Book 1

Module 12

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B1.3B1.4 EASA66 12.1 ISSUE
3 104
HELICOPT
ER
THEORY
OF FLIGHT

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Post

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results always use latest
issue number

Licence By Post © Copyright

B1.3B1.4 EASA66 12.1 ISSUE
3 104
.Book 1 Module 12

HELICOPTER THEORY OF FLIGHT

Licence By Post

For best examination results always use latest issue number.

© Licence By Post
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 Mar 03 May 04 Dec 06
LBP

Addendum action prior to book amendment in response to student feedback

after taking the CAA examinations. EASA part 66 module 12. THEORY OF
FLIGHT

Drag - not listed in the module 12 syllabus but questions are being asked in
tJie CAA examinations. The total drag of a body in motion through the air can
be divided into several component parts (all related to the density of air), these
are:

Induced Drag. Caused by the high pressure air under the rotor blade or wing
spilling over the tip to move into the low pressure region above. Is proportional
to the inverse of the square of speed - so the faster the blade (or wing of a fixed
wing aircraft) is moving the less the drag becomes (less time for the air to spill
over the tip).

Profile Drag. Is proportional to the square of speed (the faster the body moves
the greater the drag). Is related to the shape of the body, its frontal area and
surface smoothness. Can be divided into Skin Friction Drag and Form Drag.
The rotor blades and the helicopter fuselage suffer from Profile Dr^g.
Skin^Frictijm Drag. Is part of ^ofile_drag^nd is related to^iepSurfecfe
smoothnsss of a body. All surfaces suffenfr^m skin friction. \\

jafj
a helicop'ter, parasite drag comes [fromJ±Le fuselage. In forward flight tends to

Form Drag. That part of Profile Drag minus Skin Friction Drag. ParasitleDrag.
Is defined as drag from all/non lifting parts o: an airci

t So for
lower the nose of the helicopterj

Interference Drag. An old term describing; drag caused by airfk of the aircraft
interfering with airflow over ^another - at the connection of the wing to tie
fuselk^e on a fixed wing aircraft,;for example.

over one part

//

Transient and Static Droop - Helicopter Blades

(i)
In flight, when the pilot pulls the collective lever up the pitch of all the main
rotor blades increase together. This causes increased drag on the blades with
a momentary reduction in rotor rpm - despite the automatic increase in engine
power. This momentaiy reduction in rpm is called Transient Droop. After a
short time lag automatic engine governing will tend to increase the rpm to
stabilise the rotor rpm value which will be higher than the transient droop
figure but lower than the value before the collective was applied

l r

PROFILE INDUCED

PARASITE FORM
SKIN INTERFERENCE
FRICTION

(2)
.

This new value is called Static

Droop. The difference between the
stabilised
static droop value and the
transient droop value is called
Underswing.
***

A helicopter rigid rotor will flap

and feather as normal and the
lead/lag is
catered for by the flexing of the
blades (in plan view).
***

The vortex ring state requires

some engine power to be on
during a descent with little or
no forward speed.
***

A friction lock is provided on

some helicopter cyclic controls
so the pilot can lock the cyclic
stick in a certain position. It is
a screw thread pilot operated
adjuster at the base of the
stick.
***

The tail rotor yaw pedal system

will often have a damper in the
system (eg, hydraulic dash-pot)
to prevent the pilot from
operating the pedals too quickly
and putting too much stress into
the tail section of the aircraft.
*****

NOT]Er~It is possible that

sorr^T2fi±i<e~HbQye statements
n^mot-be^oo meanihgful when
read out of cqntjextrso^itNis
suggested that the~appropriate
book/subject be read first then
the information above can be
checked against that tdpi'c. M
1) I

JCONTENTS

Definitions
Helicopter configuration
Principles of flight Blades Pitch
angle Plane of rotation Coning
angle The BERP blade Lift and
thrust The tail rotor Tail
tatordkift Tail rotor roll Tail rot
or control The NCITAR system
Main rotor system Main rbtor
blades pitch change Flapping
Dragging ^
Hookes joint effect Coriolii
effect / / Dissymmetiy^of ]pft
Groi
Loss of tail rotor effectiveness
The "four forces" Flying the
helicopter Ground resonance
Vortex ring state Stability
Limits to forward speed
Stabilisers Synch elevators Blade
sailing Ceiling heights Centre of
gravity Auto-rotatio
 nHOW TO TACKLE THIS BOOK

It would be a good idea to have studied the book in this series on Basic
Aerodynamics module 8 before tackling this book.

Much of this book is straight forward and should not take the reader too long to
study, however, it might be a good idea to read the whole book through once and
then to go back to those more difficult parts.
There are 19 books in this module~t2~serie^.

1
//
J»
t ofclefinitions has been^ncludedjox reference purp^

Details of scientists have been ipcjluded for jbnterest only an<

be
committed to memoiy.
 iDEFINITIONS

This section is primarily intended as a reference section. Should a term or

phrase appear in the text that you are unsure of then you can refer to
these pages for details.

Advancing blade

The blade in that side of the rotor disc where movement is in the same direction
as the movement of the helicopter. If the helicopter is moving forward, the
advancing blade will be in the right half of the rotor disc if the rotor is rotating
anti-clockwise.

Aerofoil
Any surface designed to obtain lift (or a force) from the air through which it
moves. May be symmetrical - as in some fixed wing aircraft and most helicopter
blades or asymmetrical - as in most fixed wing aircraft.

Angle

The anjgle between the blade chpra line 'the relative airfl

Anti-torque pedals

pter pilot tp control the pi :cJi of the tail

rotor allow the pilot to control movement
(yaw) of
kPbi
attack
The foot pedals used by the heli

! n
of a single rotor helicopter. These
the helicopter about the vertical axis.

J^ 1
I
r
The ratio of the length of a helicopter blade (span) to the width (chord). The
aspect ratio of a tapered blade is found by dividing the square of the blade's
span by its total area.

-1-
Autorotation j

Descent of the helicopter with the power off. Air flowing upwards through the
main rotor blades causes them to rotate - in their normal direction. Pilot will
control helicopter's rather fast rate of descent and use blade's stored up kinetic
energy to, just before touch-down, apply collective arid flare-out to a
(hopefully), gentle touch-down.

Axis of rotation

The line through the rotor head at right angles to the plane of rotation. The
blades rotate around this axis

-2-
.
Blade angle

The angle between the chord line and the plane of rotation. This angle may be
altered by the pilot through movement of the collective and cyclic control levers.
Also known as Pitch Angle.

Blade area

The total area of all the rotor blades on the helicopter. Blade area is a constant
for each helicopter.

Blade damper

A damping device (spring, friction, or hydraulic) installed on the vertical (lead-

lag, or drag) hinge to diminish or dampen blade oscillation (hunting) around the
drag hinge.

Blade loading
I; ... " ~.. : ' *"
— f ----------------- ________________ I ^ _______________ \

The load! on the rotor blades, determined: by dividing the grojssj weight of the
helicopter by the blade area. Expressed as kg/m2. Since blajiej are is;constant
Blade Loading is governed by aircraft mass and flight (g) loads'.

Centre of gravity .... ........ /

An imaginary point where the total mass of a body is said to act. Is three
dimensional but for aircraft purposes the longitudinal location is most
importjant. ^ , : ^ •i
r* ' "" / r"' ' \J S
Centre of pressure — -- ------

An imaginary point on the chord line through which the resultant of all
aerodynamic forces on an aerofoil is said to act.

Centrifugal force j

Equal and opposite to centripetal force. It acts outwards from the centre of a
curved path that an object is following.

Centripetal force

The force (in actual fact an acceleration) required to make a body follow a curved
path. It acts towards the centre of the curve.

Chord line
An imaginary straight line between an aerofoil's trailing edge and the centre of
curvature of the leading edge.

Coefficient of lift Cl

A dimensionless number representing the lifting ability of an airfoil. It is

determined mainly by the aerofoil's shape and angle of attack and is calculated
from experiments.

Collective pitch control

The control of the pitch of all rotor blades equally and simultaneously. The
collective pitch control lever, placed to the side of the pilot's seat, is moved up
(climb), down (descend) or held steady (hover) to control total rotor thrust.

Coning angle

The angle between the blade's feathering axis and the plane of rotation or tip
path plane.

a^e or cfec ase its angular en its

djency of a mass to , respectively.
incre
of rotation is shortened or

Coriolis effect

pitch control

The te radius

Cyclic

Changes the pitch angle of the rotor bladesMndividually during-a-4^vblution to

control the tilt of the rotor disc, and therefore, the direction and velocity of
horizomt^d flight ./Cyclic pitch control is via) fcjre/aft/left/right movements of
the cyclic ^tick positioned in front ojf the pilot/4 seat between hid/her knees.

Disc5*rea—-----J -------^ ^

The area of the tip path plane which is swept by the rotor blades. The tip path is
a circle with its centre at the hub. The coning angle influences the disc area.

Disc loading

The gross weight of the helicopter divided by the disc area, expressed as kg/m 2.
Since the disc area is not constant in flight, disc loading is also not constant.
Dissymmetry of lift

The unequal lift (thrust) across the rotor disc resulting from the difference in the
velocity of air over the advancing blade and retreating blade of the rotor.

Drag coefficient Cd
A dimensionless number which represents the drag characteristics of a body.
The drag coefficient of an airfoil is determined mainly by its shape and angle of
attack. Like the coefficient of lift it is determined by experimentation.

Feathering

The movement of the blade about its feathering axis (which results in pitch angle
changes).

Feathering axis

An imaginary straight line from the root of the blade to the tip about which the
blade alters it's pitch (or blade) angle. It passes through the centre of the
feathering hinge.

Fineness ratio

The thickness of an aerofoil at its thickest section as a percentage of its chord

length at that section.

Flare

The final nose up pitch of the helicopter during landing to; reduce "the rate of
descerit to nearly zero just befote ftouch-down. |[^\
M mu i i .1 j
Flapping :

Vertical movement of a blade relative to the plane of rotation. When rotating the
blades will "flap to-equilibrium" so that lift and centrifugal forces balance and
thje blade will achieve a certain coning angle.
| , /, ■ : j , Flapping hinge !i

The hinge withes axis parallel to^the^otor plane of rotatidn-whibh permits the
rotor blades to flap up and down to equalize lift (or rotor thrust) between the
advancing blade half and retreating blade half of the rotor disc. Stops are fitted to
limit the amount of flap-up or flap-down.

Freewheeling unit

A component part of the transmission or power train which automatically

disconnects the main rotor from the engine when the engine stops or slows below
the equivalent of rotor rpm.

Fully articulated rotor

Common for most rotors with more than two blades, it allows the blades to flap,
feather and lead/lag (drag or hunt), usually through hinges or bearings.

Ground effect
 A gain in lift when operating near the ground or landing platform. Caused by
the rotor downwash being altered from its free air state and causes additional
lift to be created.

Gyroscopic precession

A characteristic of all rotating bodies. When a force is applied to a rotating body

parallel to its axis of rotation, the rotating body will tilt in the direction of the
applied force 90° later in the plane of rotation.

Hovering in ground effect

Hovering close to the ground (usually less than one rotor diameter distance) so
that ground effect is felt.

Hunting

The tendency of a blade to oscillate (or liunt7) ahead of or behind a position

which would be determined by centrifugal force alone. -

Induced flow

The £ass3>f air forced down tJy.rotor action. Most of the iiid.uced^Sow. passes
through the rotor disc.. ^\ \

An imaginary straight line passingjthraugh^ the centre of

to, gra running left to right of, thb longitudinal axis. The
anc he
nose-
u

Lateral axis

vity-at-right angles icepterpitches

p 'and noserdown about tlhils axis. May be known as Pitch Axis.

Lead-lag

e plane of rotatiorir^fceaa-lag is
//
(dragging)

Movement of a blade forward

facilitated by a lead-lag (or drag) hinge in the rotor system or through rubberlike
bearings that allow individual rotor blades to move back and forth in their plane
of rotation. This helps "balance" the blade system and reduces vibration. The
drag brace or drag damper resists the movement of the blade around its lead-lag
hinge on a semi-rigid rotor system.

Longitudinal axis

An imaginary straight line that passes through the centre of gravity from the
nose of the helicopter to the tail about which the aircraft rolls left or right. May
also be known as the Roll Axis.

LTE
Loss of Tail rotor Effectiveness. May occur at low speeds on any tail rotor yaw
control helicopter where there is a side wind and the vortex generated by the
main blade tips interfere with the effectiveness of the tail rotor and an un-
commanded yaw results.

Normal axis

An imaginary straight line passing through the centre of gravity at right angles to
the lateral and longitudinal axes. The helicopter yaws around this axis. May also
known as the Yaw Axis or Vertical Axis.

Phase lag

Caused by gyroscopic precession. When a control input into the blade pitch is not
realised by the blade until 90° later (in the direction of rotation). So flapping
occurs 90° after the pitch has been changed.

Pitch angle

See blade angle

Pitching
Movemen^of the helicopter atiout its lateral (or pitch) axis; Fo;rwardxand aft
movement of the cyclic control causes t h e riose of the helicojrt^r to mo^e down or
up respectively. The controls jare said t o tje Instinctive, i j j j

Relative; airflow

The actual airflow approaching the blade. The relative airflow is-dependent on a
number of component flows, egiinduced flow, flow due to rotor movement etc. ! ■ i
' 1 ' i ; Retreatihg blade
/ t Z L — — f " ^
The blade that is moving rearwards. Itsrelative airflow airspeed at any one part of
the blade will be the blade's airspeed minus the helicopter's airspeed.

Retreating blade stall

The stalled condition of the retreating blade when it operates beyond its critical
(stall) angle. The condition is generally (but not only) associated with high speed
flight.

Rigid rotor

A rotor system with blades fixed to the hub in such a way that they can feather
but cannot flap or lead-lag (drag). Lead-lag and flapping stresses are absorbed
either within the blades, in rubber-like bearings at the hub, or flexible
connections to the hub.

Rotor brake

A brake that is engaged to stop the rotation of the rotor blades when the
engine is shut down on the ground. Usually manually operated from the
cockpit.
 Semi-rigid rotor

A rotor system in which the blades are fixed to the hub, generally by a teetering
(see-saw) hinge, allowing blades to flap and feather but not to lead-lag (drag).

Shaft axis

The centre line of the rotor shaft (mast). When the plane of rotation is
perpendicular to the shaft axis the axis of rotation will be coincide with the shaft
axis.

Solidity

The ratio of total blade area (in plane view) to disc area. Solidity is a function of
the blade's ability to absorb power from the engine and provide rotor thrust.

Standard atmosphere

Also Sown as the Internationlal Stand^^Atmosphere (ISAl and taSfen

change to be: the air is a
in altitude.

/ I
temperature gradient is approximately I.987C per 1000-foot

plane /
Tip path
\
The circular pathrde scribed by the tips of the rotor blades
.
Tip path

rall<
The plane within which the tips of rotor "blades travel. It is parallel to the plane
of rotation, which acts through the rotor head. The pilot may alter this plane
through movement of the cyclic control.

Tip speed

The speed of the blade tip. A function of rotor rpm and blade length. Torque
The moment of a force or combination of forces that tends to resist rotational
motion. Measured in Nm (Newton metres).

Transient droop

When the pilot increases the collective control the main rotor rpm decreases
momentarily and the blades droop. As automatic power compensation kicks in
so rpm is restored to a new value higher than the transient value but lower
than the value before the collective was applied. The blades now take up a new
position called Static Droop
.

The difference between the Transient Droop position and the Static droop
position is called Underswing.

Transition

A change from hover to translational flight and vice versa. Translational flight

Any flight direction other than vertical. Controlled by the cyclic pitch lever.

Translational lift
The additional lift (or rotor thrust) obtained through airspeed because of
increased efficiency of the rotor system, whether it be when transitioning from a
hover to forward flight or when hovering in a wind.

Wash-out
The decrease of the blade angle !from root, to tip (wash-in is qpposite)x. Resigned
into thp blade, this "twist" reduces the local langle of attack to reduce^ tlje
amount of lift produced. Wash-out reduces the lift along the; blade to'ensure an
even, or controlled, lift distribution along the blade length.

Yaw H * ' ---------'

i•
: i Movement of the aircraft around its normal (or
vertical) axis.
J i....../ , i_______- /- /L
R_______J R_______R H

HELICOPTER CONFIGURATION

Helicopters can be divided into two broad groups:

\
(a) Those having a single main rotor.
(b) Those having more than one main rotor.

Single Main Rotor

This is the most common configuration. Since there is only one main rotor the j.
fuselage will experience a torque reaction (with some exceptions explained |
later). |
 QUESTION: What is meant by the term 'torque reaction? (5 mins). j
ANSWER: It is similar to Newton's third law that states that every action has an
equal and opposite reaction. When something is turned in one
direction (the rotor blades), the thing doing the turning will want to
turn in the opposite direction. So the torque to turn the blades
causes a torque reaction on the engine and airframe to try to turn
them in the opposite direction.

If there was nothing to stop the fuselage it would continuously

rotate in the opposite direction to the rotor head.

The conventional means by which torque reaction is overcome is through the

use of a small tail rotor mounted in the vertical plane at the end of the fuselage.
Its distance aft being sufficient to give it:

(a) Clearance from the main rotor downwash, and

(b) Sufficient moment arm (d) which is the distance from the centre of
the tail rotor to ttteccentre ol
force (f) providess erioiligh tdhrute (f x d) to be
abl torque of eno the main rotor head. It is
dependant c)n the blades of the tail rotor an'd
its rpm.

e main rotor dtive shaft^o that it's

angle of
ble tfo^oiinteract the
the pitscb

The NOTAR (No Tail Rotor) system is an alternative method ofLproducihg the
torque cancelling thrust. This us^s a vaHable thruster nozzlje :kcing^ideways
njd of thelailboom (or along the ta!ilbpom). Some heliccpters have main 3 iets
thai/reduce to need for a tail rotor.

h
These helicopters, having more than one main rotor, may have various
configurations. The most common of these is the "contra-rotating tandem"
layout. This consists of a fuselage with a main rotor head mounted horizontally
at each end, and rotating in opposite directions.

- 12 -
 One advantage of this type Lf configuration is that the torque reaction of one
rotor is cancelled by the other as they rotate in opposite directions - so no need
for separate torque reaction systems.

Another important advantage is that there is a larger permissible aircraft . C of

G range than there would be with a comparable single rotor configuration.

With a single main rotor the range of the longitudinal "C" of G position is
limited to a small range either side of the main rotor drive shaft
.

Torque-less Single Rotor

With this type of helicopter the main rotor is driven by jet reaction as a result of
exhausting gases rearwards from each rotor blade tip.

No torque reaction is produced and, therefore, there is no need for torque

reaction systems. Directional control is achieved by the use of a "rudder"
placed in the downwash of the main rotor.

at the e:
rotor tip
jjets

1M,
i Main Rotoi

Fig. 1 SINGLE MAIN ROTOR - WESTLAND

o
 L Fig. 2 TORQUELESS SINGLE ROTOR - SUD-AVIATION
r

oo

TT--------
Fig. 3 TANDEM ROTORS - BOEIN
G

Fig. 4 CO-AXIAL CONTRA-ROTATING ROTORS - KAMOV

Co-axial Contra-rotating Rotors

This configuration consists of two contra-rotating rotors mounted one

jmpare
d turn.

above the other. The torque reaction of one cancelling the opposing torque
of the other. i i------------

Directibiial control is achieved by using differential pitch of or.e roto^ to the

other, thereby causing an unbalanced torque and the
fuselage

FLIGHT

The helicopter obtains it's lift by rjotating tihej main rotor blades which are
aerofoils and produce lift (and c.rs.g) in exactly the same wai as the wings of
a fixed vfing aircraft. With an increase in the collective pitch thel angle of all
the
.^ing aircfaft. With an increase injthe blades (Angle of Attack) will
increase ancUnore lift will be produced. When the total lift exceeds the weight
of the helicopter it will ascend. If the lift vector is kept vertical the helicopter
will lift vertically. If the lift vector is tilted the helicopter will move sideways in
the direction of the tilt.

QUESTION: Describe Angle of Attack (5 mins).

- 14 -
ANSWER: It is the angle the chord line of the blade makes with the relative
airflow. The chord line being an imaginary straight line from the
trailing edge of the blade to the centre of curvature of the leading
edge.

Note. The word "lift" is often substituted for the word "thrust". They are
interchangeable when talking about main rotor blades
 .Blade Aerofoil Section

Usually of symmetrical cross-section which offers two main advantages:

(a) The centre of pressure does not move so much compared with
other aerofoil sections with a change in angle of attack.

(b) They tend to provide a more constant lift/ drag ratio along the
length of the blade.

Twisted and Tapered Blades

As the blade rotates so each part rotates at the same angular velocity - but the
tip moves at a faster linear speed than the root, so it's airspeed is considerably
greater.

Since lift produced is proportional to the square of speed (V 2) it follows that the
lift wal| increase along the length of the biade towards the 'tip.____
if
This stjatie of affairs would give an; unequal lift distribution as bhownj below
and would significantly increase the bending moment from root to !tip. ' 1

The designer may overcome this problem by twisting the blades, so- the angle
reduces from the root to the tip (called washout), or making; the blades tapered
J r
[1_

! L
/ TIP TAPERED BLADE / ROOT

\ \

PITCH ANGLE

CHANGE -WASHOUT

Fig. 5 BLADE WITH REDUCING CHORD LENGTH TOWARDS THE TIP

& BLADE WITH WASHOUT
1
i

- 16 -
 LIFT CURVE WITH
CONSTANT PITCH \ NO TAPER BLADE LIFT

LIFT CURVE WITH

WASHOUT AND/OR
TAPER BLADE

HUB

BLADE

oJ

Fig. 6 LIFT DISTRIBUTION

CHORD
LINE

PLANE OF
FIOTATICIN

ROTORHUB

//
. 7 PITCH/ANGLE

tL
h Pitch Angle

The pitch
angle of the
rotor blade
is the angle
between the
chord line of
the blade
and the
plane of
rotation.
The pitch angle
is variablL and
controlled.by
the pilot
through the
flying control
system
(collective and
cyclic controls).

Plane of Rotation

Defined as the
plane in which a
body rotates, and
for a helicopter is
the plane of
rotation of the
blade root ends. -
- —
•
CENTRE OF LIFT

Fig. 8 PLANE OF ROTATION

Tip Path Plane

The tip path plane of the rotor is the plane in which the tips of the rotor blades
rotate.
In flight, the tips of the blades cone upwards above the plane of rotation. It
follows^that the tip path plane~and"pian^of rotation will b£ paraHel-but not co-
planari C \T\\• "i j \ \

TIP PATH PLANE

)L
Fig. 9 TIP PATH PLANE

Disc Area

The area swept by the blade tips is called the disc area. It is a circle with the hub
at the centre and as the coning angle increase^ so the disc area gets smaller.

Coning angle

When lift is produced the blades of the main rotor "cone up" forming a shallow
cone. The precise position of each blade with respect to the plane of rotation is.
dependent upon the forces acting on it. These forces are:

Lift.
* Weight.
* Drag.
* Centrifugal.

i
- 19 -
 *
. Since the drag force does not influence the "coned" positioned of the blades,
and the weight of each blade, as well as being small compared to lift and
centrifugal force is also constant, it follows that lift and centrifugal force
determine the actual angle the blades adopt.

Coning angle - a = angle between blade and tip path plane.

The blade is free to "flap" up or down within limits on it's flapping hinge, and
since centrifugal force tries to hold the blade in the plane of rotation, and the
lift force tries to pull the blade up, the final position adopted by the blade is
along the resultant of the lift and centrifugal force vectors.

BLADE TOTAL
THRUST
RESULTANT OF BLADE
THRUST & CENTRIFUGAL FORCE

In general the smaller the coning angle the better, ie the less flapping up the
better. With large coning angles the actual direction of lift is inwards towards
the centre of the disc and ideally it should be vertical (opposite to weight).

Designs to Reduce Flapping Amplitude

Heavier blades. A heavier blade will reduce the coning angle and increase the
inertia of the blade. In high inertia blades masses are added inside the blade
tips.

High inertia blades have a reduced coning angle; provide a more constant
rpm - smooth out power fluctuations from the engine/s, reduce the power
requirement once the blades are -up to speed and provide for arr easier flare.

Low inertia blades provide for quicker disc change attitudes and quicker
accelerations from start to operating rpm.

- 20 -
 Delta 3 Hinge. This is a flapping hinge where the hinge line is set at an angle to th
direction of blade travel. With a normal hinge the hinge itself has no effect on the
pitch angle of the blade. A delta 3 hinge, on the other hand, causes the blade pitch
angle to decrease on flap-up and increase on flap-down. Referring to the drawing -
if the blade flaps up out of the page towards the reader the trailing edge is caused
to rise further than the leading edge, so reducing the blade pitch angle and
consequently reducing the angle of attack and reducing lift. This helps reduce the
total amount of flap-up.

The delta 3 hinge is also found in tail rotor designs.

QZ
LEADING EDGE
HUB DELTA 3 HINGE

ir
\ \
NORMAL
TRAILING EDGE
FLAPPING ------
f
HINGE
Fig. li DELTA 3 HING
E

Offset Pitch Horn. This is a horn feed-to, and projecting forward of, the leading
edge of the blade and connected to the control swashplate. WherTfhe blade flaps
up this acts as a control to reduce the blade pitch, angle.

Factors Effecting Lift

_J
The amount of lift/thrust each blade will produce will depend on its design and
the following parameters:

* Air density.
* Rotor rpm.
* Blade pitch angle.
'* Disc area.

Air Density. Lift is calculated from the formula:

Lift = Cl y2 p V2 S

Where CL = - . A coefficient lift relating to blade design

- 21 -
 and angle of attack.

p = Air density. About 1.2kg/m3 at sea level but decreases with height and is
reduced by low atmospheric pressure, hot and humid conditions
.

V = Velocity. Related to rotor rpm. Note that it is

squared which means with an increase in
V, lift is increased significantly eg double V
and lift increases by four times.

S = Blade surface area.

Rotor rpm. The faster the blades rotate, for any given positive angle of attack,
the greater the amount of lift generated.

- 22 -
 [ 1 E
■I

I— E

r1
ngle
to|
effect
f
Ahe E
Aing :

P
icing
[

c
c |
t i
[

{mg e

c
c.
Blade Pitch Angle. With an increase in pitch angle, and subsequent increase in
angle of attack, the amount of lift will increase.

r
eight leads to an edd to a decreased

As the blpde lies along te

angle is sometimes J blade
centrifugal force and the tip pat|h plane or plane of Ld
rotation.
The magnitude of the centrifugal orcej^ dependent on the ma.ss of the
blade - 23 -
Disc Area. The larger the area the greater the amount of lift generated.

Conclusions
and rojior rpm. In practice rpm : s constant ^within defined li^ni£s_as4s/the
mass of the blade. Lift then becomes mamVariable force governmg-fehe coning
angle. Hence when hovering, ari increase in aircraft all up w increased! coning
angle and a decrease in ^lljup weight will coningj angle.

Rotor
stationary
blades
Normal rpm. Increased pitch angle.droop.
WEIGHT
Lift greater than weight. Aircraft
rises. When lift equals weight
aircraft hovers. LIF
T

c! I
HUB
Normal blade rpm, low pitch

'f angle. Weight greater than lift.

Aircraft stays on ground.

c
I
t! t
c(
l!
Fig. 12 BLADE CONING ANGLE

- 24 -
S
Lift and Drag

The blade acts much like a fixed wing aerofoil in that it produces lift by the
production of a negative pressure on the top surface of the blade and a positive ;
pressure on the bottom surface. With an asymmetric aerofoil lift can be
generated at zero angle of attack but with a symmetrical aerofoil it will have to
have a small angle of attack to produce any lift. It also produces drag - profile
drag for the blade itself and induced drag at the tips.

Blade Tips

Because each section of blade travels faster the nearer it is to the tip so at the
tip, speeds can become high - particularly when considering the advancing blade
(the blade moving into the airflow as the helicopter flies forward). The : airspeed
of the advancing blade is its own airspeed plus the airspeed of the helicopter.

Blade, loading (lift) is high at the tips and solutions are being investigated to
design! a (better tip than the conventional\square type. j | \

! i U . N ! ! n
The BERP Blade
The end jof the advancing blade can reach speeds close to the speed-of sound. To
reduce the onset of MCRIT the tips are designed with a swept back leading edge .
Tlie tip also has a forward extension section to increase dynamic stability and the
design reduces vortex separation and delays tip stall.
J -— / J <--------/ j v_
r— , — / r-^
i___________I L_________1______________________ i

FORWARD EXTENSION FOR DYNAMIC BALANCE

Fig. 13 THE BERP BLADE

i
- 25 -
 The theory behind sweepback (this applies to fixed winged aircraft as well) is
that it is the component of the airflow that flows along the chord of the blade
section (V cos a) which is responsible for causing the shock wave (figure 12).

The greater the sweepback angle (a) the shorter V cos a gets.
Relative air velocity.

cos =

a
The ratio of the adjacent side of the angle (a) to the hypotenuse side of a
right angle triangle. Alpha the angle in question
.

Centrifugal Twisting Moment

This is the tendency of the rotating blade to "fine off' or "throw off pitch" due to
the mass in front of and behind the axis about which the pitch changes occur.
This loads the collective controls into fine pitch and, dependent on the

the control system mighi: be bia^ek either hydr aulijca

Uyor" as unit.

helicopter system design, may be compensated for by centrifugal force using

Pitcli-Morafent Compensators. ^her43ij^Tmoment compendafo^5hro^v;s on"
pitch, or
spring
/
LIFT AND THRUST

When ih^ rotor isyotated the aerofoil section of the blades arq caused to rotate
through the air producing airflow over thel biades.
j \ y[ j JJ
During the-initisyl stage the pi^eh aFthermp:des, and hencer-me^igles of
attack, are slet at some small angle in order thafthe rpm increases - and hence
lift and thrust increases. The total lift force generated by the blades will, never-
the- less, remain smaller than the mass of the aircraft.

When the rpm has reached the necessary value the collective lever is pulled
up, collective pitch is increased, the angle of attack of all blades increases and
lift (and drag) will increase. This continues until the lifting force exceeds the
mass of the aircraft and it will rise into the air. As long as the total reaction of
the main rotor blades is allowed to exceed the mass the helicopter it will
continue to rise.

A suitable change in pitch can make the lifting force equal the mass and cause
the helicopter to hover.

The sequence evolved so far has assumed that each rotor blade is developing
equal lift and that the distribution of the lift is the same for each blade. This
ensures that the total reaction from the rotor head is from the centre of the
cone formed by the blades and at right angles to it

- 26 -
 TOTAL
REACTI
ON

Fig. 14 DISC CONTROL

The magnitude of the total reaction is governed by the collective pitch setting of
the main rotor blades, which in; turn is controlled by the collective pitch lever,
Thus Vertical ascent is achieved by pulling up on the collective pitch lever and
descent by pushing it down. j ^
!___1_/
Unlike fixed wing aircraft the helicopter provides forward thrust by the same
system that provides the lift - the main rotor (for most helicopters).

Forward thrust (or backwards or sideways thrust) is achieved by tilting the main
rotor out of the horizontal plane - forward to go forward - backwards to go
backwards - and sideways to go sideways. j

When the rotor is tilted the total reaction remains at right angles to the cone
and therefore tilts away from the vertical position as shown. This tilting of the
main rotor is achieved by the application of cyclic pitch changes through the
control column.

Considering the. vectors associated with, the tilting of the rotor, the total
reaction vector can be divided (mathematically or by drawing - as shown) into it's
vertical and horizontal components. The vertical component supporting the

-27 -
aircraft mass and the horizontal component causing it to move in a horizontal
direction. This horizontal component provides the Propulsive Force or Thrust.

i
- 28 -
 Using the cyclic control allows the main rotor to be tilted in any direction with
respect to the fuselage, allowing the thrust force to act in any direction. Thus
the pilot can cause the helicopter to move to port, starboard, forwards,
backwards, or what-ever direction he/she chooses.

THRUST

//
Tilt of total reaction governed by cyclic pitch
Fig. 15 LIFT & THRUST VECTORS

I fl
The plane that the tips produce
cone. The .s a
ofl the invented
cone generajt disc and is
alty referred jio as such.

and the blades form an invertpd rated by tlie/rotating blades Ifoirr

d
The total reaction acts from the centre of the disc and is at right angles to it
with collective pitch governing the magnitude or the total reaction and cyclic
pitch controlling the attitude of the disc and therefore the direction of the total
reaction.

i
- 29 -
DIS
C

CONE AXIS
(Axis of
rotation)
Fig. 16 ROTOR DISC
ROVO

i
- 30 -
 RTHE TAIL ROTOR

The fuselage of a conventionally driven single main rotor helicopter experiences

Torque Reaction. This is the reaction that the engine puts onto the fuselage to
try to rotate it in the opposite direction to the rotation of the main rotor blades.

To prevent this a tail rotor is fitted to provide thrust and input an opposite
moment on the fuselage. However, the torque reaction is not constant and
changes with:

Collective pitch change,

rpm change.

Because of this, and to provide directional control, it is necessary to be able to

vaiy the compensating thrust from the tail rotof.

The thrust of the tail rotor is varied by changing the pitch setting of all the tail
rotor blades through the control system linked to the tail rotor pitch control
foot pedals1 (yaw pedals). L '
f \r \ | ;........\
!1
'I \ ■ !i\\
When tail rotor thrust is balancing torque, reaction, it follows that any
decrease of pitcii applied to the tail rotor will result 1 in the torque reaction
overcoming tail rotor thrust, thereby causing the helicopter to yaw in one
direction. Conversely, an increase in tail rotor thrust will result in a yaw in the
opposite direction. - -----

Fig. 17 EFFECT OF YAW PEDAL OPERATION

On US manufactured helicopters the main rotors rotate anti-clockwise (when

viewed from above) - as shown in figure 17. This means that the torque
reaction tends to yaw the aircraft to the right and the tail rotor reaction will be
to the right to counteract this.

i
- 31 -
 So when the pilot commands yaw left he/she puts his/her left foot forward
and the tail rotor blades increase their angle of attack increasing their thrust
to the right (and the nose to the left). When the right foot is moved forward the
tail rotor blade's angle of attack is reduced, the thrust is reduced and the
aircraft yaws right.

On some European and Russian helicopters the main rotor rotates clockwise
so the reverse happens. Do check your helicopter to see which way the blades
move.

Tail Rotor Drift

When a "couple" acting on a body is opposed by a "moment" acting on the
same body a residual translational thrust force is induced. In the case of a
helicopter, since torque reaction forms a couple who's turning effect is
eliminated by a moment (tail rotor thrust) the residual translational force

:or drift]causes the helicobte

ail rotor thrust. To preventis, the pilot
thi s.Hghtiy in/the oppositeion to /the
directi drift.

main rotor, either

* i

causes the helicopter to drift sideways in the direction that the tail rotor
thrust acts.l 1 I

In any given mode of flight, tail ro sideways] in the direction of the t would
nded to tilt the main rotor

However to save the pilot the trouble oTcpnstantly holding the_cycMc control
column to the side, a permanent tilt is noinnally given to the

-32 -
 a

TAIL
ROTOR
<TIZ
DRIFT

or tilting the hu
b

by rigging the cyclic pitch system, tilting the main drive shaft,
t to the
shaft.
Fig. 18 TAIL ROTOR DRIFT (MAIN ROTOR ROTATING CLOCKWISE)

Tail Rotor Roll

The above arrangement would successfully eliminate the effect of tail rotor
drift. But another problem arises

-33 -
.The relationship of the tail rotor thrust vector and the drift compensating force
form a "couple" trying to roll the aircraft. This rolling couple can be overcome
either by off-setting the C of G of the helicopter or by raising the tail rotor such
that the two forces are co-planar, in which case no rolling moment will exist.
Most helicopters have raised tail rotors.

Fig. 19 TAIL ROTOR HEIGHT COMPENSATION

!! TAlt ROTOR CONTROL

M M i l
As previously stated the tail rotor:

i i .....\
:I \\
:iit

* Provides sufficient thrust to balance the torque reaction^, and

* Has a variable pitch setting to allow the pilot to yaw'the aircraft to
1
port,or starboard.
! i / /' ■ i !
The tail rjotoris positioned on its side with its disc parallel to the airflow. This
means that at afly one time it [Has advancing blades and retreating blades. For
this reason each blade has a flapping hinge to allow flapping to equality.

Each blade may experience lead-lag tendencies but there is not usually a
dragging hinge fitted. This means that each blade can only flap and feather.

The force generated by the tail rotor is varied by the pilot by changing the pitch
angle of the blades. Increasing the pitch angle increases the thrust force,
reducing the angle decreases the thrust force.

Any alteration in pitch angle of the tail rotor will mean an alteration in the
amount of power required to drive it. Increase in pitch angle will require more
power, with a (small) loss of rpm (which will show in the cockpit as a loss of main
rotor rpm).. A decrease in pitch will show the reverse. To keep the power
constant, adjustments aire made by the use of the hand twist grip throttle or
using computers.

The pilot's controls that allow him/her to increase or decrease the pitch are
basically similar to the rudder control on a fixed wing aircraft.
 The tail rotor pitch change control is connected to the rudder/yaw pedals by a
flying control system which may consist of light alloy push/pull rods, or more
usually high tensile non-corrodible steel cables supported by pulleys and
fairleads until they get to the tail rotor gear box.

As the tail rotor is variable pitch so it will also experience CTM - Centrifugal
Twisting Moment, throwing the blades off pitch (fining off), which will
necessitate compensation to assist the pilot. This may take the form of
centrifugal weights or a spring bias unit.

Shrouded (or Fenestron) Rotor

The shrouded tail rotor operates within an open sided aperture in the fin of the
aircraft. The rotor is shielded from the airflow, and the blades, as they are

is designed (for those helicopters fitted with one) with a non

symmetrical aerofoil section cant
helicopter is in forward flight,
title

,-^EROFOIL SHAPE PRO '

FORCE WHEN AIRCRAFT IN
'FORWARD FLIGHT

SECTION
AA

TAILPLANE AND
FINS GIVING
ADDITIONAL
STABILITY IN
FORWARD FLIGHT

neither advancing nor retreating do not need flapping hinges. In order to fit
inside the tail boom the rotor is necessarily of small diameter and therefore
Fig. 20 SHROUDED TAIL ROTOR
requires several blades, rotating at a relatively high rpm to produce the
required adnount to thrust.
Advantages include:

1. It leaves the tail rotor a greater margin of thrust for directional

control.

ered in a direction such thai:, whei_ surface produces an aerodyjiamic/force too

assist the tail rotor to counter the main rotor torque.
 Any change in the main rotor's torque is matched by a
corresponding change in the fin's aerodynamic reaction since they
are both related to the helicopter forward speed.

The reduction of the power requirement of the tail rotor results in

reduced wear of drive and control systems, and increased time
between overhauls.

NOTAR System
'-n
An alternative system for providing compensation for torque reaction is the No
Tail Rotor System (NOTAR).

Air is ducted from a fan driven by the engine and exhausted through a
variable sized orifice controlled by the pilot's yaw pedals. This provides a
controllable thrust effect too oppose the torque and maintain the fuselage
heading and to provide sufficient thrust when Required to turn the fuselage
against the torque, or reduced- thrust to allow "torque turns" L ^
) ' i i " " \ ■ i f " \ Additional anti-torque effect is qccasionecl by use of longituclinjal n
slots spt betweenr points (possibly fences) down the' tail boom within the area of the main rotor

SIDE
FORCE
CREATED LJ
BY
AIRFLOW

D
REDUCED
PRESSUR
E THIS
SIDE

Fig. 21 THE NOTAR SYSTEM

Other Methods of Anti Torque Control 0
Jet Tips. Pressure air is directed through ducts- in the blades to jets in the blade
tips. This provides the thrust for the blades and rotor and there is no torque
reaction. Sounds a good idea but there are considerable constructional
problems

LJ

tD
T
C
.
Twin Tandem Rotors (Chinook). These are suitable for large helicopters, but
again there are design and constructional problems.

Contra Rotating Rotors. Again has many problems including flapping contra
rotating blades in relatively close proximity.

MAIN ROTOR SYSTEM

The rotor blades have problems associated with the fact that they rotate and
the following is a brief description of most of the important ones.

Phase Lag

exhibit

11
11
This may be defined as "The angular distance between the position on the disc
where a blade receives a pitch angle change and the position on the disc where
The twjo e rotating assembly ac scope and any
]
a property known as Precession gyro
maxiimumilap is achieved".
the
is often
slightly less than.90°).

Because [of phase lag if

cyclic j>itch is applied to
maximum
they are at-^the rjar of the heHcdpter-theyj^iU the attain
/ I J. sL_____________/_________ J_1 _ 1 -J • J J
blades when
their position
J.1
1
at th~e~side of the helicopter and the l disc
their maximum
willy arr -- - ^------- - flapping ill tilt to port or
starboard -
ritioi
depending on direction of rotation (DoR).

- 37 -
 ax pitch

max flap

4° mln pitch

Fig. 22 HELICOPTER FLYING FORWARD

- 38 -
From the foregoing it can be seen that in order to fly forward, which requires a
forward tilt of the cone, maximum flap must occur at the rear and minimum at
the front of the helicopter. To achieve this, maximum pitch is applied when the
blade is at the side of the helicopter (retreating blade) and minimum pitch when
the blade is on the opposite side (advancing blade).

For the controls to be instinctive the pilot must push forward on the cyclic
control column to make the aircraft go forward.

For rigging and other purposes when the cyclic control column is pushed
forward it is advantageous if the control orbit (swash plate or spider arms) also
to tilt forward. This would then relate the direction of movement of the cyclic
column, control orbit, and rotor tilt to each other.

However the phase lag must be compensated for and this is commonly achieved
by attaching each blade to the spider arm or swash plate 90° in front of the
blade in the plane of rotation.

Pitch Change Requirement ■ ! \ jj\\

II Ii 1
\ > \ \
I' Iii; |j|j
For rotary winged aircraft it is not practical to use engine power changes to
govern! the lift for the following reasons:
!
(a) Control responses
would be too slow due to the large-inertia of the main rotor and
transmission system. j;

(b) i Even to obtain a reasonable rate of response the engine would

j need to be very large. Thus the engine weight woujld be higher than j-^
-Would normally bp-T±L^-ease^' y
(c) Linear speed of tterotortiacles must be keptfewr^f a body moves
through the air in excess of M.75 (0.75 times the speed of sound)
then compressibility problems are likely to be experienced. To avoid
this the tips of the blades are not allowed to exceed this velocity.
When forward speed is also taken into account (with the advancing
blade) then blade tip velocity is limited to about 400
• mph. Thus there is insufficient flexibility in the velocity changes
to obtain the variations in lift required while still retaining control
of the helicopter.

Because of the above, variations in the angle of attack becomes the only
practical solution to controlling the amount of lift produced. The angle of attack
is changed by changing the pitch angle with rpm kept nearly constant but
engine power changed to suit the demand.

- 39 -
Note. The engine power is controlled by a throttle fitted to the collective
control handgrip. This is manually operated. On newer helicopters engine
power is controlled by a computer.

To control the rate of ascent or descent the pitch of all the blades are changed
simultaneously by the use of the collective pitch lever, normally situated by the
side of the pilot! To tilt the rotor disc (in any direction) the cyclic lever is moved
in that direction.

Flapping Requirement

In translational flight the advancing blade moves through the air at a greater
velocity than the retreating blade. In order to compensate for the dissymmetry
of lift that would otherwise occur the advancing blade is allowed to "flap up"
while the retreating blade is allowed to flap down - thereby equalising lift.

Flapping also occurs as a result of cyclic pitch changes.

Fully articulated rotor heads have separate flapping hinges for each blade.

rotor axmium
heads

/ j

Semi articulated heads "flap" about a central gimbal ring, whilst the blades of a
rigid rotor head although having no flapping hinges do "flap" as a result of
their own [flexibility. Physical stops tare placed^on flapping movement in
either direction. \

Dragging Requirement

When a helicopter is in translational flight flapping takes place-as^8Kresult of

** f* cht« oo^U.,,3 „r
//
Flapping of the/blades causes conji plane^Oi^-small rwo bladed mi
enough to be absorbed by the<- .ead
laminated blades.

However, in a conventional multi bladed rotor these bending and shear

stresses are relieved by allowing the blades to move fore and aft in the plane of
rotation with respect to the rotor hub by the inclusion of drag hinges. The
stresses induced in the drag blane when a blade flaps occur as a result of 3
factors. These are: ■

- 40 -
 * Hookes Joint effect.
* Coriolis effect.
* Periodic drag changes.

Hookes Joint Effect

This takes place when blades are flapping, since when the cone is tilted the
tips of the blades (the disc) are no longer co-planar with the rotor hub. The
blades, in maintaining constant velocity in the plane of rotation, move with
respect to the rotor hub about the Hookes Joint (lead/lag hinge).

- 41 -
>1
Coriolis Effect

This is related to the theorem of the conservation of energy and is called the
conservation of angular momentum. Each blade (and consequently the whole
system) has a certain momentum based on its velocity and the distance its
centre of gravity is from the axis of rotation. When the blade flaps up so this
distance is reduced and to keep its energy state constant its speed must
increase. Therefore on flap-up the blade moves forward on its lead/lag hinge,
and on flap-down the blade moves rearward. (Gustave-Gaspard Coriolis French
physicist 1792-1843).

Fig. 23 HOOKES JOINT EFFECT

Fig. 24 EFFECT OF FLAPPING ON C of G

i
- 42 -
 With reference to figure 24. The total energy in a rotating blade can be
simplified in the following conservation of momentum formula:

K=MXDXS
where K = Constant
M = Blade mass
D = Distance of blade C of G from axis of
rotation S = Speed

D will decrease when the blade flaps up, and as the mass M is constant so S
must increase.

When the angle of attack is varied the resultant drag also varies. Thus blade drag varies
periodically as it moves around the disc due to the cyclic pitch changes.

'dampers avoid dvement own as

Although the rotational velocity
point o!n |the^bl4dfe, the effect may be considered a constant at any particular
aircraft forward speed is not.
Since when moving on the drag hinges the blade spacing is changed so stops
are fitted-to the rotor head to mamtain-tiie blade spacing within defined limits.
The kite or movement about the drag-hinge, must be controlled-m-orater to
avoi( vibrations from the rotor head send this is achieved by damp in about {he
drag hinge either by the use of jErij^tion or hydraulic

DISSYMETRY OF LIFT
tak
«r ^ , p
of
d
^

Advancing and Retreating Blades

In translational flight, some rotor blades will be moving forward into the
relative airflow created by the aircraft's forward speed (advancing blades)
whilst others will be moving in the same direction as this relative airflow
(retreating blades).

For example, if the aircraft is moving forward at a speed of 50m/s and the
rpm of the main rotor is such that the tip speed is 200m/s then the
advancing blade will have a tip airspeed of 200 + 50 - 250m/s. The retreating
blade will have a speed of-200 - 50 = 150m/s. As lift is related to the square
of the velocity the amount of lift as a ratio will be in the region of:

2502 = 62.5k - advancing

blade 1502 = 22.5k -
retreating blade

- 43 -
So the advancing sector of the disc will produce considerably more lift than
the- retreating sector thus giving dissymmetry of lift, a tendency to roll is thus
induced
.

For the retreating blades other problems exist. With the helicopter flying forward
at high airspeed part of the retreating blade suffers from reverse airflow. The
linier speed of a section of a blade is related to the blade rpm and the distance
that section is from the hub.

This means that the blade root travels slower than the blade tip. So when
the helicopter is flying fast- the airflow over the inner section of the
retreating blade is quicker than the blade is moving backwards. This means
that the section closest to the root experiences a reverse airflow. In some
helicopters up to 40% of the blade can be affected at high airspeed.

This reverse flow can be laminar, does not create any lift, only occurs on the
retreating blade and may try to cause a pitch up force creating unwanted twisting
forces in the blade.

The outer part of the retreating blade has another problem - it stalls easy.

As the forward True Air Speed (TAS) of the helicopter increases so the
stalling anglelof the retreating blade decreases. At zero TAS the
stSUngjangle^ is about 15°. At 3b0kts TAS it is about liojandafc^Okts TAS it
is 4?. | \ \
I j | ! | | ' 1 1 1
The stall affects the tip first, and as TAS increases, works ajong the blade
towards the hub up to the reverse flow area.

Looking down on the rotor system with the front of the helicopte^-atr 12
o'clock and assuming the direction of rotation is anti-clockwise the, initial
stall starts at 10 o'clock, is at its peak at 9 o'clock and fades completely by 7
o'clock.

This ^conMdefablfe dissymmetijy'dfM^^hould only cause a ^11 tq the

retreating side of the helicopter. Becaus^~of precession the effect is felt"90°
farther on in the direction of rotation and this causes the helicopter to pitch
nose up and roll to the retreating blade side. This condition is known as
Retreating Blade Stall

To recover from the condition the pilot must reduce the angles of attack by O
lowering the collective pitch lever and once this has been achieved the cyclic is
eased back to reduce TAS.

Flapping to Equality

Since main rotor blades are free to move up or down about a flap hinge, the effect
of an advancing blade's increased velocity is to make it flap up, whilst the
retreating blade flaps down.

This in turn introduces a component into the airflow giving the advancing
blade a decreased angle of attack and a retreating blade an increased angle
of attack

i
- 44 -
.
GROUND EFFECT

As the helicopter nears the ground it experiences what is known as 'Ground

Effect'.

As it approaches the ground in a slow steady descent it is found that the rate of
descent reduces ie, reduced power is required to maintain the original hover.

The effect is most easily explained as resulting from an increased pressure area
between the ground and the rotor disc resulting in a 'cushion' of air. Because of
this it is sometimes called Ground Cushion Effect and gives the impression of the
helicopter 'sitting' on a cushion of air.

It follows from this that the closer the rotor is to the ground the greater will be
the ground effect and therefore less power will be required to maintain the hover.

The ground effect height is related to disc diameter - the bigger the disc the

higher thejeffect. IT ~

Another jfactor affecting ground effect is the] nature of the groiind itself! Since
the effecj depends on the moving air undpr /the disc being kept in a rotating
streamlined flow. Flat, fiijm, level, smooth ground such as concrete or tarmac
gjives the best effect. Bushes, grass, rough, loose grqundj:eduees the
effect.
ti

.orids to Td ^ow ' the cushion to one siaefof the disc axis but also gives rise to a
separate effect ie, it will caiks'2 additional flow through th<| rotor and the overall
result^may be a decrease in-th^poyer required to ni^int^in hover.
Wind t

Dynamic Rollover

With the helicopter partly landed with one skid or main wheel on the ground and
the tail rotor producing a horizontal force a moment is produced between it and
the contact friction of the wheel/skid on the ground. This moment can cause the
helicopter to roll, Iwhich will cause the rotor disc also to produce a horizontal
force in the direction of the roll. If not corrected the Critical Angle is reached and
the helicopter will rollover.

Re-circulation
As we have seen from the notes on drag there is a tendency for air to 'spill over'
to the top of an aerofoil. The air underneath spills over to the area above the tip
thus causing vortices. These vortices may be affected by factors which we have
already considered and they are also affected by the proximity of vertical surfaces
(buildings etc) close to the rotor tips.

t
- 33 -

- 46 -
 LOSS OF TAILROTOR EFFECTIVENESS (LTE)

Caused by the main blade tip vortices and side winds interfering with the tail
rotor. In some cases this has resulted in severe un-commanded yaw and
accidents (some fatal) have occurred - usually at low airspeed and low altitude
flying such as when landing.

When hovering the pilot should maintain the tail rotor thrust to an exact amount
to prevent the helicopter from yawing. This is called Trim Thrust. A side wind can
assist or hinder this process depending on which direction it comes from. For
example:

With a side wind from the left and the helicopter in a right turn, as the main rotor
vortex passes over the tail rotor the tail rotor angle of attack is increased causing
an increase in thrust (for anti-clockwise main blade rotation). As the vortex
passes the tail rotor so the opposite happens and the pilot has to continuously
alter the tail rotor pitch settings by the use of the yaw pedals.

A
(■ t Ae^fournf6rces ] I \\

i MM I i M
I si || |i jI
In general the four forces acting on a helicopter flying in equilibrium are:

*; | Lift. Is the vertically component of the total lift force created by the
main rotor system. Acts through the main rotor hub-and is equal and
opposite to weight plus the downward component of Parasite drag. May be
assisted!, in forward flight, by stub; rriainplanes. -i Weight (Mass). Always
acts vertically downwards and is equal and P^ ^—dppo'site to lift. Acts
through thfe aircraft's centre oLgravity.
Thrust. Created bjy the horizontal component bfthe^'total lift force.
May be assisted by residual thrust from the jet engine power unit
and thrust engines if fitted. * Drag. This is the drag of the helicopter
as a whole. Profile drag is associated with the rotor blades and
Parasite drag is associated with the helicopter itself. Parasite drag is
equal and opposite to (forward) thrust. j

When the helicopter is in the hover the vertical lift vector is equal and opposite to
the weight vector and the vertical parasite drag vector. There is no horizontal
component, no helicopter movement and no horizontal parasite drag. With the
disc is tilted forward a horizontal thrust vector is created and the helicopter
accelerates forward. Because the centre of lift is higher than the centre of gravity
a couple is produced and the helicopter will tilt forward.

With the helicopter in translational flight in equilibrium (straight and level flight
with all forces balanced) thrust will equal parasite drag, but as they are not on
the same horizontal plane, they cause a couple trying to pitch the helicopter
nose-down.
The vertical lift vector is equal and opposite to the weight vector but as they
are not in the same vertical plane they produce a couple trying to pitch the
helicopter nose-up.

- 47 -
 TOTAL CENTRE

The pilot will usually move forward applying cyclic, collective and power. The
helicopter will then take-off rather like a fixed wing aircraft - gaining forward
speed and height.

While the helicopter can (and sometimes does) take-off vertically, a rolling
takeoff allows the pilot forward vision of the airspace he/she is about to enter.

Transition from Hover to Forward Flight

To achieve forward flight from the hover it is necessary to tilt the disc forward
and so create a thrust force in the forward direction. It is then necessary to
increase the lift (collective) to keep its vertical component equal to weight. In
addition to this the tilting of the rotor causes a loss of ground effect (if low
enough) requiring yet more power to compensate.

Normally during transition engine power is increased to maximum to make '

sure there is no loss of height.
When there is a small power margin and a helicopter is hovering on full (or
nearly full) power the transition to forward flight can be hazardous. As the
rotor is tilted forward, some of the ground effect is lost. There may be
insufficient power to prevent the aircraft 'sliding off the ground cushion' and
striking the ground.

The thrust vector component of the total lift created by the tilting disc will now
cause the aircraft to accelerate forward.

- 48 -
Acceleration will continue until opposed by an equal and opposite force - in this
case profile drag of the helicopter. As you know profile drag is related to V 2 so
the faster the aircraft flies the greater it gets.

When profile drag is equal to the forward thrust the aircraft no longer
accelerates but is now in steady forward flight.

Translational Lift ____ ___

As the jfofward speed increases the power^ni^ay be reduced ak 4 result of

Translation Lift. This is the additional lift prfeated by the rotor [because of the
aircraft's forward speed. The forward speed increases the mass airflow through
the rotor'disc thus increasing lift. To hold a steady height therefore the power
setting should be reduced. ______ I—

Transition from Flight to Hover ;

i1'-
i! : // is
To reduce-th'e aircraft's forward7 speed-thedisc must be tilted backward - this is
callecT'Flare'. The effect of flare can"be stimmarised as follows: '

(a) While the aircraft is still flying forward the flared disc produces an
overall increase in angle of attack, thus increasing the total lift and
a rearwards component vector.

(b) The reversal of the direction of the thrust vector produces

deceleration.

(c) An increase in rotor rpm. This is surprising as an increase in angle

of attack will produce an increase in drag which would suggest a
reduction in rpm. However, the important point is the relationship
of the direction of the total reaction to the plane of rotation.

(d) There is some tendency to cut off the inflow effect, hence partly
offsetting the effect described in (a) above.

When returning to the hover from straight and level flight, in theory, the disc
should be restored to the hover position by pulling the stick back. Initially
translational lift would still be felt and power would have to be reduced to
maintain height.

- 49 -
As forward speed is lost so the disc will have to be returned to its hover position
to prevent the aircraft moving backwards. The throttle should further be reduced
to counteract the loss of the thrust component and because of the re-
establishment of the ground cushion - if low enough.

Turning

For a body to change direction a centripetal force must be created - a force or

acceleration towards the centre of the turn. This applies to helicopters and since
the only force the pilot has control of that can accomplish this is the main rotor
force then the pilot must tilt the disc to one side to create a sideways force
vector. As the centre of lift is higher than the centre of gravity so the helicopter
will tilt in the direction of the turn. In translational flight the helicopter will turn.
To allow for the fact that the total lift vector is now at an angle the total lift must
be increased to keep the vertical vector at the same height as before. In a
constant turn the forces are equal as shown in the drawing._____
Ctj L cr~z
Note. A rate 1 turn.is 180° per minute and a rate 2 turn is 360° perNminute. As

the turn steepens so the loac. factor on the aircraft increases so at 60° angle of
bank, for example, the load factor on the /aircraft is twice pi at of it,s normal
weight.! The steepness of the turn jis governed by the available ["spare'5' engine
power. brie more power available the steeper the turn that ckri-be-sfchieved.

- 50 -
 \\
TOTAL ROTOR
VERTICAL!
THRUST
COMPONENT,
OF THRUST/
d
GROUND RESONANCE
.
N CENTRIFUGAL
CENTRIPETAL ^
/ FORCE r**
FORCE
i

Ground resonance can be defined as a self-induced vibration of relatively large

amplitude of a helicopter in contact with the ground.

The vibration can originate from a disturbance of the rotor while the aircraft is on
Fig. 26 FORCES IN A TURN

the ground or a poor landing or faulty landing gear. In either case there must be
some sympathy between the original vibration and the natural frequency of
vibration of the system as a whole.

Rotor Vibration

This could arise because of a dynamic unbalance of the rotor head and blade
system ie, the blades are of unequal weight or their centres of gravity having
unequal distances from the rotor centre.

The blades may be producing unequal lift or their spanwise centres of lift may not
all be-the same distance from the hub centre. L.
M If A \ i\\
It can j)ej assumed that as the blades are manufactured to such closip j
tolerances that their C of G and! C of L and dynamic balance are all within limits
and that the most likely cause of vibration is faulty drag dampers. If the dampers
are not working properly,_or seHncorrectly then the blades will move about their
drag hinges at different rates causing blade unbalance^

A similar situation might arise if the blades are out of track,; but unless this
is extrenie the resulting vibration is unlikely to be sever enough to cause
v
ground resonancer-^ -----/ rJ v^

Pilot Handling

Pilot mishandling is a common cause of ground resonance. 'Stirling the stick'

- even very slightly, while the wheels are on the ground can cause it. 'Padding'
can also cause it. This is the pilot putting one wheejl down first and then the
other.

It is easier for ground resonance to occur in the undercarriage when there is less
weight on the wheels, ie when collective pitch is quite high. Therefore when
landing it is best to 'take-off all collective pitch as soon as the wheels touch the
ground. When taking off it is better to apply collective pitch smoothly and
progressive until the aircraft is clear of the ground.
Recovery from Ground Resonance

The best recoveiy action is for the pilot to take-off immediately - this is why
ground runs can only be carried out by a qualified pilot. The resonance should
die away once airborne.

-38-

- 52 -
If take-off is not possible, for any reason, then the rotor must be stopped
immediately ie, collective lever down, throttle closed, switches off, rotor brake
applied.

VORTEX RING

This is not too unlike the stall on a fixed wing aircraft. In normal powered flight
there is a flow of air downwards through the rotor disc. During descent some
airflow will be coming from below. At the disc centre the blades have their
greatest angle of attack due to washout and it is here that the trouble begins.

tnrougn tne disc near tne nuo oecomes equal ana opposite to tne downward
induced flow. Thus the angle of attack may become larger than the stalling
angle for that part of the blade and it will stall. This means that the air at the
tips tends to form a vortex ring around the tips so reducing the amount of lift
from that section of the blade.

A vortex ring is most likely to occur when:

(a) The aircraft is moving forward slowly.

(b) The aircraft is descending.
(c) Some power is being used.

Effects- of Vortex Ring State _

-53 -
Initially the disturbed flow can result in buffeting and vibration which could
disappear in a complete vortex ring condition. There will be loss of lift, which
will result in the aircraft losing height, and an increase in drag and loss of
rotor rpm coupled with potential loss of directional control.

INDUCED ^ INDUCED
FLOW FLOW

^\ ^ STALLED ^ /f

- 54 -
 STABILITY

Static Stability

This is the ability of an object to return (or not) to its original position after it has
been disturbed. Can be dived into three different types.

Statically stable. Will want to return to its original position after disturbance. A
good example is a pyramid shape resting on its base. If it is disturbed (within
certain limits) once the disturbing force is removed it will fall back in position
Statically unstable. Once disturbed its position will get worse. The same object
resting on its point. If disturbed out of its vertical position it will continue to move.
;

Static neutral stability. Once disturbed will remain it its new disturbed position but
will not correct itself or get any worse. A good example is a ball. It will move as far
as the disturbing force
DISTURBING- pushes
FORCE I it and not further. UNSTABLE OBJECT
INVERTED PYRAMID
L
DISTURBING
OBJECT WITH ^.........•
FORCE DISTURBING NEUTRAL STABILITY
FORCE \i
BAL
L
STABLE OBJECT

UPRIGHT
PYRAMID

Passive Stability

Fig. 28 STATIC STABILITY

& ^ V----------^ /

JI
___

Active Stability
This is where systems get involved to bring the helicopter back to straight and
level flight. These systems include powered controls, gyros, computers etc.

Dynamic Stability

This is related to static stability, but it is the study of the movement of the
helicopter in trying to get back to its original flight path. In other words static
stability happens first with dynamic stability involved next

-55 -
 AIRCRAFT FLIGHT PATH

ORIGINAL FLIGHT PATH

.
HEAVY DAMPING - DYNAMICALLY STABLE

SOME DAMPING - DYNAMICALLY STABLE - OSCILLATIONS REDUCE

UNDAMPED - NEUTRAL DYNAMIC STABILITY

Fig. 29 DYNAMIC STABILITY

Longitudinal Stability
j | n ■

stable but dynaim

This is! pitching/stability about the lateral jaAs. The helicopter lis statically
cally- unstable in thisjplane.
C^JWhen caught by a gust of wind from the front the disc experiences
blow-back which causes the disc to tilt downwind and the helicopter to
slow, this causes the helicopter to pitch up and tilts the disc further back.
As the helicopter slows the fuselage pitches down due to the pendulum
effect and the disc tilts windward which starts the cycle all-over again..

Stabilisers and synch ^levators help in longitudinal stability and act

similar to tail planes on fixed wing aircraft (module 8).

Lateral Stability
This is rolling stability about the longitudinal axis. This stability acts
similar to longitudinal stability except that Cross Coupling is involved. This
means-that .... one type of stability can affect another type of stability. In
this case when caught by a gust of wind from the side the helicopter will
move side ways and this will cause the aircraft to yaw - which is
Directional Stability.

Lateral stability is usually achieved using active means such as gyro

stabilisation and autopilots.

- 41
-

Directional Stability Involves yawing about the vertical or normal axis.

In the hover the aircraft is statically stable and dynamically unstable. In
forward flight (above a certain speed) it is stable statically and dynamically.

In the hover if a gust of wind strikes the helicopter from the side the
helicopter will start to move in the direction of the gust, the disc flaps back
and the helicopter weather vanes into wind. Weather vaning is caused by
the side-wind affecting the tail rotor and boom. When the gust stops the
aircraft continues to move in the direction of the gust due to its
momentum. The tail rotor now experiences a wind force in the opposite
direction and the aircraft is caused ta yaw in the opposite direction. This
right then left yaw will increase in amplitude demonstrating its inherent
dynamic instability in the hover.

L. i LIMITS TO FORWARD SPEED

1 f i! \ i \ j Retreatihg Blade Stall } !
i: i l l ! J
M 1 ! i J i | j j
I
Probably the most important factor in limiting forward speed is the stalling
of the retreating blade because of the cyclic pitch applied to prevent flap-
back.

-57 -
 The cyclic pitch is increased on the retreating blade by the forward
movement of the stick to compensate for the reduction in relative airflow ,
(Vi - V2).

The cyclic-pitch is added to the- already^present collective pitch. - and if

too ;

much is applied' the blade will-reach its critical angle of attack-ahd it will
stall.
1
The symptoms of blade stall are: J

* Control system and aircraft vibration.

* Reduced lift. j
* Increased drag.

The vibration can become excessive and may lead to an uncontrollable roll.

Compressibility

If all the foregoing problems could be over-come we would then reach a

limiting speed on the advancing blade. The relative airflow speed on this
blade is Vi + V2, is high at the tip
.

When VI + V2 gets close to MCRIT then compressibility effects are felt which
include:

* Vibration - controls and aircraft.

* Sharp rise in drag.
* Sudden loss of lift.

It is generally considered that when forward speed V2 gets to 200 knots then
compressibility problems may start to be encountered.

All-up Weight

The heavier the aircraft the greater will be the collective pitch required to hold it at any
given altitude. This will mean that less cyclic pitch can be applied and critical V2 will
therefore be lower.
Altitude A stabiliser or t^alane is fitted fuselage land
a.ci^ similar to the longitudinal-stability it
With ah increase in altitude the that the stabiliser will experience moment.
air is ltss. STABILISERS

-58 -
 tc some helicopters towards
tljie rear of the tailplane
a fixed wing airpraft. It assists
in A-pitch^up of the helicopter
in-forward flight ith a
consequent correcting
irrcrease in lift wit

-otor will produce less lift a ty of

the

-59 -
 h
During forward flight a gust of wind from the front causes blow-back in that the disc tilts
back with a consequent pitch-up of the aircraft. The resulting airflow over the
tailplane causes extra lift and a correcting moment that helps reduce the
severity of the pitch-up.

SYNCH ELEVATORS

These are stabilisers that are moveable as a control surface. Similar to an all
flying tailplane on a fixed wing aircraft, when the cyclic stick is moved fore
and aft the main rotor blades change pitch as normal and the synch elevator
moves up and down (changes"angle of attack). With the cyclic stick pulled
back the synch elevator moves to decrease its angle so lowering the rear of
the helicopter. With the cyclic stick pushed forward the synch elevator
increases its angle so raising the tail and putting the nose down

-60 -
 .BLADE SAILING

Under windy conditions when accelerating the blades from stationary, or

bringing them to rest on shutdown an effect known as Blade Sailing may occur
due to the wind speed being appreciable relative to the rotor speed. The problem
is dissymmetry of lift between the blade advancing into the wind and then
retreating with it, similar to forward flight causing the advancing blade to rise
and the retreating blade to fall.

This motion can become exaggerated, especially if the oscillation is in

synchronisation with the natural vibration frequency of the blade, and fuselage
and/or blade damage may occur in extreme cases. Many helicopters have some
form of droop stops built into the head assembly to prevent this exaggerated
flapping.

CEILING HEIGHTS

A heGcopter needs considerably more power for a vertical climb that it does for
the same rate of climb with forward spedd. Similarly, its hoyerjing ceiling is
much louver than its ceiling with forward speed. | jjj
CENTRE OF GRAVITY AND LOADING

The C of G of a body is a point where all the weight is said too act and it is
calculated by taking moments about a datum (any datum will do, but the
manufacturer will specify one) of all the forces acting about the datum. The C of
G .of avheliCopter is usually ,on the-centre'line of the rotor.yhub ? and is stated
as sA many4nches fore or aft bf-the-datuin - a tolerance being-given.

If the C of G lies either fore or aft of its correct position (incorrect loading of the
aircraft for example), then the resulting couple will result in a nose up or/and
nose down altitude. The disc has to be maintained in its correct position by
movement of the cyclic stick until the centre of lift (C of L) passes through the
new C of G position - and a new state of balance is achieved. j

For twin tandem rotor helicopters the C of G usually lies somewhere midway
between the two rotor hubs.

The C of G may change in flight, and this can be caused by: fuel usage;
dropping of supplies; or winching in survivors.

The pilot may sometimes adjust for C of G change. Ballast weights may be
moved - he/she may decide to shift the load in flight, and fuel transfer might be
used (some large fixed wing aircraft use this method).

For most aircraft it is the longitudinal disposition of the C of G that is

calculated, as the lateral disposition cannot be varied to any great extent.
i
1
 AUTOROTATION

This may be defined as descending forward un-powered flight with the rotor
blades being driven by the induced upwards airflow.

In the event of engine failure the helicopter can make a safe descent using

autorotation. It is analogous to a fixed wing aircraft in a glide.

As soon as the engine fails the profile drag on the blades should be reduced as
soon as possible by reducing the collective pitch to zero.

Further adjustments during autorotation are usually small once a stabilised rotor
rpm has been established.

Another important factor in autorotative performance is the forward speed. In

autorotation the increased mass flow through the blades improves performance,

e rate of
o^iv rate through the disc - vtath an increasing

and results in a reduction in the rate of descent.

Withhan increase in weight thkre wdlLbe^sorresponding rkcre descerlt -

increasing the mass f
rpm.

the rate/of
descent, increase
in the rate
To control the rpm the collective is increased thus reducing

i
- 62 -