh. From here, the river comes
Karnataka and 29 per cent in Andhra Pradesh. out of Aravali and is known as Luni. It flows
The Kaveri rises in Brahmagiri hills towards the west till Telwara and then takes
1,341m of Kogadu district in Karnataka. Its a southwest direction to join the Rann of
length is 800 km and it drains an area of 81,155 Kuchchh. The entire river system is
sq. km. Since the upper catchment area ephemeral.
receives rainfall during the southwest River Catchment area sq. km
monsoon season (summer) and the lower Sabarmati 21,674
part during the northeast monsoon season
Mahi 34,842
(winter), the river carries water throughout
Dhandhar 2,770
the year with comparatively less fluctuation
than the other peninsular rivers. About 3 per Kalinadi 5,179
cent of the Kaveri basin falls in Kerala, 41 Sharavati 2,029
per cent in Karnataka and 56 per cent in Tamil Bharathapuzha 5,397
Nadu. Its important tributaries are the Periyar 5,243
Kabini, the Bhavani and the Amravati. Smallar Rivers flowing towards the West
The Narmada originates on the western The rivers flowing towards the Arabian
flank of the Amarkantak plateau at a height sea have short courses. Find out the smaller
of about 1,057 m. Flowing in a rift valley rivers of Gujarat. The Shetruniji is one such
between the Satpura in the south and the river which rises near Dalkahwa in Amreli
Vindhyan range in the north. It forms a district. The Bhadra, originates near Aniali
picturesque gorge in marble rocks and village in Rajkot district. The Dhadhar rises
Dhuandhar waterfall near Jabalpur. After near Ghantar village in Panchmahal district.
flowing a distance of about 1,312 km, it meets Sabarmati and Mahi are the two famous
the Arabian sea south of Bharuch, forming a rivers of Gujarat.
broad 27 km long estuary. Its catchment area
The Vaitarna rises from the Trimbak
is about 98,796 sq. km. The Sardar Sarovar
hills in Nasik district at an elevation of 670
Project has been constructed on this river.
m. The Kalinadi rises from Belgaum district
The Tapi is the other important and falls in the Karwar Bay. The source of
westward flowing river. It originates from Bedti river lies in Hubli Dharwar and
Multai in the Betul district of Madhya traverses a course of 161 km. The Sharavati
Pradesh. It is 724 km long and drains an area is another important river in Karnataka
of 65,145 sq. km. Nearly 79 per cent of its flowing towards the west. The Sharavati
basin lies in Maharashtra, 15 per cent in originates in Shimoga district of Karnataka
18 Gist of NCERT (Geography)
and drains a catchment area of 2,209 sq. km. longest river of Kerala, Bharathapuzha rises
Goa has two important rivers which can be near Annamalai hills. It is also known as
mentioned here. One is Mandovi and the Ponnani. It drains an area of 5,397 sq. km
other is Juari. Compare its catchment area with that of the
River Catchment area sq. km Sharavati river of Karnataka.
The Periyar is the second largest river
Subarnarekha 19.296
of Kerala. Its catchment area is 5,243 sq. km.
Baitarni 12.789 You can see that there is a marginal difference
Brahmani 39.033 in the catchment area of the Bhartapuzha and
Penner 55.213 the Periyar rivers.
Palar 17.870 Another river of Kerala worth
Kerala has a narrow coastline. The mentioning is the Pamba river which falls in
the Vemobanad lake after traversing a course
of 177 km.
Gist of NCERT
Indian Polity
ISBN: 9789351720249
Book Code: F21
Geography
3 19
CLIMATE
Climate refers to the sum total of Rajasthan. In the coastal area the variation of
weather conditions and variations over a rainfall is less. Whereas in the inner part of
large area for a long period of time (more country the seasonal variation is more. Ac-
than thirty years). Weather refers to the state cordingly the Indians show their unity in di-
of the atmosphere over an area at any point versity in terms of food, clothing, housing
of time. and culture.
The elements of weather and climate are Factors determining the climate of India
the same, i.e. temperature, atmospheric India’s climate is controlled by a number
pressure, wind, humidity and precipitation. of factors which can be broadly divided into
You may have observed that the weather two groups- (a) factors related to location and
conditions fluctuate very often even within relief, and (b) factors related to air pressure
a day. But there is some common pattern over and winds.
a few weeks or months, i.e. days are cool or (a) Factors related to Location and Relief
hot, windy or calm, cloudy or bright, and
Latitude: You know that the Tropic of
wet or dry. On the basis of the generalized
Cancer passes through the central part of
monthly atmospheric conditions, the year is
India in east-west direction. This, northern
divided into seasons such as winter, summer
part of the India lies in sub-tropical and
or rainy seasons.
temperate zone and the part lying south of
During the summer season the desert
the Tropic of Cancer falls in the tropical zone.
area of Rajasthan witnesses 50º temperature
The tropical zone being nearer to the equator,
whereas Pahalgam sector of Jammu and
experiences high temperatures throughout
Kashmir has 20ºC temperature. During
the year with small daily and annual range.
winter nights Dras sector of Jammu and
Area north of the Tropic of Cancer being
Kashmir witnesses– 45ºC temperature where
away from the equator, experiences extreme
as Thiruvananthpuram has 20ºC.
climate with high daily and annual range of
Rainfall also varies in terms of quantity temperature.
and distribution in the regions of Himalaya
The Himalayan Mountains: The
rainfall is in the from of snowy balls where
towering mountain chain provides an
as in the rest of part of India it is a general
invincible shield to protect the subcontinent
rain. Again annual rainfall varies from 400ºC
from the cold northern winds. The Himalayas
in the Meghalya to 10ºc in Ladakh and West
also trap the monsoon winds, forcing them
20 Gist of NCERT (Geography)
contact zone is not, however, stable. brought into India by the westerly jet stream.
Occasionally, it may shift its position as far An increase in the prevailing night
east as the middle Ganga valley with the temperature generally indicates an advance
result that whole of northwestern and in the arrival of these cyclones disturbances.
northern India up to the middle Ganga valley Tropical cyclones originate over the Bay
comes under the influence of dry of Bengal and the Indian Ocean. These
northwestern winds. tropical cyclones have very high wind
Jet Stream and Upper Air Circulation: velocity and heavy rainfall and hit the Tamil
The pattern of air circulation discussed above Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Orissa coast.
is witnessed only at the lower level of the Most of these cyclones are very destructive
atmosphere near the surface of the earth. due to high wind velocity and torrential rain
Higher up in the lower troposphere, about that accompanies it.
three km above the surface of the earth, a Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)
different pattern of air circulation is The Inter Tropical Convergence Zone
observed. The variations in the atmospheric (ITCZ) is a low pressure zone located at the
pressure closer to the surface of the earth have equator where trade winds converge, and so,
no role to play in the making of upper air it is a zone where air tends to ascend. In July,
circulation. All of Western and Central Asia the ITCZ is located around 20ºN latitudes
remains under the influence of westerly (over the Gangetic plain), sometimes called
winds along the altitude of 9-13 km from the monsoon trough. This monsoon trough
west to east. These winds blow across the encourages the development of thermal low
Asian continent at latitudes north of the over north and northwest India. Due to the
Himalayas roughly parallel to the Tibetan shift of ITCZ, the trade winds of the south-
highlands. These are known as jet streams. ern hemisphere cross the equator between
Tibetan highlands act as a barrier in the path 40ºE and 60ºE longitudes and start blowing
of these jet streams. As a result, jet streams from southwest to northeast due to the
get bifurcated. On of its branches blows to Coriolis force. It becomes southwest
the north of the Tibetan highlands, while the monsoon. In winter, the ITCZ moves south-
southern branch blows in an eastward ward, and so the reversal of winds from
direction, south of the Himalayas. It has its northeast to south and southwest, takes
mean position at 25ºN in February at 200-300 place. They are called northeast monsoons.
mb level. It is believed that this southern Mechanism of
branch of the jet stream exercise an important Weather in the Summer Season
influence on the winter weather in India. Surface Pressure and Winds: As the
Western Cyclonic Disturbance and summer sets in and the sun shifts northwards,
Tropical Cyclones: The western cyclone the wind circulation over the subcontinent
disturbances which enter the Indian undergoes a complete reversal at both, the
subcontinent from the west and the lower as well as the upper levels. By the
northwest during the winter months middle of July, the low pressure belt nearer
originate over the Mediterranean Sea and are the surface (termed as Inter Tropical
22 Gist of NCERT (Geography)
Convergence Zone (ITCZ) shifts northwards, the rainfall pattern during the southwest
roughly parallel to the Himalayas between monsoon period.
20ºN and 25ºN. By this time, the westerly jet The Nature of Indian Monsoon
stream withdraws from the Indian region. Monsoon is a familiar, though a little
In fact, meteorologists have found an
known climatic phenomenon. Despite the
interrelationship between the northward observations spread over centuries, the
shift of the equatorial trough (ITCZ) and the
monsoon continues to puzzle the scientists.
withdrawal of the westerly jet stream from
Many attempts have been made to discover
over the North Indian Plain. It is generally the exact nature and causation of monsoon,
believed that there is a cause and effect
but so far, no single theory has been able to
relationship between the two. The ITCZ being explain the monsoon fully. A real
a zone of low pressure attracts inflow of
breakthrough has come recently when it was
winds from different directions. The studied at the global rather than at regional
maritime tropical air mass (mT) from the level.
southern hemisphere, after crossing the
Systematic studies of the causes of
equator, rushes to the low pressure area in
rainfall in the South Asian region help to
the general southwesterly direction. It is this
understand the causes and salient features
moist air current which is popularly known
of the monsoon, particularly some of its
as the southwest monsoon.
important aspects, such as:
Jet Streams and Upper Air Circulation:
(i) The onset of the monsoon.
The pattern of pressure and winds as
mentioned above is formed only at the level (ii) Rain-bearing systems (e.g. tropical
of the troposphere. An easterly jet stream cyclones) and the relationship
flows over the southern part of the Peninsula between their frequency and
in June, and has a maximum speed of 90 km distribution of monsoon rainfall.
per hour. In August, it is confined to 15ºN (iii) Break in the monsoon.
latitude, and in September up to 22ºN Onset of the Monsoon
latitudes. The easterlies normally do not Towards the end of the nineteenth
extend to the north of 30ºN latitude in the century, it was believed that the differential
upper atmosphere. heating of land and sea during the summer
Easterly Jet Stream and Tropical months is the mechanism which sets the stage
Cyclones: The easterly jet stream steers the for the monsoon winds of drift towards the
tropical depressions into India. These subcontinent. During April and May when
depressions play a significant role in the the sun shines vertically over the Tropic of
distribution of monsoon rainfall over the Cancer, the large landmass in the north of
Indian subcontinent. The tracks of these Indian Ocean gets intensely heated. This
depressions are the areas of highest rainfall causes the formation of an intense low
in India. The frequency at which these pressure in the northwestern part of the
depressions visit India, their direction and subcontinent. Since the pressure in the Indian
intensity, all go a long way in determining Ocean in the south of the landmass is high as
Climate 23
water gets heated slowly, the low attracts stream along the eastern coast of
the southeast trades across the Equator. Africa.
These conditions help in the northward shift The frequency of the tropical
in the position of the ITCZ. The southwest depressions originating from the Bay of
monsoon may thus, be seen as a continuation Bengal varies from year to year. Their paths
of the southeast trades deflected towards the over India are mainly determined by the
Indian subcontinent after crossing the position of ITCZ which is generally termed
Equator. These winds cross the Equator as the monsoon trough. As the axis of the
between 40ºE and 60ºE longitudes. monsoon trough oscillates, there are
The shift in the position of the ITCZ is fluctuations in the track and direction of these
also related to the phenomenon of the depressions, and the intensity and the
withdrawal of the westerly jet stream from amount of rainfall vary from year to year.
its position over the north Indian plain, south The rain which comes in spells, displays a
of the Himalayas. The easterly jet stream sets declining trend from west to east over the
in along 15ºN latitude only after the western west coast, and from the southeast towards
jet stream has withdrawn itself from the the northwest over the North Indian Plain
region. This easterly jet stream is held and the northern part of the Peninsula.
responsible for the burst of the monsoon in EI-Nino and the Indian Monsoon
India. Entry of Monsoon into India: The
EI-Nino is a complex weather system
southwest monsoon sets in over the Kerala
that appears once every three to seven years
coast by 1st June and moves swiftly to reach
bringing drought, floods and other weather
Mumbai and Kolkata between 10th and 13th
extremes to different parts of the world.
June. By mid- July, southwest monsoon
The system involves oceanic and atmos-
engulfs the entire subcontinent.
pheric phenomena with the appearance of
Rain-bearing warm currents off the coast of peru in the
Systems and Rainfall Distribution
Eastern Pacific and affects weather in many
There seem to be two rain-bearing places including India. EI-Nino is merely an
systems in India. First originate in the Bay of extension of the warm equatorial current
Bengal causing rainfall over the plains of which gets replaced temporarily by cold Pe-
north India. Second is the Arabian Sea current ruvian current or Humbolt current. This cur-
of the southwest monsoon which brings rain rent increases the temperature of water on
to the west coast of India. Much of the the Peruvian coast by 10ºC. This results in:
rainfall along the Western Ghats is orographic (i) The distortion of equatorial
as the moist air is obstructed and forced to atmospheric circulation;
rise along the Ghats. The intensity of rainfall (ii) Irregularities in the evaporation of
over the west coast of India is, however, sea water;
related to two factors:
(iii) Reduction in the amount of
(i) The offshore meteorological planktons which further reduces the
conditions. number of fish in the sea.
(ii) The position of the equatorial jet The word EI-Nino means ‘Child Christ’
24 Gist of NCERT (Geography)
Himalayan ranges creates cold wave they are clearly northeasterly over the Bay
situation; and of Bengal.
(iii) Around February, the cold winds During the winters, the weather in India
coming from the Caspian Sea and is pleasant. The pleasant weather conditions,
Turkmenistan bring cold wave along however, at intervals, get disturbed by
with frost and fog over the shallow cyclonic depressions originating over
northwestern parts of India. the east Medirranean Sea and travelling
The Peninsular region of India, eastwards across West Asia, Iran,
however, does not have any well-defined Afghanistan and Pakistan before the reach
cold weather season. There is hardly any the northwestern parts of India. On their
seasonal change in the distribution pattern way, the moisture content gets augmented
of the temperature in coastal areas because from the Caspian Sea in the north and the
of moderating influence of the sea and the Persian Gulf in the south.
proximity to equator. For example, the mean Role of Westerly Jet Stream
maximum temperature for January at Rainfall: Winter monsoons do not cause
Thiruvanantapuram is as high as 31ºC, and rainfall as they move from land to the sea. It
for June, it is 29.5ºC. Temperatures at the hills is because firstly, they have little humidity;
of Western Ghats remain comparatively low. and secondly, due to anti cyclonic circulation
Pressure and Winds: By the end of on land, the possibility of rainfall from them
December (22nd December), the sun shines reduces. So, most parts of India do not have
vertically over the Tropic of Capricorn in the rainfall in the winter season. However, there
southern hemisphere. The weather in this are some exceptions to it:
season is characterized by feeble high (i) In northwestern India, some weak
pressure conditions over the northern plain. temperate cyclones from the
In south India, the air pressure is slightly Mediterranean sea cause rainfall in
lower. The isobars of 1019 mb and 1013 mb Punjab, Haryana, Delhi and western
pass through northwest India and far south, Uttar Pradesh. Although the amount
respectively. is meager, it is highly beneficial for
As a result, winds start blowing from rabi crops. The precipitation is in the
northwestern high pressure zone to the low form of snowfall in the lower
air pressure zone over the Indian Ocean in Himalayas. It is this snow that
the south. sustains the flow of water in the
Due to low pressure gradient, the light Himalayan Rivers during the
winds with a low velocity of about 3-5 km summer months. The precipitation
per hour begin to blow outwards. By and goes on decreasing from west to east
large, the topography of the region influences in the plains and from north to south
the wind direction. They are westerly or in the mountains. The average
northwesterly down the Ganga Valley. They winter rainfall in Delhi is around 53
become northerly in the Ganga-Brahamputra mm. In Punjab and Bihar, rainfall
delta. Free from the influence of topography, remains between 25 mm and 18 mm
26 Gist of NCERT (Geography)
to local storms of great intensity. These local (i) The Arabian Sea branch
storms are associated with violent winds, (ii) The Bay of Bengal branch.
torrential rains and even hailstorms.
Monsoon Winds of the Arabian Sea
The Southwest Monsoon Season
The monsoon winds originating over
As a result of rapid increase of the Arabian Sea further split into three
temperature in May over the northwestern branches:
plains, the low pressure conditions over there (i) Its one branch is obstructed by the
get further intensified. By early June, they Western Ghats. These winds climb
are powerful enough to attract the trade the slopes of the Western Ghats from
winds of Southern Hemisphere coming from 900-1200 m. Soon, they become cool,
the Indian Ocean. and as a result, the windward side
These southeast trade winds cross the of the Sahyadris and Western
equator and enter the Bay of Bengal and the Coastal Plain receive very heavy
Arabian Sea, only to be caught up in the air rainfall ranging between 250 cm and
circulation over India. Passing over the 400 cm. After crossing the Western
equatorial warm currents, they bring with Ghats, these winds descend and get
them moisture in abundance. After crossing heated up. This reduces humidity in
the equator, they follow a southwesterly the winds. As a result, these winds
direction. That is why they are known as cause little rainfall east of the
southwest monsoons. Western Ghats. This region of low
The rain in the southwest monsoon rainfall is known as the rain-shadow
season begins rather abruptly. One result of area.
the first rain is that it brings down the (ii) Another branch of the
temperature substantially. This sudden onset Arabian sea monsoon strikes the
of the moisture-laden winds associated with coast north of Mumbai. Moving
violent thunder and lightening, is often along the Narmada and Tapi river
termed as the “break” or “burst” of the valleys, these winds cause rainfall in
monsoons. extensive areas of central India. The
The monsoon may burst in the first week Chotanagpur plateau gets 15 cm
of June in the coastal areas of Kerala, rainfall from this part of the branch.
Karnataka, Goa and Maharashtra while in the Thereafter, they enter the Ganga
interior parts of the country; it may be plains and mingle with the Bay of
delayed to the first week of July. The day Bengal branch.
temperature registers a decline of 5ºC to 8ºC (iii) A third branch of this monsoon
between mid-June and mid-July. wind strikes the Saurashtra
As these winds approach the land, their Peninsula and the Kachchh. It then
southwesterly direction is modified by the passes over west Rajasthan and
relief and thermal low pressure over the along the Aravallis, causing only a
northwest India. The monsoon approaches scanty rainfall. In Punjab and
the landmass in two branches: Haryana, it too jokns the Bay of
28 Gist of NCERT (Geography)
Gist of NCERT
Indian History
ISBN: 9789382732785
Book Code: F16
Geography
4 31
NATURAL VEGETATION
Natural vegetation refers to a plant These forests are found in the western
community that has been left undisturbed slope of the Western Ghats, hills of the
over a long time. So as to allow its individual northeastern region and the Andaman and
species to adjust themselves to climate and Nicobar Islands. They are found in warm and
soil conditions as fully as possible. humid areas with an annual precipitation of
India is a land of great variety of natural over 200 cm and mean annual temperature
vegetation. Himalayan heights are marked above 220C. Tropical evergreen forests are
with temperate vegetation; the Western well stratified, with layers closer to the
Ghats and the Andaman Nicobar Islands ground and are covered with shrubs and
have tropical rain forests, the deltaic regions creepers, with short structured trees
have tropical forests and mangroves; the followed by tall variety of trees. In these
desert and semi desert areas of Rajasthan are forests, trees reach great heights up to 60 m
known for cacti, a wide variety of bushes and or above. There is no definite time for trees
thorny vegetation. Depending upon the to shed their leaves, flowering and fruition.
variations in the climate and the soil, the As such these forests appear green all the year
vegetation of India changes from one region round. Species found in these forests include
to another. rosewood, mahogany, aini, ebony, etc.
On the basis of certain common features The semi evergreen forests are found
such as predominant vegetation type and in the less rainy parts of these regions. Such
climatic regions, Indian forests can be forests have a mixture of evergreen and
divided into the following groups: moist deciduous trees. The under growing
Types of Forests climbers provide an evergreen character to
these forests. Main species are white cedar,
(i) Tropical Evergreen and Semi
hillock and kail.
Evergreen forests
The British were aware of the economic
(ii) Tropical Deciduous forests value of the forests in India, hence, large scale
(iii) Tropical Thorn forests exploitation of these forests was started. The
(iv) Montane forests structure of forests was also changed. The
(v) Littoral and Swamp forests. oak forests in Garhwal and Kumaon were
Tropical replaced by pine (chirs) which was needed
Evergreen and Semi Evergreen Forests to lay railway lines. Forests were also cleared
for introducing plantations of tea, rubber and
32 Gist of NCERT (Geography)
coffee. The British also used timber of Rajasthan, vegetation cover is very scanty
construction activities as it acts as an insulator due to low rainfall and overgrazing.
of heat. The protectional use of forests was, Tropical Thorn Forests
thus, replaced by commercial use. Tropical thorn forests occur in the areas
Tropical Deciduous Forests which receive rainfall less than 50 cm. These
These are the most widespread forests consist of a variety of grasses and shrubs. It
in India. They are also called the monsoon includes semi-arid areas of south west Punjab,
forests. They spread over regions which Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh
receive rainfall between 70-200 cm. On the and Uttar Pradesh. In these forests, plants
basis of the availability of water, these forests remain leafless for most part of the year and
are further divided into moist and dry give an expression of scrub vegetation.
deciduous. Important species found are babool, ber, and
The Moist deciduous forests are more wild date palm, khair, neem, khejri, palas,
pronounced in the regions which record etc. Tussocky grass grows upto a height of 2
rainfall between 100-200 cm. These forests are m as the under growth.
found in the northeastern states along the Montane Forests
foothills of Himalayas, eastern slopes of the In mountainous areas, the decrease in
Western Ghats and Odissa. Teak, sal, temperature with increasing altitude leads to
shisham, hurra, mahua, amla, semul, kusum a corresponding change in natural vegetation.
and sandalwood etc. are the main species of Mountain forests can be classified into two
these forests. types, the northern mountain forests and the
Dry deciduous forest covers vast areas southern mountain forests.
of the country, where rainfall ranges between The Himalayan ranges show a
70-100 cm. On the wetter margins, it has a succession of vegetation from the tropical to
transition to the moist deciduous, while on the tundra, which change in with the altitude.
the drier margins to thorn forests. These Deciduous forests are found in the foothills
forests are found in rainier areas of the of the Himalayas. It is succeeded by the wet
Peninsula and the plains of Uttar Pradesh and temperate type of forests between an
Bihar. In the higher rainfall regions of the altitudes of 1,000-2,000 m.
Peninsular plateau and the northern Indian In the higher hill ranges of northeastern
plain, these forests have a parkland landscape
India, hilly areas of West Bengal and
with open stretches in which teak and other Uttaranchal, evergreen broad leaf trees such
trees interspersed with patches of grass are
as oak and chestnut are predominant.
common. Between 1,500-1,750 m, pine forests are also
As the dry season begins, the trees shed well-developed in this zone, with Chir Pine
their leaves completely and the forest appears as a very useful commercial tree. Deodar, a
like a vast grassland with naked trees all highly valued endemic species grows mainly
around Tendu, palas, amaltas, bel, khair, in the western part of the Himalayan range.
axlewood, etc. are the common trees of these Deodar is a durable wood mainly used in
forests. In the western and southern part of construction activity. Similarly, the chinar
Natural Vegetation 33
and the walnut, which sustain the famous Littoral and Swamp Forests
Kashmir handicrafts, belong to this zone. India has a rich variety of wetland
Blue pine and spruce appear at altitudes of habitats. About 70 per cent of this comprises
2,225-3,048 m. At many places in this zone, areas under paddy cultivation. The total area
temperate grasslands are also found. of wetland is 3.9 million hectares. Two sites-
But in the higher reaches there is a Chilika Lake (Odissa) and Keoladeo National
transition to Alpine forests and pastures. Park (Bharatpur) are protected as water-fowl
Silver firs, junipers, pines, birch and habitats under the Convention of Wetlands
rhododendrons, etc. occur between 3,000- of International Importance (Ramsar
4,000 m. However, these pastures are used Convention).
extensively for transhumance by tribes like
The country’s wetlands have been
the Gujjars, the Bakarwals, the Bhotiyas and
grouped into eight categories, viz. (i) the
the Gaddis. The southern slopes of the
reservoirs of the Deccan Plateau in the south
Himalayas carry a thicker vegetation cover
together with the lagoons and other wetlands
because of relatively higher precipitation than
the drier north-facing slopes. At higher of the southern west coast; (ii) the vast saline
altitudes, mosses and lichens form part of the expanses of Rajasthan, Gujarat and the Gulf
tundra vegetation. of Kachchh; (iii) freshwater lakes and
reservoirs from Gujarats through Rajasthan
The southern mountain forests include
the forests found in three distinct areas of (Keoladeo National Park) and Madhya
Peninsular India viz; the Western Ghats, the Pradesh; (iv) the delta wetlands and lagoons
Vindhyas and the Nilgiris. As they are closer of India’s east coast (Chilika Lake); (v) the
to the tropics, and only 1,500 m above the freshwater marshes of the Gangetic Plain; (vi)
sea level, vegetation is temperate in the the floodplains of the Brahmaputra; the
higher regions, and subtropical on the lower marshes and swamps in the hills of northeast
regions of the Western Ghats, especially in India and the Himalayan foothills; (vii) the
Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. The lakes and rivers of the montane region of
temperate forests are called Sholas in the Kashmir and Ladakh; and (viii) the mangrove
Nilgiris, Anaimalai and Palani hills. Some of forest and other wetlands of the island arcs
the other trees of this forest of economic of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands
significance include magnolia, laurel, Mangroves grow along the coasts in the salt
cinchona and wattle. Such forests are also marshes, tidal creeks, mud flats and
found in the Satpura and the Maikal ranges. estuaries.
The Region Percentage They consist of a number of salt-
Cover of the tolerant species of plants. Crisscrossed by
Forest creeks of stagnant water and tidal flows,
these forests give shelter to a wide variety
(i) The region of high concentration > 40
of birds.
(ii) The region of medium concentration 20-40
(iii) The region of low concentration 10-20 In India, the mangrove forests spread
(iv) The region of very low concentration < 10
over 6,740 sq. km which is 7 per cent of the
34 Gist of NCERT (Geography)
world’s mangrove forests. They are highly are good for forest growth.
developed in the Andaman and Nicobar There is a lot of variation in actual forest
Islands and the Sunderbans of West Bengal. cover, which ranges from 9.56 per cent in
Other areas of significance are the Mahanadi, Jammu and Kashmir to 84.01 per cent in
the Godavari and the Krishna deltas. These Andaman and Nicobar Islands. From the
forests too, are being encroached upon, and table showing the distribution of forests in
hence, need conservation. India, it is clear that there are 15 states where
Forest cover in India the forest cover is more than one-third of the
According to state records, the forest total area, which is the basic requirement for
area covers 23.28 per cent of the total land maintaining the ecological balance.
area of the country. The forest area is the On the basis of the percentage of the
area notified and recorded as the forest land actual forest cover, the states have been
irrespective of the existence of trees, while grouped into four regions.
the actual forest cover is the area occupied Forest Conservation
by forests with canopy. Forests have an intricate
The former is based on the records of interrelationship with life and environment.
the State Revenue Department, while the These provide numerous direct and indirect
latter is based on aerial photographs and advantages to our economy and society.
satellite imageries. In 2001, the actual forest Hence, conservation of forest is of vital
cover was only 20.55 per cent. Of the forest importance to the survival and prosperity of
cover, the share of dense and open forests man kind.
was 12.60 per cent and 7.87 per cent Accordingly, the Government of India
respectively. proposed to have a nation-wide forest
Both forest area and forest covers vary conservation policy, and adopted a forest
from state to state. Lakshadweep has zero policy in 1952, which was further modified
percent forest area; Andaman and Nicobar in 1988. According to the new forest policy,
Islands have 86.93 per cent. Most of the states the Government will emphasis sustainable
with less than 10 per cent of the forest area forest management in order to conserve and
lie in the north and northwestern part of the expand forest reserve on the one hand, and
country. These are Rajasthan, Gujarat, Punjab, to meet the needs of local people on the
Haryana and Delhi. other.
Most of the forests in Punjab and The forest policy aimed at:
Haryana have been cleared for cultivation. (i) bringing 33 per cent of the
States with 10-20 per cent forest area are geographical areas under forest
Tamil Nadu and West Bengal. In Peninsular cover;
India, excluding Tamil Nadu, Dadra and (ii) maintaining environmental stability
Nagar Haveli and Goa, the area under forest and to restore forests where
cover is 20-30 per cent. The northeastern states ecological balance was disturbed;
have more than 30 per cent of the land under
(iii) conserving the natural heritage of
forest. Hilly topography and heavy rainfall
Natural Vegetation 35
is to ensure maintenance of viable population the first of the fourteen biosphere reserves
of tigers in India for scientific, aesthetic, of India, was established in September 1986.
cultural and ecological values, and to preserve It embraces the sanctuary complex of
areas of biological importance as natural Wyanad, Nagarhole, Bandipur and
heritage for the benefit, education and Mudumalai, the entire forested hill slopes of
enjoyment of the people. Initially, the Project Nilambur, the Upper Nilgiri plateau, Silent
Tiger was launched in nine tiger reserves, Valley and the Siruvani hills. The total area
covering an area of 16,339 sq. km, which has of the biosphere reserve is around 5,520 sq.
now increased to 27 tiger reserves, km. The Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve possesses
encompassing 37,761 sq. km of tiger habitats different habitat types, unspoilt areas of
distributed in 17 states. The tiger population natural vegetation types with several dry
in the country has registered an increase from scrubs, dry and moist deciduous, semi
1,827 in 1972 to 3,642 in 2001-2002. evergreen and wet evergreen forests,
Project Elephant was launched in 1992 evergreen shoals, grasslands and swamps. It
to assist states having free ranging popula- includes the largest known population of two
tion of wild elephants. It was aimed at en- endangered animal species, namely the
suring long-term survival of identified viable Nilgiri Tahr and the Lion-tailed macaque.
population of elephants in their natural habi- The largest south Indian population of
tat. The project is being implemented in 13 elephant, tiger, gaur, sambar and chital as
states. Apart from this, some other projects well as a good number of endemic and
such as Crocodile Breeding Project, Project endangered plants are also found in this
Hangul and conservation of Himalayan Musk reserve. The habitat of a number of tribal
deer have also been launched by the Gov- groups remarkable for the traditional modes
ernment of India. of harmonious use of the environment are
Biosphere Reserves also found here. The topography of the NBR
A Biosphere Reserve is a unique and is extremely varied, ranging from an altitude
representative ecosystem of terrestrial and of 250 m to 2,650 m. About 80 per cent of the
coastal areas which are internationally flowering plants reported from the Western
recognized within the framework of Ghats occur in the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve.
UNESCO’s Man and Biosphere (MAB) Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve
Programme. The Biosphere Reserve aims at The Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve
achieving the three objective as depicted in situated in Uttarakhand includes parts of
Figure. There are 16 Biosphere Reserves in Chamoli, Almora, Pithoragarh and
India. Four Biosphere Reserves. Namely (i) Bageshwar districts. The major forest types
Nilgiri; (ii) Nanda Devi: (iii) Sunderbans; and of the reserve are temperate. A few important
(iv) Gulf of Mannar have been recognized by species are silver weed and orchids like
the UNESCO on World Network of latifolie and rhododendron. The biosphere
Biosphere Reserves. reserve has a rich fauna, for example the snow
Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve leopard, black bear, brown bear, musk deer,
The Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve (NBR), snowcock, golden eagle and black eagle.
38 Gist of NCERT (Geography)
Major threats to the ecosystem are the collection of endangered plants for medicinal use,
forest fires and poaching.
List of Biosphere Reserves
1. Nilgiri 5,520 Part of Wynad, Nagarhole, Bandipur and Mudumalai, Nilambur, Silent Valley
and Struvant Hills (Tamil Nadu, Kerala and Karnataka)
2. Nanda Devi 2,236.74 Part of Chamoli, Pithoragarh and Almora districts (Uttar Pradesh) and part of
Garo Hills (Meghalaya)
3. Nokrek 820 Part of Garo Hills (Meghalaya)
4. Manas 2,837 Part of Kokrajhar, Bongaigaon, Barpeta, Nalbari, Kamrup and Darrang districts
(Assam)
5. Sunderbans 9,630 Part of delta of Ganges and Brahmaputra river system (West Bengal)
6. Gulf of Mannar 10,500 Indian part of Gulf of Mannar between India and Sri Lanka (Tamil Nadu)
7. Great Nicobar 885 Southernmost Islands of the Andaman and Nicobar (A&N Islands)
8. Similipal 4,374 Part of Mayurbhanj district (Orissa)
9. Dibru Saikhowa 765 Part of Dibrugarh and Tinsukia districts (Assam)
10. Dihang Dibang 5,111.5 Part of Siang and Debang valley in Arunachal Pradesh
11. Kanchenjunga 2,619.92 Parts of North and West Sikkim
12. Pachman 4,926.28 Parts of Betul. Hoshangabad and Chindwara districts of Madhya Pradesh.
13. Agasthya-malai 1,701 Agasthyamalai Hills in Kerala
14. Achanakmar- 3,835.51 Parts of Anupur and Dindori district of MP and parts of Bilaspur district of
Amarkantak Chhatisgarh
SOILS
Soil is the most important layer of the horizons is the rock which is also known as
earth’s crust. It is a valuable resource. the parent rock or the bedrock. Soil, which is
Soil is the mixture of rock debris and a complex and varied entity, has always
organic materials which develop on the drawn the attention of the scientists.
earth’s surface. The major factors affecting Classification of Soils
the formation of soil are relief, parent mate- India has varied relief features,
rial, climate, vegetation and other life-forms landforms, climatic realms and vegetation
and time. Besides these, human activities also
types. These have contributed in the
influence it to a large extent. Components of
development of various types of soils in
the soil are mineral particles, humus, water
India.
and air. The actual amount of each of these
depend upon the type of soil. Some soils are On the basis of genesis, colour,
deficient in one or more of these, while there composition and location, the soils of India
are some others that have varied combina- have been classified into: (i) Alluvial soils,
tions. (ii) Black soils, (iii) Red and Yellow soils, (iv)
Laterite soils, (v) arid soils, (vi) Saline soils,
If we dig a pit on land and look at the
(vii) Peaty soils, (viii) Forest soils.
soil, we find that it consists of three layers
which are called horizons. ‘Horizon A’ is the ICAR has classified the soils of India into
topmost zone, where organic materials have the following order as per the USDA soil
taxonomy
got incorporated with the mineral matter,
nutrients and water, which are necessary for Sl.No. Order Area Percentage
the growth of plants. ‘Horizon B’ is a (In Thousand
transition zone between the ‘horizon A’ and Hectares)
‘horizon C’, and contains matter derived (i) Inceptisols 130372.90 39.74
from below as well as from above. It has some (ii) Entisols 92131.71 28.08
organic matter in it, although the mineral (iii) Alfisols 44448.68 13.55
matter is noticeably weathered. ‘Horizon C’ (iv) Vertisols 27960.00 8.52
(v) Aridisols 14069.00 4.28
is composed of the loose parent material. This
(vi) Ultisols 8250.00 2.51
layer is the first stage in the soil formation (vii) Mollisols 1320.00 0.40
process and eventually forms the above two (viii) Others 9503.10 2.92
layers. This arrangement of layers is known Total 10 0
as the soil profile. Underneath these three
40 Gist of NCERT (Geography)
Source: Soils of India. National Bureau Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh
of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning. and some parts of Tamil Nadu. In the upper
Publication Number 94 reaches of the Godavari and the Krishna, and
Alluvial Soils the north western part of the Deccan Plateau,
the black soil is very deep. These soils are
Alluvial soils are widespread in the
northern plains and the river valleys. These also known as the ‘Regur Soil’ or the ‘Black
Cotton Soil’. The black soils are generally
soils cover about 40 per cent of the total area
clayey, deep and impermeable. They swell
of the country. They are depositional soils,
transported and deposited by rivers and and become sticky when wet and shrink
when dried. So, during the dry season, these
streams. Through a narrow corridor in
Rajasthan, They extend into the plains of soils develop wide cracks. Thus, there occurs
a kind of ‘self ploughing’. Because of this
Gujarat. In the Peninsular region, they are
found in deltas of the east coast and in the character of slow absorption and loss of
river valleys. moisture, the black soil retains the moisture
for a very long time, which helps the crops,
The alluvial soils vary in nature from
especially; the rain fed ones, to sustain even
sandy loam to clay. They are generally rich
during the dry season.
in potash but poor in phosphorous. In the
Upper and Middle Ganga plain, two different Chemically, the black soils are rich in
types of alluvial soils have developed, viz. lime, iron, magnesia and alumina. They also
contain potash. But they lack in phosphorous,
Khadar and Bhangar. Khadar is the new
alluvium and is deposited by floods annually, nitrogen and organic matter. The colour of
the soil ranges from deep black to grey.
which enriches the soil by depositing fine
silts. Bhangar represents a system of older Red and Yellow Soil
alluvium, deposited away from the flood Red Soil develops on crystalline igneous
plains. Both the Khadar and Bhangar soils rocks in areas of low rainfall in the eastern
contain calcareous concretions (Kankars). and southern part of the Deccan Plateau.
These soils are more loamy and clayey in the Along the piedmont zone of the Western
lower and middle Ganga plain and the Ghat, long stretch of area is occupied by red
Brahamputra valley. The sand content loamy soil. Yellow and red soils are also
decreases from the west to east. found in parts of Odissa and Chattisgarh and
The colour of the alluvial soils varies in the southern parts of the middle Ganga
from the light grey to ash grey. Its shades plain. The soil develops a reddish colour due
depend on the depth of the deposition, the to a wide diffusion of iron in crystalline and
texture of the materials, and the time taken metamorphic rocks. It looks yellow when it
for attaining maturity. Alluvial soils are occurs in a hydrated form. The fine-grained
intensively cultivated. red and yellow soils are normally fertile,
Black Soil whereas coarse-grained soils found in dry
upland areas are poor in fertility. They are
Black soil covers most of the Deccan
generally poor in nitrogen, phosphorous and
Plateau which includes parts of Maharashtra,
humus.
Soils 41
quantity of dead organic matter accumulates rate of removal of fine particles from the
in these areas, and this gives a rich humus surface is the same as the rate of addition of
and organic content to the soil. Organic particles to the soil layer. Sometimes, such a
matter in these soils may go even up to 40-50 balance is disturbed by natural or human
per cent. These soils are normally heavy and factors, leading to a greater rate of removal
black in colour. At many places, they are of soil. Human activities too are responsible
alkaline also. It occurs widely in the northern for soil erosion to a great extent. As the
part of Bihar, southern part of Uttaranchal human population increases, the demand on
and the coastal areas of West Bengal, Orissa the land also increases. Forest and other
and Tamil Nadu. natural vegetation is removed for human
Forest Soils settlement, for cultivation, for grazing animal
and for various other needs.
As the name suggests, forest soils are
formed in the forest areas where sufficient Wind and water are powerful agents of
rainfall is available. The soils vary in structure soil erosion because of their ability to remove
and texture depending on the mountain soil and transport it. Wind erosion is
environment where they are formed. They significant in arid and semi-arid regions. In
are loamy and silty on valley sides and regions with heavy rainfall and steep slopes,
coarse-grained in the upper slopes. In the erosion by running water is more significant.
snow-bound areas of the Himalayas, they Water erosion which is more serious and
experience denudation, and are acidic with occurs extensively in different parts of India,
low humus content. The soils found in the takes place mainly in the form of sheet and
lower valleys are fertile. gully erosion. Sheet erosion takes place on
level lands after a heavy shower and the soil
Soil Degradation
removal is not easily noticeable. But it is
In a broad sense, soil degradation can harmful since it removes the finer and more
be defined as the decline in soil fertility, when fertile top soil. Gully erosion is common steep
the nutritional status declines and depth of slopes. Gullies deepen with rainfall, cut the
the soil goes down the erosion and misuse. agricultural lands into small fragments and
Soil degradation is the main factor leading make from them unfit for cultivation. A
to the depleting soil resource base in India. region with a large number of deep gullies
The degree of soil degradation varies from or ravines is called a badland topography.
place to place according to the topography, Ravines are widespread, in the Chambal
wind velocity and amount of the rainfall. basin. Besides this, they are also found in
Soil Erosion Tamil Nadu and West Bengal. The country
The destruction of the soil cover is is losing about 8,000 hectare of land to
described as soil erosion. The soil forming ravines every year.
processes and the erosional processes of Deforestation is one of the major causes
running water and wind go on of soil erosion. Plants keep soils bound in
simultaneously. But generally, there is a locks of roots, and thus, prevent erosion.
balance between these two processes. The They also add humus to the soil by shedding
Soils 43
leaves and twigs. Forests have been denuded should be made to protect cultivable lands
practically in most parts of India but their from encroachment by sand dunes through
effect on soil erosion are more in hilly parts developing shelter belts of trees and agro-
of the country. forestry. Lands not suitable for cultivation
A fairly large area of arable land in the should be converted into pastures for
irrigated zones of India is becoming saline grazing. Experiments have been made to
because of over irrigation. The salt lodged stabilize sand dunes in western Rajasthan by
in the lower profiles of the soil comes up to the Central Arid Zone Research Institute
the surface and destroys its fertility. Chemical (CAZRI). The Central Soil Conservation
fertilizers in the absence of organic manures Board, set up by the Government of India,
are also harmful to the soil. Unless the soil has prepared a number of plans for soil
gets enough humus, chemicals harden it and conservation in different parts of the country.
reduce its fertility in the long run. This These plans are based on the climatic
problem is common in all the command areas conditions, configuration of land and the
of the river valley projects, which were the social behavior of people. Even these plans
first beneficiaries of the Green Revolution. are fragmental in nature. Integrated land use
According to estimates, about half of the total planning, therefore, seems to be the best
land of India is under some degree of technique for proper soil conservation.
degradation. Every year, India loses millions Water Resources
of tones of soil and its nutrients to the agents Water is a cyclic resource with abundant
of its degradation, which adversely affects supplies on the globe. Approximately, 71 per
our national productivity. So, it is imperative cent of the earth’s surface is covered with it
to initiate immediate steps to reclaim and but fresh water constitutes only about 3 per
conserve soils. cent of the total water. In fact, a very small
Soil Conservation proportion of fresh water is effectively
Contour bunding, Contour terracing, available for human use. The availability of
regulated forestry, controlled grazing, cover fresh water varies over space and time.
cropping, mixed farming and crop rotation Water Resources of India
are some of the remedial measures which are India accounts for about 2.45 per cent
often adopted to reduce soil erosion. of world’s surface areas, 4 per cent of the
Efforts should be made to prevent gully world’s water resources and about 16 per cent
erosion and control their formation. Finger of world’s population. The total water
gullies can be eliminated by terracing. In available from precipitation in the country in
bigger gullies, the erosive velocity of water a year is about 4,000 cubic km. The availability
may be reduced by constructing a series of from surface water and replenishable
check dams. Specially attention should be groundwater is 1,869 cubic km. Out of this
made to control headward extension of only 60 per cent can be put to beneficial uses.
gullies. This can be done by gully plugging, Thus, the total utilizable water resource in
terracing or by planting cover vegetation. the country is only 1,122 cubic km.
In arid and semi-arid areas, efforts
44 Gist of NCERT (Geography)
Surface Water Resources about one-third of the total area in the coun-
There are four major sources of surface try, have 60 per cent of the total surface wa-
water. These are rivers, lakes, ponds, and ter resource. Much of the annual water flow
tanks. In the country, there are about 10,360 in south Indian rivers like the Godavari, the
rivers and their tributaries longer than 1.6 Krishna, and the Kaveri has been harnessed,
km each. The mean annual flow in all the but it is yet to be done in the Brahmaputra
river basins in India is estimated to be 1,869 and the Ganga basins.
cubic km. However, due to topographical, Groundwater Resources
hydrological and other constraints, only The total replenishable groundwater
about 690 cubic km (32 per cent) of the avail- resources in the country are about 432 km.
able surface water can be utilized. Water flow Table shows that the Ganga and the
in a river depends on size of its catchment Brahmaputra basins, have about 46 per cent
area or river basin and rainfall within its of the total replenishable groundwater re-
catchment area. Given that precipitation is sources. The level of groundwater utilization
relatively high in the catchment areas of the is relatively high in the river basins lying in
Ganga, the Brahmaputra and the Barak riv- north-western region and parts of south In-
ers, these rivers, although account for only dia.
of West Bengal and Bihar. The result is that in 1997, 251 polluting
Prevention of Water Pollution industries were located along the rivers and
Available water resources are lakes.
degrading rapidly. The major rivers of the The Water Cess Act, 1977, meant to
country generally retain better water quality reduce pollution has also made marginal
in less densely populated upper stretches in impacts. There is a strong need to generate
hilly areas. In plans, river water is used public awareness about importance of water
intensively for irrigation, drinking, domestic and impacts of water pollution. The public
and industrial purposes. The drains carrying awareness and action can be very effective
agricultural (fertilizers and insecticides), in reducing the pollutants from agricultural
domestic (solid and liquid wastes), and activities, domestic and industrial discharges.
industrial effluents join the rivers. The Watershed Management
concentration of pollutants in rivers, Watershed management basically refers
especially remains very high during the to efficient management and conservation of
summer season when flow of water is low. surface and groundwater resources. It in-
The Central Pollution Control Board volves prevention of runoff and storage and
(CPCB) in collaboration with State Pollution recharge of groundwater through various
Control Boards has been monitoring water methods like percolation tanks, recharge
quality of national aquatic resources at 507 wells, etc. However, in broad sense water-
stations. The data obtained from these shed management includes conservation, re-
stations show that organic and bacterial generation and judicious use of all resources-
contamination continues to be the main source natural (like land, water, plants and animals)
of pollution in rivers. The Yamuna river is and human with in a watershed. Watershed
the most polluted river in the country management aims at bringing about balance
between Delhi and Etawah. between natural resources on the one hand
Other severely polluted rivers are: the and society on the other. The success of wa-
tershed development largely depends upon
Sabarmati at Ahmedabad, the Gomti at
community participation.
Lucknow, the Kali, the Adyar, the Cooum
(entire stretches), the Vaigai at Madurai and The Central and State Governments
the Musi of Hyderabad and the Ganga at have initiated many watershed development
Kanpur and Varanasi. Groundwater and management programmes in the coun-
try. Some of these are being implemented by
pollution has occurred due to high
nongovernmental organizations also. Haryali
concentrations of heavy/toxic metals,
is a watershed development project spon-
fluoride and nitrates at different parts of the
sored by the Central Government which aims
country.
at enabling the rural population to conserve
The legislative provisions such as the water for drinking, irrigation, fisheries and
Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) afforestation. The Project is being executed
Act 1974, and Environment Protection Act by Gram Panchayats with people’s participa-
1986 have not been implemented effectively. tion.
Neeru-Meeru (Water and You)
Soils 47
programme (in Andhra Pradesh) and Arvary Traditional rain water harvesting in rural
Pani Sansad (in Alwar, Rajasthan) have taken areas is done by using surface storage bodies
up constructions of various water harvesting like lakes, ponds, irrigation tanks, etc. In
structures such as percolation tanks, dug out Rajasthan, rainwater harvesting structures
ponds (Johad), check dams, etc. through locally known as Kund or Tanka (a covered
people’s participation. Tamil Nadu has made underground tank) are constructed near or
water harvesting structures in the houses in the house or village to store harvested
compulsory. No building can be constructed rainwater.
without making structures for water There is a wide scope to use rainwater
harvesting. harvesting technique to conserve water
Watershed development projects in resource. It can be done by harvesting
some areas have been successful in rainwater on rooftops and open spaces.
rejuvenating environment and economy. Harvesting rainwater also decreases the
However, are only a few success stories. In community dependence on groundwater for
majority of cases, the programme is still in domestic use. Besides bridging the demand
its nascent stage. There is a need to generate supply gap, it can also save energy to pump
awareness regarding benefits of watershed groundwater as recharge leads to rise in
development and management among people groundwater. These days rainwater
in the country, and through this integrated harvesting is being taken up on massive scale
water resource management approach water in many states in the country. Urban areas
availability can be ensured on sustainable can specially benefit from rainwater
basis. harvesting as water demand has already
Rainwater Harvesting outstripped supply in most of the cities and
Rain water harvesting is a method to towns.
capture and store rainwater for various uses. Apart from the above mentioned
It is also used to recharge groundwater aq- factors, the issue desalinization of water
uifers. It is a low cost and eco-friendly tech- particularly in coastal areas and brackish
nique for preserving every drop of water by water in arid and semi-arid areas, transfer
guiding the rain water to bore well, pits and of water from water surplus areas to water
wells. Rainwater harvesting increases water deficit areas through inter linking of rivers
availability, checks the declining ground wa- can be important remedies for solving water
ter table, improves the quality of problem in India (read more about inter
groundwater through dilution of contami- linking of rivers). However, the most
nants like fluoride and nitrates, prevents soil important issue from the point of view of
erosion, and flooding and arrests salt water individual users, household and communities
intrusion in coastal areas if used to recharge is pricing of water.
aquifers. Highlights of
Rainwater harvesting has been practiced India’s National Water Policy, 2002
through various methods by different The National Water Policy 2002
communities in the country for a long time. stipulates water allocation priorities broadly
48 Gist of NCERT (Geography)
Gist of NCERT
Indian Economy
ISBN: 9789351720256
Book Code: F22
Geography
6 49
this category. It can be brought Secondly, since even the reporting area has
under cultivation after improving it been relatively constant over the years, a
through reclamation practices. decline in one category usually leads to an
(vii) Current Fallow: This is the land increase in some other category.
which is left without cultivation for Three categories have undergone
one or less than one agricultural year, increases, while four have registered
Fallowing is a cultural practice declines. Share of area under forest, are under
adopted for giving the land rest. The nonagricultural uses and current fallow lands
land recoups the lost fertility have shown an increase. The following
through natural processes. observations can be made about these
(viii) Fallow other than Current increases:
Fallow: This is also a cultivable land (i) The rate of increase is the highest in
which is left uncultivated for more case of area under non-agricultural
than five years, it would be uses. This is due to the changing
categorized as culturable wasteland. structure of Indian economy, which
(ix) Net Area Sown: The physical extent is increasingly depending on the
of land on which crops are sown and contribution from industrial and
harvested is known as net sown services sectors and expansion of
area. related infrastructural facilities.
Also, an expansion of area under
Land-use Changes in India
both urban and rural settlements has
Land-use in a region, to a large extent, added to the increase. Thus, the area
is influenced by the nature of economic under non-agricultural uses is
activities carried out in the region. However, increasing at the expense of
while economic activities change over time, wastelands and agricultural land.
land, like many other natural resources, is
(ii) The increase in the share under
fixed in terms of its area. At this stage, one
forest, as explained before, can be
needs to appreciate three types of changes
accounted for by increase in the
that an economy undergoes, which affect
demarcated area under forest rather
land-use.
than an actual increase in the forest
India has undergone major changes cover in the country.
within the economy over the past four or five
(iii) The increase in the current fallow
decades, and this has influenced the land-use
cannot be explained from
changes in the country, These changes
information pertaining to only two
between 1960-61 and 2002-03 have been
points. The trend of current fallow
shown in Fig. There are two points that you
fluctuates a great deal over years,
need to remember before you derive some
depending on the variability of
meaning from this figure. Firstly, the
rainfall and cropping cycles.
percentage shown in the figure have been
derived with respect to the reporting area. The four categories that have registered
a decline are barren and wasteland, culturable
Land use and Agriculture 51
maximum output from the limited land in the input per unit area of cultivated land is higher
absence of alternative source of livelihood. than protective irrigation. Rainfed farming
Thus, there is enormous pressure on is further classified on the basis of adequacy
agricultural land. of soil moisture during cropping season into
Commercial Farming dry land and wetland farming. In India, the
The main characteristic of this type of dry land farming is largely confined to the
regions having annual rainfall less than 75 cm.
farming is the use of higher doses of modern
These regions grow hardy and drought
inputs, e.g. high yielding variety (HYV)
seeds, chemical fertilizers, insecticides and resistant crops such as ragi, bajra, moong,
gram and guar (fodder crops) and practice
pesticides in order to obtain higher
productivity. The degree of various measures of soil moisture
conservation and rain water harvesting. In
commercialization of agriculture varies from
one region to another. For example, rice is a wetland farming, the rainfall is in excess of
commercial crop in Haryana and Punjab, but soil moisture requirement of plants during
rainy season. Such regions may face flood and
in Orissa, it is a subsistence crop. Plantation
is also a type of commercial farming. In this soil erosion hazards. These areas grow
various water intensive crops such as rice,
type of farming, a single crop is grown on a
large area. The plantation has an interface of jute and sugarcane and practice aquaculture
in the fresh water bodies.
agriculture and industry. Plantations cover
large tracts of land, using capital intensive Cropping Pattern
inputs, with the help of migrant laboures. All Food grains: The importance of food
the produce is used as raw material in grains in Indian agricultural economy may
respective industries. be gauged from the fact these crops occupy
Types of Farming about two-third of total cropped area in the
country. Food grains are dominant crops in
On the basis of main source of moisture
all parts of the country whether they have
for crops, the farming can be classified as
subsistence or commercial agricultural
irrigated and rainfed (barani). There is
economy. On the basis of the structure of
difference in the nature of irrigated farming
grain the food grains are classified as cereals
as well based on objective of irrigation, i.e.
and pulses.
protective or productive. The objective of
protective irrigation is to protect the crops Cereals: The cereals occupy about 54 per
from adverse of soil moisture deficiency cent of total cropped area in India. The
which often means that irrigation acts as a country produces about 11 per cent cereals
supplementary source of water over and of the world and ranks third in production
above the rainfall. The strategy of this kind after China and U.S.A. India produces a
of irrigation is to provide soil moisture to variety of cereals, which are classified as fine
maximum possible area. Productive irrigation grains (rice, wheat) and coarse grains (jowar,
is meant to provide sufficient soil moisture maize, ragi) etc. Account of important cereals
in the cropping season to achieve high has been given in the following paragraphs.
productivity. In such irrigation the water Rice: Rice is a staple food for the
54 Gist of NCERT (Geography)
Bajra: Bajra is sown in hot and dry lands of Deccan and central plateaus and
climatic conditions in northwestern and northwestern parts of the country. Pulses
western parts of the country. It is a hardy occupy about 11 per cent of the total cropped
crop which resists frequent dry spells and area in the country. Being the rainfed crops
drought in this region. It is cultivated alone of dry lands, the yields of pulses are low and
as well as part of mixed cropping. This coarse fluctuate from year to year. Grain and tur
cereal occupies about 5.2 per cent of total are the main pulses cultivated in India.
cropped area in the country. Leading Grain: Grain is cultivated in subtropical
producers of bajra are the states of areas. It is mostly a rainfed crop cultivated
Maharashtra, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, during rabi season in central, western and
Rajasthan and Haryana. Being a rainfed crop, northwestern parts of the country. Just one
the yield level of this crop is low in Rajasthan or two light showers or irrigations are
and fluctuates a lot from year to year. Yield required to grow this crop successfully. It has
of this crop has increased during recent years been displaced from the cropping pattern by
in Haryana and Gujarat due to introduction wheat in Haryana, Punjab and northern
of drought resistant varieties and expansion Rajasthan following the green revolution. At
of irrigation under it. present, grain covers only about 2.8 per cent
Maize: Maize is a food as well as fodder of the total cropped area in the country.
crop grown under semi-arid climatic Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh,
conditions and over inferior soils. This crop Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh and Rajasthan
occupies only about 3.6 per cent of total are the main producers of this pulse crop. The
cropped area. Maize cultivation is not yield of this crop continues to be low and
concentrated in any specific region. It is sown fluctuates from year to year even in irrigated
all over India except eastern and north- areas.
eastern regions. The leading producers of Tur (Arhar): Tus is the second important
maize are the states of Madhya Pradesh, pulse crop in the country. It is also known as
Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Rajasthan and red grain or pigeon pea. It is cultivated over
Uttar Pradesh. Yield level of maize is higher marginal lands and under rainfed conditions
than other coarse cereals. It is high in in the dry areas of central and southern states
southern states and declines towards central of the country. This crop occupies only about
parts. 2 per cent of total cropped area of India.
Pulses: Pulses are a very important Maharashtra alone contributed about one-
ingredient of vegetarian food as these are rich third of the total production of tur. Other
sources of proteins. These are legume crops leading producer states are Uttar Pradesh,
which increase the natural fertility of soils Karnataka, Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh. Per
through nitrogen fixation. India is a leading hectare output of this crop is very low and
producer of pulses and accounts for about its performance is inconsistent.
one-fifth of the total production of pulses in Oilseeds: The oilseeds are produced for
the world. The cultivation of pulses in the extracting edible oils. Dry lands of Malwa
country is largely concentrated in the dry plateau, Marathwada, Gujarat, Rajasthan,
56 Gist of NCERT (Geography)
Telangana and Rayalseema region of Andhra sunflowere are other important oilseeds
Pradesh and Karnataka plateau are oilseeds grown in India. Soyabean is mostly grown
growing regions of India. These crops in Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra. These
together occupy about 14 per cent of total two states together produce about 90 per cent
cropped area in the country. Groundnut, of total output of soyabean in the country.
rapeseed and mustard, soyabean and Sunflower cultivation is concentrated in
sunflower are the main oilseed crops grown Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and adjoining
in India. areas of Maharashtra. It is a minor crop in
Groundnut: India produces about 17 northern parts of the country where its yield
per cent the total of groundnut production is high due to irrigation.
in the world. It is largely a rainfed kharif crop Fibre Crops: These crops provide us
of dry lands. But in southern India, it is fibre for preparing cloth, bags, sacks and a
cultivated during rabi season as well. It number of other items. Cotton and jute are
covers about 3.6 per cent of total cropped two main fibre crops grown in India.
area in the country. Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Cotton: Cotton is a tropical crop grown
Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Maharashtra in kharif season in semi-arid areas of the
are the leading producers. Yield of country. India lost a large proportion of
groundnut is comparatively high in Tamil cotton growing area to Pakistan during
Nadu where it is partly irrigated. But its yield partition. However, its acreage has increased
is low in Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. considerably during the last 50 years. India
Rapeseed and Mustard: Rapeseed and grows both short staple (Indian) cotton as
mustard comprise several oilseeds as rai, well as long staple (American) cotton called
sarson, toria and taramira. These are ‘narma’ in north-western parts of the
subtropical crops cultivated during rabi country. Cotton requires clear sky during
season in north-western and central parts of flowering stage.
India. These are frost sensitive crops and India ranks fourth in the world in the
their yields fluctuate from year to year. But production of cotton after China. U.S.A. and
with the expansion of irrigation and Pakistan and accounts for about 8.3 per cent
improvement in seed technology; their yields of production of cotton in the world. Cotton
have improved and stabilized to some extend. occupies about 4.7 per cent of total cropped
About two-third of the cultivated area under area in the country. There are three cotton
these crops is irrigated. These oilseeds growing areas, i.e. parts of Punjab, Haryana
together occupy only 2.5 per cent of total and northern Rajasthan in north-west,
cropped area in the country. Rajasthan Gujarat and Maharashtra in the west and
contributes about one-third production while plateaus of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and
other leading producers are Uttar Pradesh, Tamil Nadu in South. Leading producers of
Haryana, West Bengal and Madhya Pradesh. this crop are Maharashtra, Gujarat, Andhra
Yields of these crops are comparatively high Pradesh, Punjab and Haryana. Per hectare
in Haryana and Rajasthan. output of cotton is high under irrigated
Other Oilseeds: Soyabean and conditions in north-western region of the
Land use and Agriculture 57
country. Its yield is very low in Maharashtra Tea: Tea is a plantation crop used as
where it is grown under rainfed conditions. beverage. Black tea leaves are fermented
Jute: Jute is used for making coarse whereas green tea leaves are unfermented.
cloth, bags, sacks and decorative items. It is Tea leaves are fermented whereas green tea
a cash crop in West Bengal and adjoining leaves are unfermented. Tea leaves have rich
eastern parts of the country. India lost large content of caffeine and tannin. It is an
jute growing areas to East Pakistan indigenous crop of hills in northern China. It
(Bangladesh) during partition. At present, is grown over undulating topography of hilly
India produces about three-fifth of jute areas and well drained soils in humid and
production of the world. West Bengal sub-humid tropics and sub-tropics. In India,
accounts for about three-fourth of the tea plantation started in 1840s in Brahmaputra
production in the country. Bihar and Assam valley of Assam which still is a major tea
are other jute growing areas. Being growing area in the country. Later on, its
concentrated only in a few states, this crop plantation was introduced in the sub-
accounts for only about 0.5 per cent total Himalayan region of West Bengal (Darjeeling,
cropped area in the country. Jalpaiguri and Cooch districts). Tea is also
Other Crops: Sugarcane, tea and coffee cultivated on the lower slopes of Nilgiri and
are other important crops grown in India. Cardamom hills in Western Ghats. India is a
Sugarcane: Sugarcane is a crop of leading producer of tea and accounts for
tropical areas. Under rainfed conditions, it about 28 per cent of total production in the
is cultivated in sub-humid and humid world. India’s share in the international
climates. But it is largely an irrigated crop in market of tea has declined substantially. At
India. In Indo-Gangetic plain, its cultivation present, it ranks third among tea exporting
is largely concentrated in Uttar Pradesh. countries in the world after Sri Lanka and
Sugarcane growing area in western India is China. Assam accounts for about 53.2 per cent
spread over Maharashtra and Gujarat. In of the total cropped area and contributes
southern India, it is cultivated in irrigated more than half of total production of tea in
tracts of Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Andhra the country. West Bengal and Tamil Nadu
Pradesh. are the other leading producers of tea.
India is the second largest producer of Coffee: Coffee is a tropical plantation
sugarcane after Brazil. It accounts for about crop. Its seeds are roasted, ground and are
23 per cent of the world production of used for preparing a beverage. There are
sugarcane. But it occupies only 2.4 per cent three varieties of coffee i.e. Arabica, robusta
of total cropped are in the country. Uttar and liberica. India mostly grows superior
Pradesh produces about two-fifth of quality coffee, Arabica, which is in great
sugarcane of the country. Maharashtra, demand in great demand in International
Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh market. But India produces only about 4.3
are other leading producers of this crop per cent coffee of the world and ranks sixth
where yield level of sugarcane is high. Its after Brazil, Vietnam, Colombia, Indonesia
yield is low in northern India. and Mexico. Coffee is cultivated in the
58 Gist of NCERT (Geography)
agriculture are very expensive. Crop failures Lack of Commercialization: Most of the
and low returns from agriculture have forced small and marginal farmers grow food grains,
them to fall in the trap of indebtedness. which are meant for their own family
Lack of Land Reforms: After consumption. Modernization and
independence, land reforms were accorded commercialization of agriculture have
priority, but these reforms were not however, taken place in the irrigated areas.
implemented effectively due to lack of strong Vast Under-employment: In these
political will. areas, there is a seasonal unemployment
Small Farm Size and Fragmentation of ranging from 4 to 8 months. Even in the
Landholding: There are a large number of cropping season work is not available
marginal and small farmers in the country. throughout, as agricultural operations are not
More than 60 per cent of the ownership labour intensive.
holdings have a size smaller than one (ha). Degradation of Cultivable Land: One
Furthermore, about 40 per cent of the farmers of the serious problems that arises out of
have operational holding size smaller than faulty strategy of irrigation and agricultural
0.5 hectare (ha). The average size of land development is degradation of land
holding is shrinking further under increasing resources.
population pressure.
Gist of NCERT
General Science
ISBN: 9789351720188
Book Code: F20
Geography
7 61
common salt, magnesium and resources occur to the east of a line linking
bromine are largely derived from Mangalore and Kanpur.
ocean waters. The ocean beds, too, Minerals are generally concentrated in
are rich in manganese nodules. three broad belts in India. There may be
Rat-Hole Mining. Do you know that most of the some sporadic occurrence here and there in
minerals in India are nationalized and their isolated pockets. These belts are:
extraction is possible only after obtaining due The North-Eastern Plateau Region. This
permission from the government? But in most of belt covers Chotanagpur (Jharkhand), Orissa
the tribal areas of the north-east India, minerals are Plateau, West Bengal and parts of
owned by individuals or communities. In Chhattsgarh.
Meghalaya, there are large deposits of coal, iron
ore, limestone and dolomite etc. Coal mining in
The South-Western Plateau Region:
Jowai and Cherapunjee is done by family member This belt extends over Karnataka, Goa and
in the form of a long narrow tunnel, known as ‘Rat contiguous Tamil Nadu uplands and Kerala.
hole’ mining. This belt is rich in ferrous metals and bauxite.
Agencies It also contains high grade iron ore,
Involved in the exploration of minerals manganese and limestone. This belt packs in
coal deposits except naively lignite.
In India, systematic surveying,
prospecting and exploration for minerals is This belt does not have as diversified
undertaken by the Geological Survey of India mineral deposits as the north-eastern belt.
(GSI), Oil and Natural Gas Commission Kerala has deposits of monazite and thorium,
(ONGC), Mineral Exploration Corporation bauxite clay. Goa has iron ore deposits.
Ltd. (MECL), National Mineral Development The North-Western Region: This belt
Corporation (NMDC), Indian Bureau of extends along Aravali in Rajasthan and part
Mines (IBM), Bharat Gold Mines Ltd. of Gujarat and minerals are associated with
(BGML), Hindustan Copper Ltd. (HCL), Dharwar system of rocks. Copper, zinc have
National Aluminum Company Ltd. (NALCO) been major minerals. Rajasthan is rich in
and the Departments of Mining and Geology building stones i.e. sandstone, granite,
in various states. marble. Gypsum and Fuller’s earth deposits
are also extensive. Dolomite and limestone
Distribution of Minerals in India
provide raw materials for cement industry.
Most of the metallic minerals in India Gujarat is known for its petroleum deposits.
occur in the peninsular plateau region in the Gujarat and Rajasthan both have rich sources
old crystalline rocks. Over 97 percent of coal of salt.
reserves occur in the valleys of Damodar,
The Himalayan belt is another mineral
Sone, Mahanadi and Godavari. Petroleum
belt where copper, lead, zinc, cobalt and
reserves are located in the sedimentary basins
tungsten are known to occur. They occur on
of Assam, Gujarat and Mumbai High i.e. off-
both the eastern and western parts. Assam
shore region in the Arabian. New reserves
valley has mineral oil deposits. Besides oil
have been located in the Krishna-Goadavari
resources are also found in off-shore-areas
and Kaveri basins. Most of the major mineral
near Mumbai Coast (Mumbai High).
Mineral and Energy Resources 63
extensively either on the plateau or hill ranges Mica: Mica is mainly used in the
of peninsular India and also in the coastal electrical and electronic industries. It can be
tracts of the country. split into very thin sheets which are tough
Orissa happens to be the largest and flexible. Mica in India is produced in
producer of Bauxite. Kalahandi and Jharkhand, Andhra Pradesh and Rajasthan
Sambalpur are the leading producers. The followed by Tamil Nadu, West Bengal and
other two areas which have been increasing Madhya Pradesh. In Jharkhand high quality
their production are Bolangir and Koraput. mica is obtained in a belt extending over a
The patlands of Jharkhand in Lohardaga have distance of about 150 km, in length and about
rich deposits. Gujarat, Chhattisgarh, Madhya 22 km, in width in lower Hazaribagh plateau.
Pradesh and Maharashtra are other major In Andhra Pradesh. Nellore district produces
producers. Bhavnagar, Jamnagar in Gujarat the best quality mica. In Rajasthan mica belt
have the major deposits. Chhattisgarh has extends for about 320 kms from Jaipur to
bauxite deposits in Amarkantak plateau while Bhilwara and around Udaipur. Mica deposits
Katni-Jabalpur area and Balaghat in M.P. have also occur in Mysore and Hassan districts of
important deposits of bauxite. Kolaba, Thane, Karnataka, Coimbatore. Tiruchirapalli,
Ratnagiri, Satara, Pune and Kolhapur in Madurai and Kanniyakumari in Tamil Nadu,
Maharashtra are important producers. Tamil Alleppey in Kerala, Ratnagiri in Maharashtra,
Nadu. Karanataka and Goa are minor Purulia and Bankura in West Bengal.
producers of bauxite. Energy Resources: Mineral fuels are
Copper: Copper is an indispensable essential for generation of power, required
metal in the electrical industry for making by agriculture, industry, transport and other
wires, electric motors, transformers and sectors of the economy. Mineral fuels like
generators. It is alloyable. Malleable and coal, petroleum and natural gas (known as
ductile. It is also mixed with gold to provide fossil fuels), nuclear energy minerals, are the
strength to jewellery. conventional sources of energy. These
The Copper deposits mainly occur in conventional sources are exhaustible
Singhbhum district in Jharkhand, Balaghat resources.
district in Madhya Pradesh and Jhunjhunu Coal: Coal is a one of the important
and Alwar districts in Rajasthan. minerals which is mainly used in the
Minor producers of Copper are generation of thermal power and smelting
Agnigundala in Guntur District (Andhra of iron ore. Coal occurs in rock sequences
Pradesh), Chitradurg and hasan districts mainly of two geological ages, namely
(Karnataka) and South Arcot district (Tamil Gondwana and tertiary deposits.
Nadu). Lignite is a low grade brown coal,
Non-metallic Minerals: Among the which is soft with high moisture content. The
non-metallic minerals produced in India, mica principal lignite reserves are in Neyveli in
is the important one. The other minerals Tamil Nadu and are used for generation of
extracted for local consumption are limestone, electricity. Coal that has been buried deep
dolomite and phosphate. and subjected to increased temperatures is
Mineral and Energy Resources 65
bituminous coal. It is the most popular coal numerous by-products are processed in
in commercial use. Metallurgical coal is high petrochemical industries such as fertilizer,
grade bituminous coal which has a special synthetic fibre, medicines, Vaseline,
value for smelting iron in blast furnaces. lubricants, wax, soap and cosmetics.
Anthracite is the highest quality hard Most of the petroleum occurrences in
coal. About 80 per cent of the coal deposits India are associated with anticlines and fault
in India is of bituminous type and is of non- traps in the rock formations of the tertiary
coking grade. The most important age. In regions of folding, anticlines or
Gondwana coal fields of India are located in domes, it occurs where oil is trapped in the
Damodar Valley. crest of the up fold. The oil bearing layer is a
They lie in Jharkhand-Bengal coal belt porous limestone or sandstone through
and the important coal fields in this region which oil may flow. The oil is prevented from
are Raniganj, Jharia, Bokaro, Giridih, rising or sinking by intervening non-porous
Karanpura. layers.
Jharia is the largest coal field followed Petroleum is also found in fault traps
by Raniganj. The other river valleys between porous and non-porous rocks. Gas,
associated with coal are Godavari, Mahanadi being lighter usually occurs above the oil.
and Sone. The most important coal mining About 63 per cent of India’s petroleum
centres are Singrauli in Madhya Pradesh (part production is from Mumbai High, 18 per cent
of Singrauli coal field lies in Uttar Pradesh), from Gujarat and 16 per cent from Assam.
Korba in Chhattisgarh, Talcher and Rampur Crude petroleum occurs in sedimentary
in Orissa, Chanda-Wardha, Kamptee and rocks of the tertiary period. Oil exploration
Bander in Maharashtra and Singareni and and production was systematically taken up
Pandur in Andhra Pradesh. after the Oil and Natural Gas Commission
Tertiary coals occur in Assam, Arunachal was set up in 1956. Till then, the Digboi in
Pradesh, Meghalaya and Nagaland. It is Assam was the only oil producing region but
extracted from Darangiri, Cherrapunji, the scenario has changed after 1956. In recent
Mewlong and Langrin (Meghalaya); Makum, years, new oil deposits have been found at
Jaipur and Nazira in upper Assam, Namchik- the extreme western and eastern parts of the
Namphuk (Arunachal Pradesh) and Kalakot country. In Assam, Digboi, Naharkatiya and
(Jammu and Kashmir). Besides, the brown Moran are important oil producing areas. The
coal or lignite occur in the coastal areas of major oil fields of Gujarat are Ankaleshwar,
Tamil Nadu, Pondicherry, Gujarat and Kalol, Mehsana, Nawagam, Kosamba and
Jammu and Kashmir. Lunej. Mumbai High which lies 160 km off
Petroleum: Crude petroleum consists of Mumbai was discovered in 1973 and
hydrocarbons of liquid and gaseous states production commenced in 1976. Oil and
varying in chemical composition, colour and natural gas have been found in exploratory
specific gravity. It is an essential source of wells in Krishna-Godavari and Kaveri basin
energy for all internal combustion engines in on the east coast.
automobiles, railways and aircraft. Its Oil extracted from the well is crude oil
66 Gist of NCERT (Geography)
permanent wind systems such the trade Geothermal Energy: When the magma
winds, westerly’s and seasonal wind like from the interior of earth, comes out on the
monsoon have been used as source of surface, tremendous heat is released. This
energy. Besides these, local winds, land and heat energy can successfully be tapped and
sea breezes can also be used to produce converted to electrical energy. Apart from
electricity. this, the hot water that gushes out through
India, already has started generating the gyser well is also used in the generation
wind energy. It has an ambitious programme of thermal energy. It is popularly known as
to install 250 wind-driven turbines with a Geothermal energy. This energy is now
total capacity of 45 megawatts, spread over considered to be one of the key energy
12 suitable locations, specially in coastal ar- sources which can be developed as an
eas. According to the estimation by Ministry alternate source. The hot springs and geysers
of Power, India will be able to produce 3,000 are being used since medieval period.
megawatts of electric from this source. The The first successful (1890) attempt to tap
Ministry of non-conventional sources of en- the underground heat was made in the city
ergy is developing wind energy in India to of Boise, Idaho (U.S.A.), where a hot water
lessen the burden of oil import bill. The coun- pipe network was built to give heat to the
try’s potential of wind power generation ex- surrounding buildings. This plant is still
ceeds 50,000 megawatts; of which one fourth working.
can be easily harnessed. In Rajasthan, Gujarat,
Bio-energy: Bio-energy refers to energy
Maharashtra and Karnataka, favourable con-
derived from biological products which
ditions for wind energy exist. Wind power
includes agricultural residues, municipal,
plant at Lamba in Gujarat in Kachchh is the
industrial and other wastes.
largest in Asia. Another, wind power plant
is located at Tuticorin in Tamil Nadu. Establishment of iron and steel industry
in Bhilai and Rourkela were based on
Tidal and Wave Energy: Ocean currents
decision to develop backward tribal areas of
are the store-house of infinite energy. Since
the country. At present, government of India
the beginning of seventeenth and eighteenth
provides lots of incentives to industries
century, persistent efforts were made to
locating in backward area.
create a more efficient energy system from
the ceaseless tidal waves and ocean current. Major Industries
Large tidal waves are known to occur The iron and steel industry is basic to
along the west coast of India. Hence, India the industrial development of any country.
has great potential for the development of The cotton textile Industry is one of our
tidal energy along the coasts but so far these traditional industries. The sugar Industry is
have not yet been utilized. based on local raw materials which prospered
In India, the Gulf of Kuchchh, provides even in the British period.
ideal conditions for utilizing tidal energy. A The Iron and Steel Industry
900 mw tidal energy power plant is set up The development of the iron and steel
here by the National Hydropower industry opened the doors to rapid industrial
Corporation.
68 Gist of NCERT (Geography)
development in India. Almost all sectors of under IISCO are located very close to
the Indian industry depend heavily on the Damodar valley coal fields (Raniganj), Jharia,
iron and steel industry for their basic and Ramgarh. Iron ore comes from
infrastructure. Singhbhum in Jharkhand. Water is obtained
The other raw materials besides iron ore from the Barakar River, a tributary of the
and coking coal, essential for iron and steel Damodar. All the plants are located along the
industry are limestone, dolomite, manganese Kolkata-Asansol railway line. Unfortunately,
and fire clay. All these raw materials are gross steel production from IISCO fell considerably
(weight losing), therefore, the best location in 1972-73 and the plants were taken over by
for the iron and steel plants is near the source the government.
of raw materials. In India, there is a crescent Visvesvaraiya
shaped region comprising parts of Iron and Steel Works Ltd. (VISL)
Chhattisgarh, Northern Orissa, Jharkhand The third integrated steel plant, the
and western West Bengal, which is extremely Visvesvaraiya Iron and Steel Works, initially
rich in high grade iron ore, good quality called the Mysore Iron and Steel Works, is
coking coal and other supplementing raw located close to an iron ore producing area
materials. of Kemangundi in the Bababudan hills.
The Indian iron and steel industry Limestone and manganese are also locally
consists of large integrated steel plants as well available. But this region has no coal. At the
as mini steel mills. It also includes secondary beginning, charcoal obtained by burning
producers, rolling mills and ancillary wood from nearby forests was used as fuel
industries. till 1951. Afterwards, electric furnaces were
Integrated Steel Plants installed which use hydroelectricity from the
TISCO: The Tata Iron and Steel plant Jog Falls-hydel power project. The Bhadravati
lies very close to the Mumbai-Kolkata railway river supplies water to the plant. This plant
line and about 240 km away from Kolkata, produces specialized steels and alloys.
which is the nearest port for the export of After independence, during the Second
steel. The rivers Subarnarekha and Kharkai Five Year Plan (1956-61), three new inte-
provide water to the plant. The iron ore for grated steel plants were set up with foreign
the plant is obtained from Noamundi and collaboration: Rourkela in Orissa, Bhilai in
Badam Pahar and coal is brought from Joda Chhattisgarh and Durgapur in West Bengal.
mines in Orissa. Coking coal comes from These were public sector plants under
Jharia and West Bokaro coalfields. Hindustan Steel Limited (HSL). In 1973, the
Steel Authority of India Limited (SAIL) was
IISCO: The Indian Iron and Steel
created to manage these plants.
Company (IISCO) set up its first factory at
Hirapur and later on another at Kulti. In 1937, Rourkela Steel Plant
the Steel corporation of Bengal was The Rourkela Steel plant was set up in
constituted in association with IISCO and set 1959 in the Sundargarh district of Orissa in
up another iron and steel producing unit at collaboration with Germany. The plant was
Burnpur (West Bengal). All the three plants located on the basis of proximity to raw
Mineral and Energy Resources 69
India went up to 423 but the scenario changed Mumbai and Ahmedabad in the second half
after partition, and this industry suffered a of the nineteenth century, the cotton textile
major recession. This was due to the fact that industry expanded very rapidly. The number
the most of the good quality cotton growing of units increased dramatically. The Swadeshi
areas had gone to West Pakistan and India movement gave a major impetus to the
was left with 409 mills and only 29 per cent industry as there was a call for boycotting
of the cotton producing area. all British made goods in favour of Indian
After Independence, this industry goods. After 1921, with the development of
gradually recovered and eventually the railway network other cotton textile
flourished. In 1998, India had 1782 mills; of centres expanded rapidly. In southern India,
which, 192 mills were in the public sector and mills were set up at Coimbatore, Madurai
151 mills in the cooperative sector. The largest and Bangalore. In central India, Nagpur,
number, that is, 1,439 mills were in the private Indore, Solapur and Vadodra became cotton
sector. textile centres. Cotton textile mills were set
The cotton textile industry in India can up at Kanpur based on local investment. Mills
be broadly divided into two sectors, the were also set up at Kolkata due to its port
organized sector and the decentralized facilities. The development of hydro-
sector. The decentralized sector includes electricity also favoured the location of the
cloth produced in handlooms (including cotton textile mills away from the cotton
Khadi) and power looms. The production of producing areas. The rapid development of
the organized sector has drastically fallen this industry in Tamil Nadu is the result of
from 81 per cent in the mid-twentieth century the abundant availability of hydel power for
to only about 6 per cent in 2000. At present, the mills. Lower labour costs at centres like
the power looms on the decentralized sector Ujjain, Bharuch, Agra, Hathras, Coimbatore
produce more than 59 per cent and the hand and Tirunelveli also caused industries to be
loom sector produces about 19 per cent of all located away from cotton producing areas.
cotton cloth produced in the country. Thus, the cotton textile industry is
Cotton is a “pure” raw material which located in almost every state in India, where
does not lose weight in the manufacturing one or more of the locational factors have
process, so other factors, like, power to drive been favourable. The importance of raw
the looms, labour, capital or market may materials has given way to market or to a
determine the location of the industry. At cheaper local labour force or it may be the
present the trend is to locate the industry at availability of power.
or close to markets, as it is the market that Presently, the major centres of the cotton
decides what kind of cloth is to be produced. textile industry are Ahmedabad, Bhiwandi,
Also the market for the finished produces is Solapur, Kolhapur, Nagpur, Indore and
extremely variable, therefore, it becomes Ujjain. All these centres are the traditional
important to locate the mills close to the centres and are located close to the cotton
market. producing regions. Maharashtra, Gujarat and
After the first mills were set up in Tamil Nadu are the leading cotton producing
Mineral and Energy Resources 71
states. West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, is located in the cotton producing Telengana
Karnataka, and Punjab are the other region, where most of the mills are spinning
important cotton textile producers. mills producing yarn. The important centres
Tamil Nadu has the largest number of are Hyderabad, Secundrabad, Warangal and
mills and most of them produce yarn rather Guntur.
than cloth. Coimbatore has emerged as the In Uttar Pradesh, Kanpur is the largest
most important centre with nearly half the centre. Some of the other important centres
mills located there. Chennai, Madurai, are Modinagar, Hathras, Saharanpur, Agra
Tirunelveli, Tuticorin, Thanjavur, and Lucknow. In West Bengal, the cotton
Ramanathapuram and Salem are the other mills are located in the Hugli region. Howrah,
important centres. In Karnataka, the cotton Serampur, Kolkata and Shyamnagar are the
textile industry has developed in the cotton important centres. Production of cotton cloth
producing areas in the north-eastern part of increased almost five times from 1950-51 to
the state. Davangere, Hubli, Bellary, Mysore 1999-2000. Cotton textile has been facing
and Bangalore are important centres. In tough competition from synthetic cloth.
Andhra Pradesh, the cotton textile industry
INDIAN POLITY
For
Civil Services
Preliminary Examinations
ISBN: 9789381362310
Book Code: A14, ` 350
72
8
Gist of NCERT
SUGAR INDUSTRY
The sugar industry is the second most Maharashtra has emerged as a leading
important agro-based industry in the sugar producer in the country and produces
country. India is the largest producer of both more than one-third of the total production
sugarcane and cane sugar and contributes of the sugar in the country. There are 119
about 8 per cent of the total sugar production sugar mills in the state in a narrow belt
in the world. Besides, khandasari and gur or extending from Manmad in the north to
jaggery are also prepared from sugarcane. Kolhapur in the south. There are 87 mills in
This industry provides employment for more the cooperative sector.
than 4 lakh persons directly and a large Uttar Pradesh is the second largest
number of farmers indirectly. Sugar industry producer of sugar. The sugar factories are
is a seasonal industry because of the concentrated in two belts- the Ganga-Yamuna
seasonality of raw materials. doab and the taria region. The major sugar
Development of the industry on mod- producing centres in the Ganga- Yamuna
ern lines dates back to 1903, when a sugar doab are Saharanpur, Muzaffarnagar, Meerut,
mill was started in Bihar. Subsequently, sugar Ghaziabad, Baghpat and Bulandshehr
mills were started in other parts of Bihar and districts; while Kheri Lakhimpur, Basti,
Uttar Pradesh. In 1950-51, 139 factories were Gonda, Gorakhpur, Bahraich are important
in operation producing 11.34 lakh tones of sugar producing districts in the Tarai region.
sugar. The number of sugar factories rose to In Tamil Nadu, sugar factories are
506 and production to 176,99 lakh tones in located in Coimbatore, Vellore,
2000-01. Tiruvanamalai, Villupuram and
Location of the Sugar Industry Tiruchchirappalli districts. Belgaum, Bellary,
Sugarcane is a weight-losing crop. The Mandya, Shimoga, Bijapur, and Chitradurg
ratio of sugar to sugarcane varies between 9 districts are the major producers in
to 12 per cent depending on its variety. Its Karnataka. The industry is distributed in the
sucrose content begins to dry during haulage coastal regions i.e. East Godawari, West
after it has been harvested from the field. Godavari, Vishakhapatnam districts and
Better recovery of sugar is dependent upon Nizamabad, and Medak districts of
its being crushed within 24 hours of its Telangana alongwith Chittoor district of
harvesting. Sugar factories hence, are located Rayalseema.
within the cane producing regions. The other States which produce sugar
Sugar Industry 73
are Bihar, Punjab, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh Petrochemical Corporation Limited (IPCL),
and Gujarat. Saran, Champaran, a public sector undertaking. It is responsible
Muzaffarnagar, Siwan, Darbhanga, and Gaya for the manufacture and distribution of the
are the important sugarcane producing dis- various petrochemicals like polymers,
tricts in Bihar. The relative significance of chemicals, fibres and fibre intermediates.
Punjab has declined, although Gurdaspur, Second is the Petrofils Cooperative Limited
Jalandhar, Sangarur, Patiala and Amrtisar are (PCL), a joint venture of the Government of
major sugar producers. In Haryana, sugar India and Weaver’s Cooperative Societies. It
factories are located in Yamuna Nagar, produces polyester filament yarn and nylon
Rohtak, Hissar and Faridabad districts. Sugar chips at its two plants located at Vadodara
industry is comparatively new in Gujarat. and Naldhari in Gujarat. Third is the Central
Sugar mills are located in the cane growing Institute of Plastic Engineering and
tracts of Surat, Junagarh, Rajkot, Amreli, Technology (CIPET), involved in imparting
Valsad and Bhavnagar districts. training in petrochemical industry.
Petrochemical Industries Polymers are made from ethylene and
This group of industries has been propylene. These materials are obtained in
growing very fast in India. A variety of the process of refining crude oil. Polymers
products come under this category of are used as raw materials in the plastic
industries. In 1960s, demand for organic industry. Among polymers, polyethylene is
chemicals increased so fast that it became a widely used thermoplastic. Plastic is first
difficult to meet this demand. At that time. covered into sheets, power, resin and pellets,
Petroleum refining industry expanded and then used in manufacturing plastic
rapidly. Many items are derived from crude products. Plastic products are preferred
petroleum, which provide raw materials for because of their strength, water and chemical
many new industries; these are collectively resistance and low prices. Production of
known as petrochemical industries. This plastic polymers started in India in the late
group of industries is divided into four sub- fifties and the early sixties using other organic
groups; (i) polymers, (ii) synthetic fibres, (iii) chemicals. The National Organic Chemicals
elastomers, and (iv) surfactant intermediate. Industries Limited (NOCIL), established in
Mumbai is the hub of the petrochemical private sector in 1961, started the first
industries. Cracker units are also located in naphtha based chemical industry in Mumbai.
Auraiya (Uttar Pradesh), Jamnagar, Later, several other companies were formed.
Gandhinagar, and Hajira (Gujarat), The plants located at Mumbai, Barauni,
Nagothane, Ratnagiri (Maharashtra), Haldia Mettur, Pimpri and Rishra are major
(West Bengal) and Vishakhapatnam (Andha producers of plastic materials.
Pradesh). About 75 per cent of these units are in
Three organizations are working in the small scale sector. The industry also uses
petrochemical sector under the administrative recycled plastics, which constitutes about 30
control of the Department of Chemicals and per cent of the total production.
Petrochemicals. First is the Indian Synthetic fibres are widely used in the
74 Gist of NCERT (Geography)
textile industry in Mumbai. Mumbai, with coalfields of the Damodar Valley and iron
cotton hinterland and moist climate favoured ore deposits of the Chotanagpur plateau,
the location of cotton textile industry. contributed to the industrial development of
Opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 provided the region. Cheap labour available from
impetus to the growth of Mumbai port. thickly populated part of Bihar, eastern Uttar
Machineries were imported through this port. Pradesh and Orissa also contributed to its
Hydro-electricity was developed in the development. Kolkata, being the capital city
Western Ghat region to meet requirements of British India (1773-1911), attracted the
of this industry. British capital. The establishment of first jute
With the development of cotton textile mill at Rishra in 1855 ushered in the era of
industry, chemical industry also developed. modern industrial clustering in this region.
Opening of the Mumbai High petroleum field The major concentration of jute industry
and erection of nuclear energy plants added is at Howrah and Bhatapara. The partition
additional pull to this region. of the country in 1947 adversely affected this
Besides, engineering goods, petroleum industrial region. Cotton textile industry also
refining, petrochemicals, leather, synthetic grew along with jute industry, paper,
and plastic goods, drugs, fertilizers, electrical, engineering, textile machinery, electrical,
shipbuilding, electronics, software, transport chemical, pharmaceuticals, fertilizer and
equipments and food industries also petrochemical industries have also developed
developed. Important industrial centres are within this region. Factory of the Hindustan
Mumbai, Kolaba, Kalyan, Thane, Trombay, Motors Limited at Konnagar and diesel
Pune, Pimpri, Nasik, Manmad, Solapur, engine factory at Chittaranjan are landmarks
Kolhapur, Ahmednagar, Satara and Sangli. of this region. Location of petroleum refinery
Hugli Industrial Region at Haldia has facilitated the development of
a variety of industries. Important, industrial
Located along the Hugli river, this
centres of this region are Kolkata, Haora,
region extends from Bansberia in the north
Haldia, Serampur, Rishra, Shibpur, Nahati,
to Birlanagar in the south for a distance of
Kakinara, Shamnagar, Titagarh, Sodepur,
about 100 km. Industries also have developed
Budge Budge, Birlanagar, Bansberia,
in Mednipur in the west. Kolkata- Howrah
Belgurriah, Triveni, Hugli, Belur, etc.
from the nucleus of this industrial region.
However, industrial growth of this region
Historical, geographical, economic and
has slowed down in comparison to other
political factor have contributed much to its
regions. Decline of the jute industry is one of
development. It developed with the opening
the reasons.
of river port on Hugli. Kolkata, emerged as
a leading centre of the country, Later, Kolkata Bangalore-Chennai Industrial Region
was connected with interior parts by railway This region witnessed most rapid
lines and road routes. Development of tea industrial growth in post-Independence
plantations in Assam and northern hills of period. Till 1960, industries were confined
West Bengal, the processing of indigo earlier to Bangalore, Salem and Madurai districts but
and jute later coupled with the opening of now they have spread over all the districts
78 Gist of NCERT (Geography)
of Tamil Nadu except Viluppuram. Since, this The industrial structure is now
region is away from the coalfields, its diversified. Besides, textiles (cotton, silk and
development is dependent on the Pykara synthetic fabrics) and petrochemical
hydroelectric plant, which was built in 1932. industries, other industries are heavy and
Cotton textile industry was the first to take basic chemicals, motor, tractor, diesel
roots due to the presence of cotton growing engines, textile machinery, engineering,
areas. Along with cotton mills, loom industry pharmaceuticals. Dyes, pesticides, sugar,
spread very rapidly. Several heavy dairy products and food processing. Recently,
engineering industries converged at largest petroleum refinery has been set up at
Bangalore. Aircraft (HAL), machine tools, Jamnagar. Important industrial centres of this
telephone (HTL) and Bharat Electronics are region are Ahmedabad, Vadodara, Bharuch,
industrial landmarks of this region. Important Koyali, Anand, Khera, Surendranagar,
industries are textiles rail wagons, diesel Rajkot, Valsad and Jamnagar.
engines, radio, light engineering goods, Chotanagpur Region
rubber goods, medicines, aluminum, sugar,
This region extends over Jharkhand,
cement, glass, paper, chemicals, film, northern Orissa and western West Bengal
cigarette, match box, leather goods, etc.
and is known for the heavy metallurgical
Petroleum refinery at Chennai, iron and steel industries. This region owes its development
plant at Salem and fertilizer plants are recent
to the discovery of coal in the Damodar
developments.
Valley and metallic and non-metallic in
Gujarat Industrial Region Jharkhand and northern Orissa. Proximity of
The nucleus of this region lies between coal, iron ore and other minerals facilitated
Ahmedabad and Vadodara but this region the location of heavy industries in this region.
extends upto Valsad and Surat in the south Six large integrated iron and steel plants at
and to Jamnagar in the west. Development Jamshedpur, Burnpur-Kulti, Durgapur,
of this region is also associated with the Bokaro and Rourkela are located within this
location of the cotton textile industry since region. To meet the power requirement,
1860s. This region became an important textile thermal and hydroelectric plants have been
region with the decline of the cotton textile constructed in the Damodar Valley. Densely
industry at Mumbai. populated surrounding regions provide
Located in cotton growing area, this cheap labour and Hugli region provides vast
region has double advantage of the proximity market for its industries. Heavy engineering,
of raw materials as well as of market. The machine tools, fertilizers, cement, paper,
discovery of oil fields led to the establishment locomotives and heavy electrical are some of
of petrochemical industries around the important industries in this region.
Ankleshwar, Vadodara and Jamnagar. The Important centres are Ranchi, Dhanbad,
port at Kandla helped in the rapid growth of Chaibasa, Sindri, Hazaribag, Jamshedpur,
this region. Petroleum refinery at Koyali Bokaro, Rourkela, Durgapur, Asansol and
provided raw materials to a host of Dalmianagar.
petrochemical industries.
Sugar Industry 79
The use of transport and communication Central Government are known as the
depends upon our need to move things from National Highways. These roads are meant
place of their availability to the place of their for inter-state transport and movement of
use. defence men and material in strategic areas.
Land Transport These also connect the state capitals, major
cities, important ports, railway junctions, etc.
Road Transport: India has one of the
The length of the National Highways has
largest road networks in the world with a
increased from 19,700 km in 1951 to 65,769
total length of 33.1 lakh km (2005). About 85
km in 2005. The National Highways
per cent of passenger and 70 per cent of
constitute only two per cent of the total road
freight traffic are carried by roads every
length but carry 40 per cent of the road traffic.
year. Road transport is relatively suitable for
shorter distance travel. The National Highways Authority of
India (NHAI) was operationalized in 1995.
Road transport in modern sense was
It is an autonomous body under the Ministry
very limited in India before World War-II.
of Surface Transport. It is entrusted with the
The first serious attempt was made in 1943
responsibility of development, maintenance
when ‘Nagpur Plan’ was drawn. This plan
and operation of National Highways. This is
could not be implemented due to lack of
also the apex body to improve the quality of
coordination among the princely states and
the roads designated as National Highways.
British India. After Independence, twenty-
year road plan (1961) was introduced to Indian Road Network (2005)
improve the conditions of roads in India. Sl. Road Length in %of
However, roads continue to concentrate in No. Category Km
and around urban centres. Rural and remote total
areas had the least connectivity by road. road
For the purpose of construction and length
maintenance, roads are classified as National 1. National Highways 65,769 2
Highways (NH), State Highways (SH), Major 2. State Highways 1,28,000 4
District Roads and Rural Roads. 3. Major District Roads 4,70,000 14
National Highways: The main roads 4. Rural Rods 2,65,000 80
which are constructed and maintained by the Total 33,13,769 100
Transport and Communication 81
State Highways: These are constructed in high altitude mountainous terrain joining
and maintained by state governments. They Chandigarh with Manali (Himachal Pradesh)
join the state capitals with district and Leh (Ladakh). This road runs at an
headquarters and other important towns. average altitude of 4,270 metres above the
These roads are connected to the National mean sea level.
Highways. These constitute 4 per cent of total This organization has completed over
road length in the country. 40,450 km of roads by March 2005. Apart
In order to consolidate his empire from the construction and maintenance of
Shershah Suri built the road from Indus Valley roads in strategically sensitive areas, the BRO
(Pakistan) to Soner Valley in Bangal. This was also undertakes snow clearance in high
coordinating Kolkata to Peshawar later on altitude areas. The international highways are
named as Grand Trunk Road during the meant to promote the harmonious
British period. In the present time it has been relationship with the neighbouring countries
divided into two part between Amritsar to by providing effective links with India.
Kolkata. (a) National Highway (NH-I) from The distribution of roads is not uniform
Delhi to Amritsar. (b) National Highway in the country. Density of roads (length of
(NH-2) Delhi to Kolkata. roads per 100 square km of area) varies from
District Roads: These roads are the only 10.48 km in Jammu and Kashmir to
connecting link between District 387.24 km in Kerala with a national average
Headquarters and the other important nodes of 75.42 km. The density of road is high in
in the district. They account for 14 per cent most of the northern states and major
of the total road length of the country. southern states. It is low in the Himalayan
Rural Roads region, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan. Why
These roads are vital for providing links does this variation occur? Nature of terrain
and the level of economic development are
in the rural areas. About 80 per cent of the
total road length in India are categorized as the main determinants of density of roads.
Construction of roads is easy and cheaper in
rural roads. There is regional variation in the
density of rural because these are influenced the plain areas while it is difficult and costly
in hilly and plateau areas. Therefore, not only
by the nature of the terrain.
the density but also the quality of roads is
Other Roads
relatively better in plains as compared to
Other roads include Border Roads and roads in high altitude areas, rainy and
International Highways. The Border Road forested regions.
Organization (BRO) was established in May National Highways Development Projects
1960 for accelerating economic development
NHAI has taken up some major projects
and strengthening defence preparedness
in the country under different phases:
through rapid and coordinated improvement
of strategically important roads along the Golden Quadrilateral: It comprises
northern and north-eastern boundary of the construction of 5,846 km long 4/6 lane, high
country. It is a premier multifaceted density traffic corridor, to connect India’s
construction agency. It has constructed roads four big metro cities of Delhi-Mumbai-
82 Gist of NCERT (Geography)
Chennai-Kolkata. With the construction of the hill states, north eastern states, central
Golden Quadrilateral, the time-distance and parts of India and Rajasthan.
cost of movement among the mega cities of Rural Roads:These roads received
India will be considerably minimized. special impetus under the Pradhan Mantri
North-South and East-West Corridors: Grameen Sadak Yojana. Under this scheme
North-South corridor aims at connecting special provisions are made so that every
Srinagar in Jammu and Kashmir and village in the country is linked to a major
Kaniyakumari in Tamil Nadu (including town in the country by an all season
Kochi-Salempur) with 4,076 km long road. motorable road.
The East-West Corridor has been planned to Konkan Railway:Konkan Railway was
connect Silchar in Assam with the port town a great achievement of Indian railway in
of Porbandar in Gujarat with 3,640 km of 1998. It is 760 km long track extending from
road length. Roha in Karnataka to Mangalore. This
Rail Transport railway crosses 146 rivers, 2000 bridges and
Indian Railway was introduced in 1853, 91 tunnels, has longest tunnels of the Asia
when a line was constructed from Bombay having 6.5 km in length. It is joint enterprise
to Thane covering a distance of 34 km. of Karnataka, Goa and Maharashtra
Indian Railways is the largest government.
government undertaking in the country. The Indian Railways Zone
length of Indian Railways network is 63,221 Railway Zone Headquarters
km. Its very large size puts lots of pressure
Central Mumbai CST
on a centralized railway management system.
Eastern Kolkata
Thus, in India, the railway system has been
divided into sixteen zones. Table shows the East Central Hajipur
zone-wise performance of Indian Railways. East Coast Bhubaneshwar
Areas around towns, raw material Northern New Delhi
producing areas and of plantations and other North Central Allahabad
commercial crops, hill stations and North Eastern Gorakhpur
cantonment towns were well-connected by North East Frontier Maligaon
railways from the British colonial era. These (Guwahati)
were mostly developed for the exploitation North Western Jaipur
of resources. After the Independence of the Southern Chennai
country, railway routes have been extended South Central Secundrabad
to other areas too. The most significant South Eastern Kolkata
development has been the development of South East Central Bilaspur
Konkan Railway along the western coast
South Western Hubli
providing a direct link between Mumbai and
Western Mumbai
Mangalore. Railway continuous to remain the
main means of transport for the masses. (Church Gate)
Railway network is relatively less dense in West Central Jabalpur
Transport and Communication 83
to reduce the pressure at Mumbai port. The yarn, granite stone, molasses, etc. Karnataka
port is specially designed to receive large is the major hinterland for this port.
quantities of petroleum and petroleum Kochchi Port situated at the head of
products and fertilizer. The offshore terminal Vembanad Kayal, popularly known as the
at Vadinar has been developed to reduce the “Queen of the Arabian Sea,” is also a natural
pressure at Kandla port. harbor. This port has an advantageous
Demarcation of the boundary of the location being close to the Suez-Colombo
hinterland would be difficult as it is not fixed route. It caters to the needs of Kerala,
over space. In most of the cases, hinterland southern- Karnataka and south western Tamil
of one port may overlap with that of the Nadu.
other. Kolkata Port is located on the Hulgi
Mumbai is a natural harbor and the river, 128 km inland from the Bay of Bengal.
biggest port of the country. The port is Like the Mumbai port, this port was also
situated closer to the general routes from the developed by the British. Kolkata had the
countries of Middle East, Mediterranean initial advantage of being the capital of British
countries, North Africa, North America and India. The port has lost its significance
Europe where the major share of country’s considerably on account of the diversion of
overseas trade is carried out. The port is 20 exports to the other ports such as
km long and 6-10 km wide with 54 berths Vishakhapatnam, Paradwip and its satellite
and has the country’s largest oil terminal. port, Haldia.
M.P., Maharashtra, Gujarat, U.P. and parts Kolkata port is also confronted with the
of Rajasthan constitute the main hinterlands problem of silt accumulation in the Hugli
of Mumbai ports. river which provides a link to the sea. Its
Jawaharlal Nehru Port at Nhava Sheva hinterland covers U.P, Bihar, Jharkhand,
was developed as a satellite port to relieve West Bengal, Sikkim and the north-eastern
the pressure at the Mumbai port. It is the states. Apart from this, it also extends ports
largest container port in India. facilities to our neighbouring land-locked
Marmagao Port, situated at the entrance countries such as Nepal and Bhutan.
of the Zuari estuary, is a natural harbor in Haldia Port is located 105 km
Goa. It gained significance after its downstream from Kolkata. It has been
remodeling in 1961 to handle iron-ore exports constructed to reduce the congestion at
to Japan. Construction of Konkan railway has Kolkata port. It handles bulk cargo like iron
considerably extended the hinterland of this ore, coal, petroleum, petroleum products and
port. Karnataka, Goa, Southern Maharashtra fertilizers, jute, jute products, cotton and
constitutes its hinterland. cotton yarn, etc.
New Mangalore Port is located in the Paradwip Port is situated in the
state of Karnataka and caters to the needs of Mahanadi delta, about 100 km from Cuttack.
the export of iron-ore and iron-concentrates. It has the deepest harbor specially suited to
It also handles fertilizers, petroleum handle very large vessels. It has been
products, edible oils, coffee, tea, wood pulp, developed mainly to handle large-scale
Transport and Communication 89
export of iron-ore. Orissa, Chhattisgarh and Foreign tourist’s arrivals in the country
Jharkhand are the parts of its hinterland. witnessed an increase of 23.5 per cent during
Visakhapatnam Port in Andhra Pradesh the year 2004 as against the year 2003, thus
is a land-locked harbor, connected to the sea contributing Rs. 21,828 crore of foreign
by a channel cut through solid rock and sand. exchange. Over 2.6 million foreign tourists
An outer harbor has been developed for visit India every year. More than 15 million
handling iron-ore, petroleum and general people are directly engaged in the tourism
cargo. Andhra Pradesh is the main hinterland industry. Tourism also promotes national
for this port. integration, provides support to local
Chennai Port is one of the oldest ports handicrafts and cultural pursuits. It also helps
on the eastern coast. It is an artificial harbor in the development of international
built in 1859. It is not much suitable for large understanding about our culture and
ships because of the shallow waters near the heritage. Foreign tourists visit India for
coast. Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry are its heritage tourism, eco tourism, adventure
hinterland. Ennore, a newly developed port tourism, cultural tourism, medical tourism
in Tamil Nadu, has been constructed 25 km and business tourism.
north of Chennai to relieve the pressure at Rajasthan, Goa, Jammu and Kashmir and
Chennai port. Tuticorin Port was also temple towns of south India are important
developed to relieve the pressure of Chennai destinations of foreign tourists in India.
port. It deals with a variety of cargo including There is vast potential of tourism
coal, salt, food grains, edible oils, sugar, development in the north-eastern states and
chemical and petroleum products. the interior parts of Himalayas, but due to
Tourism as a Trade strategic reasons these have not been
encouraged so far. However, there lies a
Tourism in India has grown
bright future ahead for this upcoming
substantially over the last three decades.
industry.
GEOGRAPHY
For
Civil Services
Preliminary Examinations
ISBN: 9789381362303
Book Code: A15, ` 315
90
10
Gist of NCERT
Our Solar system consists of eight years, it is 8.311 minutes of a year. Out of the
planets. The nine planet 2003 UB313 has also eight planets, mercury, venus, earth and mars
been recently sighted. The nebula from which are called as the inner planets as the lie
our Solar system is supposed to have been between the sun and the belt of asteroids the
formed, started its collapse and core other five planets are called the outer planets.
formation some time 5-5.6 billion ago and the Alternatively, the first four are called
planets formed about 4.6 billion years ago. Terrestrial, meaning earth-like as they are
Our solar system consists of the sun (the star), made up of rock and metals, and have
8 planets, 63 moons, millions of smaller relatively high densities. The rest five are
bodies like asteroids and comets and huge called Jovian or Gas Giant planets. Jovian
quantity of dust-grains and gases. means Jupiter-like. Most of them are much
A light year is a measure of distance and larger than the terrestrial planets and have
not of time. Light travels at a speed of 300,00 thick atmosphere, mostly of helium and
km/second. Considering this, the distances hydrogen. All the planets were formed in the
the light will travel in one year is taken to be same period sometime about 4.6 billion years
one light year. This equals to 9.461x1012 km. ago. Some data regarding our solar system
The mean distance between the sun and the are given in the box below.
earth is 149,598,000 km. In terms of light
different layers. Starting from the surface to hot magma in the interior of the earth. When
the central parts, we have layers like the crust, magma cools, crystals of minerals appear and
mantle, outer core and inner core. From the a systematic series of minerals are formed in
crust to the core, the density of the material seq-uence to solidify so as to form rocks.
increases. Minerals such as coal, petro-leum and
Minerals & Rocks natu-ral gas are orga-nic substances found in
The earth is composed of various kinds solid, liquid and gaseous forms respectively.
of elements. These elements are in solid form Besides these main minerals, other
in the outer layer of the earth and in hot and minerals like chlorite, calcite, magne-tic,
molten form in the interior. About 98 per cent haematite, bauxite and barite are also present
of the total crust of the earth is composed of in some quantities in the rocks.
eight elements like oxygen, silicon, The Major Elements of the Earth’s Crust
aluminum, iron, calcium, sodium, potassium
Sl. No. Elements By Weight (%)
and magnesium, and the rest is constituted
by titanium hydrogen, phosphorus, 1. Oxygen 46.60
manganese, sulphur, carbon, nickel and other 2. Silicon 27.72
elements. 3. Aluminum 8.13
These substances are recognized as 4. Iron 5.00
minerals. Thus, a mineral is a naturally 5. Calcium 3.63
occurring inorganic substance, having an 6. Sodium 2.83
orderly atomic structure and a definite
7. Potassium 2.59
chemical composition and physical properties.
8. Magnesium 2.09
A mineral is composed of two or more
elements. But, sometimes single element 9. Others 1.41
minerals like sulphur, copper, silver, gold, Metallic Minerals
graphite etc. are found. These minerals contain metal content
The elements in the earth’s crust are and can be sub-divided into three types:
rarely found exclusively but are usually (i) Precious metals: gold, silver,
combined with other elements to make platinum etc.
various substances. (ii) Ferrous metals: iron and other
Though the number of elements making metals often mixed with iron to form
up the lithosphere are limited they are various kinds of steel.
combined in many different ways to make (iii) Non-ferrous metals: include metals
up many varieties of minerals. There are at like copper, lead, zinc, tin, aluminum
least 2,000 minerals that have been named etc.
and identified in the earth crust; but almost
Hardness- relative resistance being
all the commonly occurring ones are related
scratched; ten minerals are selected to
to six major mineral groups that are known
measure the degree of hardness from 1-10.
as major rock forming minerals.
They are: 1. talc; 2. Gypsum; 3. calcite; 4.
The basic source of all minerals is the
Our Solar System 93
fluorite; 5. apatite; 6. felspar; 7. quartz; 8. solid form it is igneous rock. The process of
topaz; 9. corundum; 10. Diamond. Compared cooling and solidification can happen in the
to this for example, a fingernail is 2.5 and earth’s crust or on the surface of the earth.
glass or knife blade is 5.5. Igneous rocks are classified based on
Non-Metallic Minerals texture. Texture depends upon size and
These minerals do not contain metal arrangement of grains or other physical
content. Sulphur, phosphates and nitrates are conditions of the materials. If molten material
examples of non-metallic minerals. Cement is cooled slowly at great depths, mineral
is a mixture of non-metallic minerals. grains may be very large. Sudden cooling (at
the surface) results in small and smooth
Rocks
grains. Intermediate conditions of cooling
The earth’s crust is composed for rocks. would result in intermediate sizes of grains
A rock is an aggregate of one or more making up igneous rocks. Granite, gabbro,
minerals. Rock may be hard or soft and in pegmatite, basalt, volcanic breccias and tuff
varied colours. For example, granite is hard, are some of the examples of igneous rocks.
soapstone is soft. Gabbro is black and
Sedimentary Rocks
quartzite can be milky white. Rocks do not
have definite composition of mineral The word ‘sedimentary’ is derived from
constituents. Feldspar and quartz are the the Latin word sedimentum, which means
most common minerals found in rocks. settling. Rocks (igneous, sedimentary and
As there is a close relation between rocks metamorphic) of the earth’s surface are
exposed to denudational agents, and are
and landforms, rocks and soils, a geographer
requires basic knowledge of rocks. There are broken up into various sizes of fragments.
Such fragments are transported by different
many different kinds of rocks which are
grouped under three families on the basis of exogenous agencies and deposited. These
their mode of formation. They are: (i) Igneous deposits through compaction turn into rocks.
This process is called lithification. In many
Rocks- solidified from magma and lava; (ii)
Sedimentary Rocks- the result of deposition sedimentary rocks, the layers of deposits
retain their characteristics even after
of fragments of rocks by exogenous
lithification. Hence, we see a number of layers
processes; (iii) Metamorphic Rocks- formed
of varying thickness in sedimentary rocks like
out of existing rocks undergoing
sandstone, shale etc.
recrystallisation.
Depending upon the mode of formation,
Igneous Rocks
sedimentary rocks are into three major
As igneous rocks form out of magma groups: (i) mechanically formed- sandstone,
and lava from the interior of the earth, they conglomerate, limestone, shale, loess etc. are
are known as primary rocks. The igneous examples; (ii) organically formed- geyserites,
rocks (Ignis- in Latin means ‘Fire’) are formed chalk, limestone, coal etc. are some examples;
when magma cools and solidifies. You (iii) chemically formed- chert, limestone,
already know that magma is. When magma halite, potash etc. are some examples.
in its upward movement cools and turns into
94 Gist of NCERT (Geography)
abruptly. This causes a release of energy, and materials. S-waves arrive at the surface with
the energy waves travel in all directions. The some time lag.
point where the energy is released is called These are called secondary waves. An
the focus of an earthquake, alternatively, it important fact about S-waves is that they can
is called the hypocenter. The energy waves travel only through solid materials. This
travelling in different directions reach the characteristic of the S-waves is quite
surface. The point on the surface, nearest to important.
the focus, is called epicenter. It is the first It has helped scientists to understand
one to experience the waves. It is a point the structure of the interior of the earth.
directly above the focus. Reflection causes waves to rebound whereas
Earthquake Waves refraction makes waves move in different
All natural earthquakes take place in the directions. The variations in the direction of
lithosphere. It is sufficient to note here that waves are inferred with the help of their
the lithosphere refers to the portion of depth record on seismograph. The surface waves
up to 200 km from the surface of the earth. are the last to report on seismograph. These
An instrument called ‘seismograph’ records waves are more destructive. They cause
the waves reaching the surface. Note that the displacement of rocks, and hence, the
curve shows three distinct sections each collapse of structures occurs.
representing different types of wave Propagation of Earthquake Waves
patterns. Earthquake waves are basically of Different types of earthquake waves
two types- body waves and surface waves. travel in different manners. As they move or
Body waves are generated due to the release propagate, they cause vibration in the body
of energy at the focus and move in all of the rocks through which they pass. P-
directions travelling through the body of the waves vibrate parallel to the direction of the
earth. Hence, the name body waves. The wave.
body waves interact with the surface rocks This exerts pressure on the material in
and generate new set of waves called surface the direction of the propagation. As a result,
waves. These waves move along the surface. it creates density differences in the material
The velocity of waves changes as they travel leading to stretching and squeezing of the
through materials with different densities. material. Other three waves vibrate perpen-
The denser the material, the higher is the dicular to the direction of propagation. The
velocity. Their direction also changes as they direction of vibrations of S-waves is perpen-
reflect or refract when coming across dicular to the wave direction in the vertical
materials with different densities. plane. Hence, they create troughs and crests
There are two types of body waves. in the material through which they pass. Sur-
They are called P and S-waves. P-waves move face waves are considered to be the most
faster and are the first to arrive at the surface. damaging waves.
These are also called ‘primary waves’. The Emergence of Shadow Zone
P-waves are similar to sound waves. They Earthquake waves get recorded in
travel through gaseous, liquid and solid seismographs located at far off locations.
96 Gist of NCERT (Geography)
ary is around 5 g/cm3 and at the centre of explosive if somehow water gets into the
the earth at 6,300 km. the density value is vent; otherwise, they are characterized by
around 13 g/cm3. The core is made up of very low-explosivity. The upcoming lava moves
heavy material mostly constituted by nickel in the form of a fountain and throws out the
and iron. It is sometimes referred to as the cone at the top of the vent and develops into
knife layer. cinder cone.
Volcanoes and Volcanic landforms Composite Volcanoes
A volcano is a place where gases, ashes These volcanoes are characterized by
and/or molten rock material- lava- escape to eruptions of cooler and mokre viscous lavas
the ground. A volcano is called an active than basalt. These volcanoes often result in
volcano if the materials mentioned are being explosive eruptions. Along with lava, large
released or have been released out in the quantities of pyroclastic material and ashes
recent past. The layer below the solid crust find their way to the ground. This material
is mantle. It has higher density than that of accumulates in the vicinity of the vent
the crust. The mantle contains a weaker zone openings leading to formation of layers, and
called asthenosphere. It is from this that the this makes the mounts appear as composite
molten rock materials find their way to the volcanoes.
surface. The material in the upper mantle Caldera
portion is called magma. Once it starts These are the most explosive of the
moving towards the crust or it reaches the earth’s volcanoes. They are usually so explo-
surface, it is referred to as lava. The material sive that when they erupt they tend to col-
that reaches the ground includes lava flows, lapse on themselves rather than building any
pyroclastic debris, volcanic bombs, ash and tall structure. The collapsed depressions are
dust and gases such as nitrogen compounds, called calderas. Their explosiveness indicates
sulphur compounds and minor amounts of that the magma chamber supplying the lava
chlorine, hydrogen and argon. is not only huge but is also in close vicinity.
Volcanoes Flood Basalt Provinces
Volcanoes are classified on the basis of These volcanoes outpour highly fluid
nature of eruption and the form developed lava that flows for long distances. Some parts
at the surface. Major types of volcanoes are of the world are covered by thousands of
as follows: sq. km. of thick basalt lava flows. There can
Shield Volcanoes be a series of flows with some flows attaining
thickness of more than 50 m. Individual flows
Barring the basalt flows, the shield
may extend for hundreds of km. The Deccan
volcanoes the largest of all the volcanoes on
Traps from India, presently covering most
the earth, The Hawaiian volcanoes are the
of the Maharashtra plateau, are a much large
most famous examples. These volcanoes are
flood basalt province. It is believed that
mostly made up of basalt, a type of lava that
initially the trap formations covered a much
is very fluid when erupted. For this reason,
larger area than the present. Mid-Ocean
these volcanoes are not steep. They become
Ridge Volcanoes: These volcanoes occur in
98 Gist of NCERT (Geography)
the oceanic areas. There is a system of mid- the surface. The Karnataka plateau is spotted
ocean ridges more than 70,000 km long that with domal hills of granite rocks. Most of
stretches through all the ocean basins. The these, now exfoliated, are examples of
central portion of this ridge experiences laccoliths or batholiths.
frequent eruptions. Lapolith, Phacolith and Sills
Volcanic Landforms As and when the lava moves upwards,
Intrusive Forms: The lava that is a portion of the same may tend to move in a
released during volcanic eruptions on cooling horizontal direction wherever it finds a weak
develops into igneous rocks. The cooling may plane. It may get rested in different forms.
take place either on reaching the surface or In case it develops into a saucer shape,
also while the lava is still in the crustal concave to the sky body, it is called lapolith.
portion. Depending on the location of the A wavy mass of intrusive rocks, at times, is
cooling of the lava, igneous rocks are found at the base of synclines or at the top of
classified as volcanic rocks (cooling at the anticline in folded igneous country. Such
surface) and plutonic rocks (cooling in the wavy materials have a definite conduit to
crust). The lava that cools within the crustal source beneath in the form of magma
portions assumes different forms. These chambers (subsequently developed as
forms are called intrusive forms. batholiths). These are called the phacoliths.
Batholiths: A large body of magmatic The near horizontal bodies of the
material that cools in the deeper depth of the intrusive igneous rocks are called sill or sheet,
crust develops in the form of large domes. depending on the thickness of the material.
They appear on the surface only after the The thinner ones are called sheets while the
denudational processes remove the overlying thick horizontal deposits are called sills.
materials. They cover large areas, and at Dykes: When the lava makes its way
times, assume depth that may be several km. through cracks and the fissures developed
These are granitic bodies. Batholiths are the in the land, it solidifies almost perpendicular
cooled portion of magma chambers. to the ground. It gets cooled in the same
Laccoliths: These are large dome- position to develop a wall-like structure. Such
shaped intrusive bodies with a level base and structures are called dykes. These are the
connected by a pipe-like conduit from below. most commonly found intrusive forms in the
It resembles the surface volcanic domes of western Maharashtra area. These are
composite volcano, only these are located at considered the feeders for the eruptions that
deeper depths. It can be regarded as the led to the development of the Deccan traps.
localized source of lava that finds its way to
Geography
11 99
LAND FORMS
After weathering processes have had In the middle stages, streams cut their beds
their actions on the earth materials making slower, and lateral erosion of valley sides
up the surface of the earth, the geomorphic becomes severe. Gradually, the valley sides
agents like running water, ground water, are reduced to lower and lower slopes. The
wind, glaciers, waves perform erosion. divides between drainage basins are likewise
Erosion causes changes on the surface of the lowered until they are almost completely
earth. Deposition follows erosion and flattened leaving finally, a lowland of faint
because of deposition too, changes occur on relief with some low resistant remnants called
the surface of the earth. monad nocks standing out here and there.
A landmass passes through stages of This type of plain forming as a result of stream
development somewhat comparable to the erosion is called a peneplain (an almost plain).
stages of life- youth, mature and old age. The characteristics of each of the stages of
Running Water landscapes developing in running water
regimes may be summarized as follows:
In humid regions, which receive heavy
rainfall running water is considered the most Youth
important of the geomorphic agents in Streams are few during this stage with
bringing about the degradation of the land poor integration and flow over original
surface. There are two components of running slopes showing shallow V-shaped valleys
water. One is overland flow in general land with no floodplains or with very narrow
surface as a sheet. Another is linear flow as floodplains along trunk streams. Streams
streams and rivers in valleys. Most of the divides are broad and flat with marshes,
erosional landforms made by running water swamp and lakes. Meanders if present
are associated with vigorous and youthful develop over these broad upland surfaces.
rivers flowing along gradients. With time, These meanders may eventually entrench
stream channels over steep gradients turn themselves into the uplands. Waterfalls and
gentler due to continued erosion, and as a rapids may exist where local hard rock bodies
consequence, lose their velocity, facilitating are exposed.
active deposition. Mature
In the early stages, down-cutting During this stage streams are plenty
dominates during which irregularities such with good integration. The valleys are still
as waterfalls and cascades will be removed. V-shaped but deep; trunk streams are broad
100 Gist of NCERT (Geography)
enough to have wider floodplains within aided by the abrasion of rock fragments. Such
which streams may flow in meanders con- large and deep holes at the base of waterfalls
fined within the valley. The flat and broad are called plunge pools. These pools also help
inter stream areas and swamps and marshes in the deepening of valleys. Waterfalls are
of youth disappear and the stream divides also transitory like any other landform and
turn sharp. Waterfalls and rapids disappear. will recede gradually and bring the floor of
Old the valley above waterfalls to the level below.
Smaller tributaries during old age are Incised or Entrenched Meanders
few with gentle gradients. Streams meander But very deep and wide meanders
freely over vast floodplains showing natural found cut in hard rocks. Such meanders are
levees, oxbow lakes, etc. Divides are broad called incised or entrenched meanders.
and flat with lakes, swamps and marshes. River Terraces
Most of the landscape is at or slightly above
River terraces are surfaces marking old
sea level.
valley floor or floodplain levels. River
EROSIONAL LANDFORMS terraces are basically products of erosion as
Vallyes they result due to vertical erosion by the
Valleys start as small and narrow rills; stream into its own depositional floodplain.
the rills will gradually develop into long and DEPOSITIONAL LANDFORMS
wide gullies; the gullies will further deepen, Alluvial Fans
widen and lengthen to give rise to valleys.
Alluvial fans are formed when streams
Depending upon dimensions and shape,
flowing from higher levels break into foot
many types of valleys like V-shaped valley,
slope plains of low gradient. Alluvial fans in
gorge, canyon, etc. can be recognized. A
humid areas show normally low cones with
gorge is a deep valley with very steep to
gentle slope from head to toe and they appear
straight sides and a canyon is characterized
as high cones with steep slope in arid and
by steep step-like side slopes and may be as
semi-arid climates.
deep as a gorge. A gorge is almost equal in
width at its top as well as its bottom. In Deltas
contrast, a canyon is wider at its top than at Deltas are like alluvial fans but develop
its bottom. In fact, a canyon is a variant of at a different location. The load carried by
gorge. Valley types depend upon the type the rivers is dumped and spread into the sea.
and structure of rocks in which they form. It this load is not carried away far into the
For example, canyons commonly form in sea or distributed along the coast, it spreads
horizontal bedded sedimentary rocks and and accumulates as a low cone.
gorges form in hard rocks. Floodplains, Natural Levees and Point Bars
Potholes and Pluge Pools Floodplain is a major landform of river
Over the rocky beds of hill-streams deposition. The flood plains in a delta are
more or less circular depressions called called delta plains.
potholes form because of stream erosion Natural levees are found along the
Land Forms 101
banks of large rivers. They are low, linear islands of sand, gravel and pebbles develop
and parallel ridges of coarse deposits along on the floor of the channel and the water
the banks of rivers, quite often cut into flow is divided into multiple threads. These
individual mounds. During flooding as the thread-like streams of water rejoin and
water spills over the bank, the velocity of the subdivide repeatedly to give a typical braided
water comes down and large sized and high pattern.
specific gravity materials get dumped in the Groundwater
immediate vicinity of the bank as ridges. They
Here the interest is not on groundwater
are nearer the banks and slope gently away as a resource. Our focus is on the work of
from the river. The levee deposits are coarser
groundwater in the erosion of landmasses
than the deposits spread by flood waters and evolution of landforms. The surface
away from the river. When rivers shift
water percolates well when the rocks are
laterally, a series of natural levees can form. permeable, thinly bedded and highly jointed
Point bars are also known as meander and cracked. After vertically going down to
bars. They are found on the convex side of some depth, the water under the ground
meanders of large rivers and are sediments flows horizontally through the bedding
deposited in a linear fashion by flowing planes, joints or through the materials
waters along the bank. themselves. It is this downward and
Meanders horizontal movement of water which causes
In large flood and delta plains, rivers the rocks to erode. Physical or mechanical
rarely flow in straight courses. Loop-like removal of materials by moving groundwater
channel patterns called meanders develop is insignificant in developing landforms. That
over flood and delta plains. is why; the results of the work of
As meanders grow into deep loops, the groundwater cannot be seen in all types of
same may get cut-off due to erosion at the rocks. But in rocks like limestone or
inflection points and are left as ox-bow lakes. dolomites rich in calcium carbonate, the
Braided Channels: When rivers carry surface water as well as groundwater
coarse material, there can be selective through the chemical process of solution and
deposition of coarser materials causing precipitation deposition develop varieties of
formation of a central bar which diverts the landforms. These two processes of solution
flow towards the banks; and this flow and precipitation are active in limestone’s or
increases lateral erosion on the banks. As the dolomites occurring either exclusively or
valley widens, the water column is reduced inter-bedded with other rocks. Any
and more and more materials get deposited limestone or dolomite region showing typical
as islands and lateral bars developing a landforms produced by the action of
number of separate channels of water flow. groundwater through the processes of
Deposition and lateral erosion of banks are solution and deposition is called Karst
essential for the formation of braided pattern. topography after the typical topography
Or, alternatively, when discharge is less and developed in limestone rocks of Karst region
load is more in the valley, channel bars and in the Balkans adjacent to Adriatic sea.
102 Gist of NCERT (Geography)
Gangotri glacier. In fact, Alkapuri glacier glaciers cut head ward until their cirques
feeds waters to Alakananda river. Rivers meet, high, sharp pointed and steep sided
Alkananda and Bhagirathi join to make river peaks called horns form. The divides between
Ganga near Deoprayag. cirque side walls or head walls get narrow
Erosion by glaciers is tremendous because of progressive erosion and turn into
because of friction caused by sheer weight serrated or saw- toothed ridges sometimes
of the ice. The material plucked from the land referred to as arêtes with very sharp crest
by glaciers (usually large-sized angular and a zigzag outline.
blocks and fragments) get dragged along the Glacial Valleys/Troughs
floors or sides of the valleys and cause great Glaciated valleys are trough-like and U-
damage through abrasion and plucking. shaped with broad floors and relatively
Glaciers can cause significant damage to even smooth, and steep sides. The valleys may
un-weathered rocks and can reduce high contain littered debris or debris shaped as
mountains into low hills and plains. moraines with swampy appearance. There
As glaciers continue to move, debris may be lakes gouged out of rocky floor or
gets removed, divides get lowered and formed by debris within the valleys. There
eventually the slope is reduced to such an can be hanging valleys at an elevation on one
extent that glaciers will stop moving leaving or both sides of the main glacial valleys are
only a mass of low hills and vast outwash quite often truncated to give them an appear-
plains along with other depositional features. ance like triangular facets. Very deep glacial
The highest peak in the Alps, Matterhorn and troughs filled with sea water and making up
the highest peak in the Himalayas, Everest shorelines (in high latitudes) are called
are in fact horns formed through headword fjords/fiords.
erosion of radiating cirques. Depositional Landforms
Erosional Landforms The unasserted coarse and fine debris
Cirque: The cirques quite often are dropped by the melting glaciers is called
found at the heads of glacial valleys. The glacial till.
accumulated ice cuts these cirques while Moraines: They are long ridges of de-
moving down the mountain tops. They are posits of glacial till. Terminal moraines are
deep, long and wide troughs or basins with long ridges of debris deposited at the end
very steep concave to vertically dropping (toe) of the glaciers. Lateral moraines form
high walls at its head as well as sides. A lake along the sides parallel to the glacial valleys.
of water can be seen quite often within the The moraine in the centre of the glacial val-
cirques after the glacier disappears. Such ley flanked by lateral moraines is called me-
lakes are called cirque or tarn lakes. There dial moraine.
can be two or more cirques one leading into Eskers
another down below in a stepped sequence. When glaciers melt in summer, the water
Horns and Serrated Ridges flows on the surface of the ice or seeps down
Horns form through head ward erosion along the margins or even moves through
of the cirque walls. It three or more radiating holes in the ice. These waters accumulate
104 Gist of NCERT (Geography)
beneath the glacier and flow like streams in are accomplished by waves. When waves
a channel beneath the ice. Such streams flow break, the water is thrown with great force
over the ground (not in a valley cut in the onto the shore, and simultaneously, there is
ground) with ice forming its banks. Very a great churning of sediments on the sea
coarse materials like boulders and blocks bottom. Constant impact of breaking waves
along with some minor fractions of rock drastically affects the coasts. Storm waves
debris carried into this stream settle in the and tsunami waves can cause far-reaching
valley of ice beneath the glacier and after the changes in a short period of time than normal
ice melts can be found as a sinuous ridge breaking waves. As wave environment
called esker. changes, the intensity of the force of breaking
Outwash Plains waves changes.
The plains at the foot of the glacial Other than the action of waves, the
mountains or beyond the limits of continental coastal landforms depend upon (i) the
ice sheets are covered with glacio-fluvial configuration of land and sea floor; (ii)
deposits in the form of broad flat alluvial fans whether the coast is advancing (emerging)
which may join to form outwash plains of seaward or retreating (submerging)
gravel, silt, sand and clay. landward. Assuming sea level to be constant,
two types of coasts are considered to explain
Drumlins
the concept of coastal landforms: (i) high,
Drumlins are smooth oval shaped ridge- rocky coasts (submerged coasts); (ii) low,
like features composed mainly of glacial till smooth and gently sloping sedimentary
with some masses of gravel and sand. The coasts (emerged coasts).
long axes of drumlins are parallel to the
High Rocky Coasts
direction of ice movement. They may
measure up to 1 km in length and 30 m or so Along the high rocky coasts, the rivers
in height. One end of the drumlins facing the appear to have been drowned with highly
glacier called the stoss end is blunter and irregular coastline. The coastline appears
steeper than the other end called tail. The highly indented with extension of water into
drumlins form due to dumping of rock debris the land where glacial valleys (fjords) are
beneath heavily loaded ice through fissures present. The hill sides drop off sharply into
in the glacier. The stoss end gets blunted due the water. Shores do not show any
to pushing by moving ice. Drumlins give an depositional landforms initially. Erosion
indication of glacier movement. features dominate.
Waves and Currents Along with rocky coasts, waves break
with great force against the land shaping the
Coastal processes are the most dynamic hill sides into cliffs. With constant pounding
and hence most destructive. by waves, the cliffs recede leaving a wave-
Some of the changes along the coast take cut platform in front of the sea cliff. Waves
place very fast. At one place, there can be gradually minimize the irregularities along
erosion in one season and deposition in the shore. The materials which fall off, and
another. Most of the changes along the coast removed from the sea cliffs, gradually break
Land Forms 105
into smaller fragments and roll to roundness, Storm and tsunami waves cause drastic
will get deposited in the offshore. After a changes irrespective of supply of sediments.
considerable period of cliff development and Large rivers which bring lots of sediments
retreat when coastline turns somewhat build deltas along low sedimentary coasts.
smooth, with the addition of some more Erosional Landforms
material to this deposit in the offshore, a Cliffs, Terraces, Caves and Stacks
wave-built terrace would develop in front of
Wave-cut cliffs and terraces are two forms
wave-cut terrace. As the erosion along the
usually found where erosion is the dominant
coast takes place a good supply material shore process. Almost all sea cliffs are steep
becomes available to long shore currents and
and may range from a few m to 30 m or even
waves to deposit them as beaches along the more. At the foot of such cliffs there may be
shore and as bars (long ridges of sand and/
a flat or gently sloping platform covered by
or shingle parallel to the coast) in the near rock debris derived from the sea cliff behind.
shore zone. Bars are submerged features and Such platforms occurring at elevations above
when bars show up above water, they are
the average height of waves is called a wave-
called barrier bars. Barrier bar which get cut terrace. The lashing of waves against the
keyed up to the headland of a bay is called a
base of the cliff and the rock debris that gets
spit. When barrier bars and spits form at the smashed against the cliff along with lashing
mouth of a bay and block it, a lagoon forms.
waves create hollows and these hollows get
The lagoons would gradually get filled up
widened and deepened to form sea caves.
by sediments from the land giving rise to a The roofs of caves collapse and the sea cliffs
coastal plain.
recede further inland. Retreat of the cliff may
Low sedimentary coasts leave some remnants of rock standing
Along low sedimentary coasts the rivers isolated as small islands just off the shore.
appear to extend their length by building Such resistant masses of rock, originally parts
coastal plains and deltas. The coastline of a cliff or hill are called sea stacks. Like all
appears smooth with occasional incursions of other features, sea stacks are also temporary
water in the form of lagoons and tidal creeks. and eventually coastal hills and cliffs will
The land slopes gently into the water. disappear because of wave erosion giving rise
Marshes and swamps may abound along the to narrow coastal plains, and with onrush of
coasts. Depositional features dominate. deposits from over the land behind may get
When waves break over a gently sloping covered up by alluvium or may get covered
sedimentary coast, the bottom sediments get up by shingle or sand to form a wide beach.
churned and move readily building bars, Depositional landforms
barrier bars, spits and lagoons. Lagoons Beaches and Dunes
would eventually turn into a swamp which
would subsequently turn into a coastal plain. Beaches are characteristic of shorelines
The maintenance of these depositional that are dominated by deposition, but may
features depends upon the steady supply of occur as patches along even the rugged
materials. shores. Most of the sediment making up the
106 Gist of NCERT (Geography)
beaches comes from land carried by the lifting and removal of dust and smaller
streams and rivers or from wave erosion. particles from the surface of rocks. In the
Beaches are temporary features. The sandy transportation process sand and silt act as
beach which appears so permanent may be effective tools to abrade the land surface. The
reduced to a very narrow strip of coarse impact is simply sheer force of momentum
pebbles in some other season. Most of the which occurs when sand is blown into or
beaches are made up of sand sized materials. against a rock surface. It is similar to
Beaches called shingle beaches contain sandblasting operation. The wind action
excessively small pebbles and even cobbles. creates a number of interesting erosional and
Just behind the beach, the sands lifted depositional features in the deserts.
and winnowed from over the beach surfaces Erosional Landforms
will be deposited as sand dunes. Sand dunes Pediments and Pedi plains
forming long ridges parallel to the coastline
Landscape evolution in deserts is
are very common along low sedimentary
coasts. primarily concerned with the formation and
extension of pediments. Gently inclined rocky
Bars, Barriers and Spits
floors close to the mountains at their foot with
A ridge of sand and shingle formed in or without a thin cover of debris, are called
the sea in the off-shore zone (from the pediments. Such rocky floors from through
position of low tide waterline to seaward) the erosion of mountain front through a
lying approximately parallel to the coast is combination of lateral erosion by streams and
called an off-shore bar. An off-shore bar sheet flooding.
which is exposed due to further addition of Erosion starts along the steep margins
sand is termed a barrier bar. The off-shore of the landmass or the steep sides of the
bars and barriers commonly from across the tectonically controlled steep incision features
mouth of a river or at the entrance of a bay. over the landmass. Once, pediments are
Sometimes such bars get keyed up to one end formed with a steep wash slope followed by
of the bay when they are called spits. Spits cliff or free face above it, the steep wash slope
may also develop attached to headlands/hills. and free face retreat backwards. This method
The barriers, bars and spits at the mouth of of erosion is termed as parallel retreat of
the bay gradually extend leaving only a small slopes through back wasting.
opening of the bay into the sea and the bay
So, through parallel retreat of slopes, the
will eventually develop into a lagoon. The pediments extend backwards at the expense
lagoons get filled up gradually by sediment
of mountain front, and gradually, the
coming from the land or from the beach itself mountain gets reduced leaving an inselberg
(aided by wind) and a broad and wide
which is a remnant of the mountain. That’s
coastal plain may develop replacing a lagoon. how the high relief in desert areas is reduced
Winds to low featureless plains called Pedi plains.
Wind is one of the two dominant agents Playas: Plains are by far the most
in hot deserts. Winds cause deflation, prominent landforms in the deserts. In basins
abrasion and impact. Deflation includes with mountains and hills around and along,
Land Forms 107
the drainage’s towards the center of the basin transportation itself, the materials get sorted.
and due to gradual deposition of sediment When the wind slows or begins to die down,
from basin margins, a nearly level plain forms depending upon sizes of grains and their
at the centre of the basin. In times of sufficient critical velocities, the grains will begin to
water, this plain is covered up by a shallow settle.
water body. So, in depositional landforms made by
Such types of shallow lakes are called wind, good sorting of grains can be found.
as playas where water is retained only for Since wind is there everywhere and wherever
short duration due to evaporation and quite there is good source of sand and with
often the playas contain good deposition of constant wind directions, depositional
salts. The playa plain covered up by salts is features in arid regions can develop
called alkali flats. anywhere.
Deflation Hollows and Caves Sand Dunes
Weathered mantle from over the rocks Dry hot deserts are good places for sand
or bare soil, gets blown out by persistent dune formation. Obstacles to initiate dune
movement of wind currents in one direction. formation are equally important. There can
This process may create shallow depressions be a great variety of dune forms.
called deflation hollows. Deflation also cre- Barchans
ates numerous small pits or cavities over rock
Crescent shaped dunes called barchans
surfaces.
with the points or wings directed away from
The rock faces suffer impact and abra-
wind direction i.e., downwind, form where
sion of wind-borne sand and first shallow
the wind direction is constant and moderate
depressions called blow outs are created, and
and where the original surface over which
some of the blow outs become deeper and
sand is moving is almost uniform. Parabolic
wider fit to be called caves.
dunes form when sandy surfaces are partially
Many rock-outcrops in the deserts easily
covered with vegetation. That means
susceptible to wind deflation and abrasion
parabolic dunes are reversed barchans with
are worn out quickly leaving some remnants
wind direction being the same. Seif is similar
of resistant rocks polished beautifully in the
to barchans with a small differences. Seif has
shape of mushroom with a slender stalk and
only one wing or point. This happens when
a broad and rounded pear shaped cap above.
there is shift in wind conditions. The long
Sometimes, the top surface is broad like a
wings of seifs can grow very long and high.
table top and quite often, the remnants stand
Longitudinal dunes form when supply of sand
out like pedestals.
is poor and wind direction is constant. They
Depositional Landforms appear as long ridges of considerable length
Wind is a good sorting agent. but low in height. Transverse dunes are
Depending upon the velocity of wind, aligned perpendicular to wind direction.
different sizes of grains are moved along the These dunes form when the wind direction
floors by rolling or saltation and carried in is constant and the source of sand is an
suspension and in this process of elongated feature at right angles to the wind
108 Gist of NCERT (Geography)
direction. They may be very long and low in individual characteristics. Most of the dunes
height. When sand is plenty, quite often, the in the deserts shift and a few of them will
regular shaped dunes coalesce and lose their get stabilized especially near human
habitations.
GENERAL SCIENCE
For
Civil Services
Preliminary Examinations
ISBN: 9789381362327
Book Code: A11, ` 250
Geography
12 109
insolation from the sun and preserves the this layer decreases at the rate of 1°C for
earth’s radiated heat. It thus, acts like a blan- every 165m of height. This is the most
ket allowing the earth neither to become ‘too important layer for all biological activity.
cold nor too hot. Water vapour also contrib- The zone separating the tropsophere
utes to the stability and instability in the air. from stratosphere is known as the
Dust Particles: Atmosphere has a tropopause. The air temperature at the
sufficient capacity to keep small solid tropopause is about minus 80°C over the
particles, which may originate from different equator and about minus 45°C over the poles.
sources and include sea salts, fine soil, smoke- The temperature here is nearly constant, and
soot, ash, pollen, dust and disintegrated hence, it is called the tropopause. The strato-
particles of meteors. Dust particles are sphere is found above the tropopause and
generally concentrated in the lower layers of extends up to a height of 50 km. One impor-
the atmosphere; yet, convectional air currents tant feature of the stratosphere is that it con-
may transport them to great heights. The tains the ozone layer. This layer absorbs ul-
higher concentration of dust particles is found traviolet radiation and shields life on the earth
in subtropical and temperate regions due to from intense, harmful form of energy.
dry winds in comparison to equatorial and The mesosphere lies above the
polar regions. Dust and salt particles act as stratosphere, which extends up to a height-
hygroscopic nuclei around which water of 80 km. In this layer, once again,
vapour condenses to produce clouds. temperature starts decreasing with the
Structure of the Atmosphere increase in altitude and reaches up to minus
100°C at the height of 80 km. The upper limit
The atmosphere consists of different
of mesosphere is known as the mesopause.
layers with varying density and temperature.
The ionosphere is located between 80 and 400
Density is highest near the surface of the earth
km above the mesopause. It contains
and decreases with increasing altitude. The
electrically charged particles known as ions,
column of atmosphere is divided into five
and hence, it is known as ionosphere. Radio
different layers depending upon the
waves transmitted from the earth are
temperature condition. They are:
reflected back to the earth by this layer.
troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere,
Temperature here starts increasing with
ionosphere and exosphere.
height. The uppermost layer of the
The troposphere is the lowermost layer atmosphere above the ‘ionosphere is known
of the atmosphere. Its average height is 13
as the exosphere. This is the highest layer but
km and extends roughly to a height of 8 km very little is known about it. Whatever
near the poles and about 18 km at the equator. contents are there, these are extremely
Thickness of the troposphere is greatest at rarefied in this layer, and it gradually merges
the equator because heat is transported to with the outer space. Although all layers of
great heights by strong convectional currents. the atmosphere must be exercising influence
This layer contains dust particles and water on us, geographers are concerned with the
vapour. All changes in climate and weather first two layers of the atmosphere.
take place in this layer. The temperature in
Composition and Structure of Atmosphere 111