Performance of Wire Mesh Crates

in
River Engineering Applications
Ratnakar R. Mahajan1
Iyer Annapoorni2
Minimol Korulla3

Abstract
Numerous protective measures have been developed to check against attack of continued
action of water along and across river, canals and streams. Mechanically woven wire
mesh products are popular in river engineering applications. In river engineering, the main
application areas of mechanically woven wire mesh products are: (i) Longitudinal
structures, (ii) Transverse structures and (iii) Deflectors. These types of structures are
used in applications like protections, construction of break waters and dykes.

The main advantages of these structures are their flexibility, free draining characteristics,
and simple construction technique. Different types of revetments used in river engineering
are discussed in brief. Further, paper deals with material characteristics of wire mesh and
international code references. Comparison between mechanically woven wire crates and
other types of wire crates for river training works is reported.

1. Introduction
River engineering is the process of planned human intervention in the course,
characteristics or flow of a river with the intention of producing some defined benefit.
People have intervened in the natural course and behavior of rivers since old times to
manage the water resources, to protect against flooding or to make passage along or
across rivers easier. From Roman times, rivers have been used as a source of hydropower.
In the late 20th century, river engineering has had environmental concerns broader than
immediate human benefit and some river engineering projects have been concerned
exclusively with the restoration or protection of natural characteristics and habitats.

River engineering techniques include various constructional techniques like training,

construction of embankments, dams, reservoirs, weirs etc. These techniques are used to
solve site specific problems. Structures constructed for river engineering can be divided
into rigid, semi rigid and flexible depending on the material used for construction and
behavior when subjected to forces. Rigid structures are constructed using RCC/PCC.
These structures do not tolerate movements. Flexible structures can adjust settlements
without undergoing destructions. For constructing these structures across and along the
length of river different materials are used (steel wire mesh, polymer mesh and tree
trunks). Galvanized steel wire is used to manufacture boulder crates which are hand
woven, mechanically woven and welded.

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1, 2- Asst. Manager and 3-D.G.M.-Technical
Maccaferri Environmental Solutions Pvt. Ltd., Belapur, Navi Mumbai.

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2. Types of Structures in River Engineering
River engineering application structures can be divided into three categories: rigid, semi
rigid and flexible structures depending on the behavior. Also river engineering structures
can be classified as: a) Longitudinal structures and b) Transverse structures based on
location of the structures. Longitudinal structures are provided along the course of river
and transverse structures are provided across the river length or flow.

2.1 Longitudinal structures

Longitudinal structures are provided in river engineering to prevent river bank erosion and
failure against piping, to ensure stability against subsurface flow, to train rivers and avoid
mass wasting. These structures are subjected to tractive shear stresses, flow beneath
revetment, and self weight. Generally they are constructed using RCC/PCC and boulder
crates. Longitudinal structures can be provided in the form of mattress lining and massive
retaining structures.

2.2 Transverse structures

Transverse structures are provided to protect river beds and banks against erosion by
reducing velocity of water so that it does not have enough shear force to erode the banks.
Transverse structures are constructed RCC/PCC, compacted earth and boulder crates.
These structures are subjected to hydrostatic forces, seepage forces and body forces.
These structures can be sub-divided depending on the shape and purpose of the structure.
Typical transverse structures are: dams, weirs and groynes. Transverse structures can
serve as water retaining, drop structures and sloped structures helping in dissipating
kinetic energy of water.

3. Present Practices or Solutions

Numerous types of river control and bank stabilization devices have evolved through past
experience. Concrete, brick, willow, rock and asphalt mattresses, riprap grouted slope
protection, sheet and timber piles, earth-filled and timber dikes, automobile bodies, and
concrete armor units have all been used in the practice of training, restoring, and
stabilizing rivers.

In succeeding sections techniques most widely used in India are reported. An

understanding of river system dynamics is essential to selection, design and successful
installation of river stabilization, restoration, and bank protection works.

(i) Porcupines
These are made of 50/65 mm diameter bamboos nailed in a square shape of 600 mm plain
dimension as per the typical arrangement in Fig. 1. They can form a typical permeable
spur or if used in combination can work as screen. For good effect, they are filled with
bushes of branches of tree/grass. They are very effective in dampening the flow and they
cause heavy siltation of the bed and if used intelligently, they can be very effective in
causing diversion of the existing flow into a different channel.

(ii) Permeable Screen

For depth of flow more than 4 feet, permeable screen made of bamboos are more
effective. They also serve the same purpose as in case of porcupines.

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(iii) Bed bars
Bed bars are submerged structures which help to divide the flow horizontally. Flow above
the top of the bed bars can be compared to flow over the submerged weir while flow
below the top level of the bar is obstructed by it and is directed towards the nose as in the
case of full height spur.

(iv) Studs
These are short spurs provided between the regular long spurs to provide local protection
to the river bank protection where embayments occur between the T-head groynes.

(v) Dry rubble works

Popular in longitudinal bank protection where depth of water is low. The method is
economical where cost of stones is less and skilled masons are available to do a good
interlocking work.

(vi) Sheet piling

Sheet pile s hall be of steel piles or precast concrete piles. They are used where space
limitation is there to do masonry walls or gabion walls. However if soil is not good
enough to provide proper passive resistance, achieving stability will be difficult in these
structures.

(vii) Pile and Slab system

This system is also used where space restrictions are there. The RCC piles will be founded
in firm stratum and RCC slabs will be spanning between piles. The system tends to be
very expensive, especially when firm stratum will not be available in shallow depths.

(viii) Boulder Crates

Boulder crate is a confinement system that is intended to retain massive tonnage of rock
from migrating, sliding or eroding away. They are formed by filling boulders in a crate
made of galvanized wire and Geogrids/geonets (HDPE). Boulder crates made up of
galvanized wire can be sub divided into: i) hand made; ii) mechanically woven and iii)
welded based on manufacturing process.

(ix) Sack gabions

These are crated boulders of circular cross section of diameter varying from 600 mm to
900 mm. They can be long and are usually very good for protecting slopes of an
embankment or for construction in inaccessible sites by dumping these gabions as
foundation.

(x) Spurs/ Groynes

These are structures constructed transverse to the flow of river or may be at angle away or
towards the flow and extend from the bank into the river. They are either made of
permeable or solid type constructed across the flow. These are intended to induce silting
and diverting the flow away from the point of attack. Permeable spurs are less expensive
and more useful than solid ones. Permeable spurs can be made of porcupines, permeable
screens or sal ballies driven in the bed and boulder crates. They are also known as
groynes.

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4. Comparison of wire mesh products
Boulder crates are made up of different materials as it is mentioned in section 3. Steel
wire crates are manufactured from galvanized steel wire. Boulder crates can be compared
on the basis of material used for manufacturing the crate (steel wire and geogrid).

4.1 Comparison between HDPE and Steel Wire Mesh Crates

HDPE/geogrid gabions are recently highlighted as an alternative to steel wire gabions.
However they are having many demerits which make them a poor choice for long term
protection works.

High density polyethylene (HDPE)/Geogrid is a thermoplastic made up from long chains

of the monomer ethylene. HDPE is fire resistant but long exposure to UV rays increases
the chances of catching fire. Polyethylene aged by long exposure to light, high
temperatures, air and moisture deteriorate and become brittle (Van Santvoort 1994).
Tensile strength of the thermoplastics is influenced by temperature. As the temperature
increases a decrease in strength of thermoplastics is observed (Van Santvoort 1994).
Variation in temperature causes brittleness of geogrid and high strain. Whereas, steel wire
mesh has low temperature strain and no strength reduction. Thermoplastics products
deform under application of constant load. Steel wire mesh products do not exhibit creep
behavior. Polymer wire crates are highly flexible and usually buldge during construction
(Fig. 5). Mechanically woven wire mesh is moderately flexible and does not buldge if
installation guidelines are followed correctly. Polymer crates are having very minimal
abrasion resistance compared to steel wire crates (Fig. 6). Long term strength of polymer
crates can be assumed 40 to 50% of initial strength because of influence of temperature,
flexibility, creep and UV effects. Steel wire mesh has long term strength of about 90% of
initial strength.

4.2 Comparison between Welded and Mechanically Woven Wire Mesh Crates
Steel wire mesh crates are sub divided based on weaving or mode of manufacturing: i)
Hand made; ii) Mechanically woven and ii) Welded. Performance of the wire crates
depend on the weaving pattern and joint type. Flexibility and adaptability to natural soil
contours is a primary importance for selection of proper protection system for river banks.
The major difference between welded and woven wire mesh system is the flexibility. The
woven wire mesh is flexible and capable of conform the natural settlements and soil
erosion process. Extensive testing and research is reported on structural differences,
flexibility and performance of welded and woven wire mesh (Kabaila 1979 and
Maccaferri Literature 1988). Tensile test results reported show woven wire mesh prevents
the unraveling from spreading out compared to welded wire mesh (Maccaferri Literature
1988). Initial cuts are provided during tension test to simulate unexpected break of wire.
These test results show woven wire mesh is stronger than welded wire mesh. This could
be attributed to the redistribution of stresses in all directions without causing localized
stress concentration in case of woven wire mesh. Whereas, in case of welded wire mesh
stress is distributed along axis of mesh wires only. Stress concentration is developed at
welded joints with possible failure of joints. This is due to the “rigid” nature of welds
which take major part of the load causing failure. Figure 2 illustrates the mechanism of
load transfer in case of woven and welded wire mesh. In case of welded wire mesh a peak
at the point of load application can be observed. Whereas, in case of woven wire mesh
relatively low peak was observed. Woven mesh is flexible in all directions due to
mechanical nature of twists. However, the wires will always be weak at the twists due to
the yielding and elongation required to form the twists. Also, influence of type of water

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(alkaline and acidic) on steel wire mesh can’t be ignored if proper galvanization and PVC
coating is not applied.

The welded wire mesh has very limited elongation compared to the mechanically twisted
mesh. Extensive hydraulic testing of mechanically twisted mesh show the Shield
coefficient is a function of wire mesh to hold the enclosed rock tightly in place (Simons et
al 1984). The closure of the wire mesh plays important role in holding rocks in place. The
lid of the wire mesh should exert pressure on rockfill in the mattress or gabion or wire
crate. When wire crates are under-filled, with loose rock, the shear stress resistance of the
wire crate is drastically reduced and cause failure (Simons et al 1984). Welded wire mesh
poses a problem in closing the lid when wire crate is overfilled. Wires used to produce
welded wire mesh are straight due to which welded wire crates are not flexible. Welded
wire manufacturers have recommended under filling of mattresses to allow easier closure
of their lids. However, under filling of the gabion mattresses/gabions allow the rock to
move inside the crate and could cause failure when the soil is exposed to the flow. Failure
mechanism of welded mesh gabions and mechanically woven mesh gabions is studied by
experts (Maccaferri Literature1988) by carrying out full-scale test. Both welded and
woven mesh gabion exhibited flexibility but welded gabions opened up vertically from
bottom. After dissection of welded gabions, it was reported that weld has not failed but
wire had failed in tension. In case of woven mesh a PVC (Polyvinyl Chloride) coating can
be applied during manufacturing process. But in case of welded mesh it is difficult
because of welding process. Also, welding process heat up the wire near by weld spot
forming weak spot.

4.3 Comparison between Hand Made and Mechanically Woven Wire Mesh Crates
Strength and performance of steel wire crates depends on: i) Strength of mild steel wire
used for the manufacturing of the gabions; ii) Type of coating applied in order to protect
the wire from corrosion; iii) Mesh panel strength; iv) Strength of double twist; and v)
Connection to Selvedges. Hand made wire crates have the non-uniform mesh size (Fig. 3).
As these wire crates are made without any precise standards, quality control of these
crates is very difficult. Performance of boulder wire crates reckons on uniformity of mesh
opening. In case of hand made wire crates non-uniform mesh size cause loosening of the
boulder and require boulders of large sizes (Fig. 4). Large size boulders in crates produce
more voids reducing density of the structure. On contrary mechanically weaved crates
have uniform mesh size and require boulders of 1.5 times the size of mesh opening (Fig.
8). This makes the mechanically woven wire crates denser. Uniform twisting of wire
makes mesh stronger and rigid. In case of hand made wire crates non-uniform twisting of
mesh makes mesh susceptible to unraveling when cut compared to mechanically woven
mesh. Mechanical Selvedging in the Machine made gabions gives the following
characteristics:
i) To reinforce the structure in order to make the gabions as rigid as possible and to impart
monolithicity to the structures when joining with one crate to another
ii) To prevent the unraveling of the wire mesh. The machine made selvedged mesh panels
achieve above requirements whereas, hand made mesh panels can not achieve the above
qualities. In hand made mesh panels, the selvedge wire is held by a ring from mesh wire.
Thus technically, there is almost no proper connection to selvedges, in case of hand made
mesh panels.

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5. Case Study
5.1 Devi Nadi and Mahanadi Orrisa (Near Paradeep)
The embankment and river bed of Devi river was severely eroded in October 1999
cyclone. Mahanadi river near Paradeep also was severely eroded with large pocket
formations. Some temporary protection works (rip-rap and bamboo piling) were observed
to be dislodged. Devi river sites being close to Bay of Bengal, small tidal waves (in the
range of 0.2 m - 0.5 m) are present throughout the year. These waves, combined with the
velocity of water (2-3 m/sec) have dislodged the existing protection works. The
embankment were reconstructed using locally available earth fill compacted to 90% of
maximum dry density. The side slope of the embankment is protected with 0.5 m thick
Gabion revetment (Fig. 8). For Mahanadi site permanent protection of the bank formed by
loose dumping of rock was done with Gabion revetment. The project was a World Bank
aided project. The project involved under water placement of Gabion mattress. The
prefilled mattresses were placed on the bed of river with crane. The mattresses were
placed at a depth of 15 - 18 meters under water. Cost effectiveness, flexibility of mattress
to adapt to the bank profile, durability were major factors for adopting mattress for
protection work.

5.3 Delhi Noida bridge across the river Yamuna (1999)

The Delhi Administration had proposed a Road Bridge across the River Yamuna
downstream of the existing ISBT (Inter State Bus Terminus) road bridge, for the Mass
Rapid Transport System. The protection works for the river training works were designed
for a design discharge of 14866 cum/s and a maximum velocity 3.3 m/s. Taking into
consideration the fact that the stability of the Reno mattress depends not only on the
strength of the mesh but also the grading of the stone fill, the Reno Mattress and Gabion
thickness was worked out for the design velocity of flow in the river. Figure 11 presents
view of the bed lining provided at Delhi Noida bridge.

5.4 Andhra Pradesh State Highway Project (2002)

Gabion retaining wall was proposed for Canal slope stabilization for an approximate
length of 3.5-km. At the site location, the soil stratum along the canal bed is primarily
blackish clay having high plasticity and swelling characteristics with very low bearing
capacity. Apart from the proposed gabion wall, Gabion Mattress of 0.5m thickness has
also been provided for another stretch along the canal where canal side slope needs to be
protected against scour/erosion. Figure 12 shows the gabion retaining wall provided for
canal slope stabilization.

5.2 Emilia Romanga (1963 Italy)

Bank protection of a stretch of the Reno river on Bologna, near residential and industrial
developments (Fig. 9). After 25 years of service the structure is in good shape and
perfectly matched to the river environment which it helped to restore (Fig. 10).

6. Wire Crates in Indian Standards

The Indian Road Congress has laid down guidelines (IRC: 89:1985). It gives guidelines
for the design of approach embankments, guide bunds, hydraulic model studies and
details of hand made wire mesh crates Para 5.3.7.3 (Appendix-2). Para 5.3.5.2 specifies
criteria for thickness of pitching based on the design discharge, not on discharge
intensity/velocity. It lays guidelines for hand made crates which are based on weight of
crates required for stability. From research studies reported it is understood that thickness
of pitching is the function of velocity of water in stream, type of boulder crate, state of top

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lid of mattress, size of boulder etc (Simons et al 1984). Also it can be noted that
mechanically woven, selvedged and properly laced wire crates behave as monolithic
structure. Monolithic behavior and tight top lid of mechanically woven wire crate gives
high Shield coefficient resulting comparatively thin mattress requirement (~ 50 - 60%).
As discussed in Section 4.3 stone size and crate size can be reduced resulting in easy
handling and reduction in cost of transportation and labour. International standards are
available for mechanically woven wire mesh crates (ASTM A975). However present IRC
clauses are silent about above discussed points and detailed specifications of these types
of crates. Thus it is dire demand to modify the existing clauses to include the
advancement in woven wire mesh technology.

7. Conclusions
In river engineering wire mesh used for boulder crates is hand made, mechanically woven
and welded. It is clear from the above discussion that the strength and performance of
wire crates depends on: i) strength of mild steel wire; ii) type of coating; iii)
manufacturing process; iv) strength of twist and v) type of selvedging. Based on the
comparison between different types of crates following conclusions can be drawn.
1. Polymer boulder crates are flexible and are susceptible to damage due to abrasion,
UV rays, creep and temperature variation. These crates can be used for temporary
works having life span of less than 5 years.
2. Long term strength of steel wire mesh is about 90% of initial strength. On the
other hand, long term strength of polymer boulder crates is 40 to 50 % of initial
strength.
3. Polymer crates are highly flexible and usually buldge during construction.
Mechanically woven wire mesh is moderately flexible and does not buldge.
4. Welds in welded wire mesh are rigid and attracts loads causing stress
concentration. Whereas, in case of mechanically woven wire mesh load is
distributed in all direction. Because of this difference in behavior of two mesh
types, mechanically woven wire mesh is stronger in comparison to welded wire
mesh.
5. Mechanically woven wire mesh is flexible compared to welded mesh allowing
overfilling of boulder crates. Overfilling of boulder crates keeps the lid of crates in
tension holding boulders in place when subjected to high shear stresses (Flow of
water in river is very high).
6. Selvedging of crates is done to make them rigid and to prevent unraveling of
mesh. Mechanical selvedged crates are rigid whereas, hand selvedged crates form
a weak connection between mesh panels and diaphragms of crates.
7. Performance of boulder crates reckons on mesh panel strength, strength of twist
and uniform mesh size. These requisites are very well fulfilled by mechanically
woven wire mesh.
8. The non-uniformity of the mesh in hand made boulder crates obligate to choose
for larger fill material which increases the void ratio, decreasing the stability of the
structure.

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8. References
1. Agostini, R., Cesario, L., Ferraiolo, F. and Papetti, A. (1988a) “Flexible gabion
and Reno mattress structures in river and stream training works” Officine
Maccaferri S.p.A.-Bologna, Italy.
2. Agostini, R., Mazzalai, P. and Papetti, A. (1988b) “Hexagonal wire mesh for rock-
fall and slope stabilization” Officine Maccaferri S.p.A., Publications, Bologna-
Italy.
3. ASTM A974 Standard specifications for Welded wire fabric gabions and gabion
mattresses (Metallic-coated or polyvinyl chloride coated), American Society for
Testing and Materials
4. ASTM A975 Standard Specification for Double–Twisted Hexagonal Mesh
Gabions and Revet Mattresses (Metallic–Coated Steel Wire or Metallic-Coated
Steel Wire with Poly (Vinyl Chloride) (PVC) Coating, American Society for
Testing and Materials.
5. Brown, C.T. (1979) “Gabion report or some factors affecting the use of Maccaferri
gabions and Reno mattresses for coastal revetments” University, NSW, Water
Research Lab., Report No. 156.
6. EN 10233 (1997) Steel wire and wire products for fences – Part 3: Hexagonal steel
wire netting for engineering purposes, European standard.
7. EN 10244-2 (2000) Steel wire and wire products-Non ferrous metallic coatings on
steel wire-Part2: Zinc or Zinc alloy coatings, European standard.
8. FHWA NHI 01-004 HDS 6 “River engineering for highway encroachments
highways in the river environment” The Federal Highway Administration, USA.
9. Gharpure, A. and Korulla, M. (2003) “River training and pier protection works for
Delhi-Noida bridge on river Yamuna- A post project overview of cost
effectiveness of gabion and reno mattress technology” Technical Volume of
Bridge Appurtenances, Pune, pp. 61-76.
10. IRC 89:1997 “Guidelines for design and construction of river training and control
works for road bridges” Indian Road Congress.
11. Kabaila, A.P. (1979) “Report on structural study of two types of gabion mesh”
Unisearch Limited, The Univ. of New South Wales.
12. Maccaferri Literature (1988) “Report on Maccaferri gabions and welded mesh”.
13. Simons, D.B., Chen, Y.H. and Swenson, L.J. (1984) “Hydraulic test to develop
design criteria for the use of reno mattresses” Civil Engg. Dept.- Engg. Research
Center, Colarado State University.
14. Technical Note “River training and protection” Railway – Engineering
Department.
15. Van Santvoort, G.P.T.M. (1994) “Geotextiles and geomembranes in civil
engineering” A.A. Balkema (pubs), Rotterdam.

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a) Side view of Procupines b) Plan of Procupines

Figure 1 Typical views of Procupines

Welded wire
mesh

Woven wire mesh

load is applied
4th wire

2nd wire

2nd wire
3rd wire

3rd wire

4th wire
1st wire

1st wire
Wire where

Figure 2 Wire stress distribution across the panel

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 Figure 3 Non-uniform mesh size of hand made boulder crate

Figure 4 Deformed hand made boulder crate

Figure 5 Deformed polymer wire crates

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 Figure 6 Polymer wire crates

Figure 7 View of mechanical woven steel wire crate

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 Figure 8 Bank protection using mechanically woven wire mattress (Mahanadi River)

Figure 9 Reno river bank protected with mechanically woven wire mesh (1963)

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 Figure 10 Reno river bank after 25 years

Figure 11 Bed lining using reno mattress at the bridge site

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 Figure 12 Gravity wall constructed at canal edge

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