SEMICONDUCTOR THEORY The diode current equation

kVd

• Atomic Structure I d = I s (e Tk − 1)
Diameter of neutron = 10-13 cm
Where: Id = diode current
Maximum number of electrons per shell or orbit Is = reverse saturation current or leakage
N e = 2n 2 current
Vd = forward voltage across the diode
n = 1, 2,3, 4
Tk = room temperature at °K
Letter designation = °C + 273
K shell – 1 O shell – 5 11600
L shell – 2 P shell – 6 k=
M shell – 3 Q shell – 7 n
N shell – 4
for low levels of diode current
Mass and Charge of different Particles n = 1 for Ge and n = 2 for Si
Particle Mass (kg) Charge (C)
−
for higher levels of diode current
Electron 9.1096 × 10 31
− 1.6022 × 10−19 n = 1 for both Si and Ge
Proton 1.6726 × 10−27 + 1.6022 × 10 −19
Neutron 1.6726 × 10−27 No charge Temperature effects on Is
I sT1 = I sT0 e k (T1−T0 )
A = no. of protons + no. of neutrons
Z = number of protons or electrons Where: IsT1 = saturation current at temperature T1
IsT0 = saturation current at room temperature
Where: A = Atomic mass or weight (A) k = 0.07/°C
Z = Atomic number (Z) T1 = new temperature
T0 = room temperature (25°C)
Note: Mass of proton or neutron is 1836 times that
of electron. Reverse Recovery Time (Trr)
Energy Gap Comparison
Trr = t s + tt
Element No. of Valence Energy
Electrons (Ve)
Insulator 8 > 5eV Where: Trr = time elapsed from forward to reverse
bias (ranges from a few ns to few hundreds
Semiconductor 4 Si = 1.1eV
of ps)
Ge = .67eV
Tt = transition time
Conductor 1 0eV
Ts = storage time
At room temperature: there are approximately
1.5×1010 of free electrons in a cubic centimeter DC CIRCUITS 1
(cm3) for intrinsic silicon and 2.5×1013 for
germanium. 1 Coulomb = 6.24×1018 electrons

• Diode Theory By definition: A wire of 1 mil diameter has a cross-

sectional area of 1 Circular Mil (CM)
VthT 1 = VthT 0 + k (T1 − T0 )
1 mil = 10-3 in
where: VthT1 = threshold voltage at T1 1 in = 1000 mils
VthT0 = threshold voltage at T0 Asquare = 1 mil2
k = –2.5 mV/°C for Ge
k = –2.0 mV/°C for Si

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 πD 2
Acircle = mil 2 Temperature effects on resistance
4
4 R2 T + t 2 1
1mil 2 = CM = α1 =
π R1 T + t1 T + t1
R2 = R1[1 + α 1 (t 2 − t1 )]
Type/Flavors of Quarks
Quark Symbol Charge Baryon no. where: |T| = inferred absolute temperature, °C
Up U +2/3 1/3 R2 = final resistance at final temp. t2
Down D –1/3 1/3 R1 = initial resistance at initial temp. t1
Charm C +2/3 1/3 α1 = temp coefficient of resistance at t1
Strange S –1/3 1/3
Top T +2/3 1/3 American Wire Gauge (AWG)
Bottom B –1/3 1/3 AWG #10: A = 5.261 mm2
AWG #12: A = 3.309 mm2
Proton – 2 Up and 1 Down AWG #14: A = 2.081 mm2
Neutron – 1 Up and 2 Down
Inferred Absolute Temp. for Several Metals
Types of Battery Material Inferred absolute zero, °C
Type Height (in) Diameter (in) Aluminum -236
D 2 14 1 14 Copper, annealed -234.5
C 1 34 1 Copper, hard-drawn -242
AA 178 9
16
Iron -180
AAA 1 4
3 3 Nickel -147
8
Silver -243
Steel, soft -218
Q Coulomb(C )
I= Ampere( A); Tin -218
t sec ond ( s ) Tungsten -202
Zinc -250
W Joule( J )
V = Volt (V );
Q Coulomb(C ) Temperature-Resistance Coefficients at 20 °C
Material α20
RA Ω − CM Nickel 0.006
ρ= Ω − m; Ω − cm; Iron, commercial 0.0055
L ft
Tungsten 0.0045
Resistivities of common metals and alloys Copper, annealed 0.00393
Material ρ (10-8Ω-m) Aluminum 0.0039
Aluminum (Al) 2.6 Lead 0.0039
Brass 6 Copper, hard-drawn 0.00382
Carbon 350 Silver 0.0038
Constantan (60% Cu and 40% Ni) 50 Zinc 0.0037
Copper (Cu) 1.7 Gold, pure 0.0034
Manganin (84% Cu, 12%Mn & 44 Platinum 0.003
4%Ni) Bras 0.002
Nichrome 100 Nichrome 0.00044
Silver (Ag) 1.5 German Silver 0.0004
Tungsten (W) 5.6 Nichrome II 0.00016
Manganin 0.00003
Absolute zero = 0 K = –273°C Advance 0.000018
ρCu = 10.37 Ω–CM/ft Constantan 0.000008

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 Gold - - 0.1 5 +100
1 A A Silver - - 0.01 10 Bypass
G= = =σ None - - - 20 -
R ρL L GMV = Guaranteed Minimum Value: -0%, +100%
where: σ = specific conductance or conductivity of
the material in siemens/m or mho/m. Fifth band reliability color code
Color Failures during 1000
Note: The best is silver with 1.68×1024 free hours of operation
electrons per in3. Next is copper with 1.64×1024 free Brown 1.0%
electrons per in3 and then aluminum with 1.6×1024 Red 0.1%
free electrons per in3. Orange 0.01%
Yellow 0.001%
W Q E2
P= = E = IE = = I 2R
t t R Batteries
where: W = work in Joules (J) Ampere − hour _ rating ( Ah)
t = time in seconds (s) Battery life =
Amperes _ drawn ( A)
Q = charge in Coulomb (C)
Cell Types and Open-Circuit Voltage
Voltage Division Theorem
Cell Name Type Nominal Open-
2 resistors in series with one
Circuit Voltage
R1 R2
V1 = E V2 = E Carbon-zinc Primary 1.5
R1 + R2 R1 + R2 Zinc-chloride Primary 1.5
Manganese Primary or 1.5
Current Division Theorem dioxide (alkaline) Secondary
R2 R1 Mercuric oxide Primary 1.35
I1 = IT I2 = IT
R1 + R2 R1 + R2 Silver oxide Primary 1.5
Lead-acid Secondary 2.1
Transformations or Conversations: Nickel-cadmium Secondary 1.25
Delta (Δ) to Wye (Y) Nickel-iron Secondary 1.2
Pr oduct _ of _ adjacent _ R _ in _ ∆ (Edison cell)
RY =
∑ of _ all _ R _ in _ ∆
Silver-zinc Secondary 1.2
Silver-cadmium Secondary 1.1
Nickel metal Secondary 1.2
Wye (Y) to Delta (Δ) hydride (NiMH)
R∆ =
∑ of _ cross _ products _ in _ Y
Opposite _ R _ in _ Y DIODES

Color Coding Table • Diode Applications

Color 1st 2nd Toler- Temp Half–wave Rectification
signifi- signifi- Multiplier rance Coef V
cant cant (±%) ppm/°C VDC = m = 0.318Vm
Black 0 0 100 20 0 π
Brown 1 1 101 1 -33 PIV rating ≥ Vm
Red 2 2 102 2 -75
Orange 3 3 103 3 -150 Full–wave Rectification
Yellow 4 4 104 GMV -220 t
1
∫
Green 5 5 105 5 -330
Blue 6 6 106 - -470
Vrms = V (t ) 2 dt
T 0
Violet 7 7 107 - -750
Gray 8 8 108 - +30 VDC = 0.36Vm
White 9 9 109 - +500 PIV rating ≥ Vm for bridge-type

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 PIV rating ≥ 2Vm for center-tapped In terms of the applied reverse bias voltage:
C (0)
CT =
• Other Semiconductor Devices  VR 
n

Zener Diode 1 + 

∆VZ  VT 
TCC = where: C(0) = capacitance at zero-bias condition
VZ (T1 − T0 )
where: TCC = temperature coefficient
Also,
T1–T0 = change in temperature
∆C
VZ = Zener Voltage at T0 TC C =
C O (T1 − T0 )
Basic Zener Regulator where: TCC = temperature coefficient
I. Vi and RL fixed T1 – T0 = change in temperature
(a) Determine the state of the Zener diode by C0 = capacitance at T0
removing it from the network and calculating the
voltage across the resulting open circuit. Photodiode
(b) Substitute the appropriate equivalent circuit and c
W = hf = h ; Joules
solve for the desired unknown. λ
where: W = energy associated with incident light
II. Fixed RL, variable Vi waves
( R + RS )VZ h = Planck’s constant (6.624×10-34 J-sec)
Vi min = L Vi max = I R max RS + VZ
RL f = frequency

III. Fixed Vi, variable RL 1eV = 1.6×10-9 J

1 Angstrom (Å) = 10-10 m
RVZ VZ
RL min = RL max =
Vi − VZ I L min Solar Cell
PO Pmax
Varactor diode or Varicap diode η= =
Pi  1W 
A ( Area ) 2 
CT = ε  cm 
Wd
where: η = efficiency
where: CT = transition capacitance which is due to P0 = electrical power output
the established covered charges on either side Pi = power provided by the light source
of the junction Pmax = maximum power rating of the device
A = pn junction area Area = in cubic centimeters
Wd = depletion width
Note: The power density received from the sun at
In terms of the applied reverse bias voltage: sea level is about 1000 mW/cm2
k
CT =
(VT + VR ) n BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR
where: CT = transition capacitance which is due to
the established covered charges on either side widthtotal 0.150
of the junction Ratio = = = 150
width base 0.001
k = constant determined by the
semiconductor material and construction
technique • Basic Operation
VT = knee voltage Relationship between IE, IB and IC:
VR = reverse voltage I E = IB + IC
n = ½ for alloy junctions and ⅓ for diffused
junctions

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 IC is composed of two components: h21 = forward transfer current ratio, hf
I C = I majority + I min ority h22 = output conductance, ho

DC Transistor Parameters H-Parameters typical values

CE CB CC
 ∆I   ∆I 
α =  C  β =  C  hi 1kΩ 20Ω 1kΩ
 ∆I E  Vcb =cons tan t  ∆I B Vce = cons tan t hr 2.5×10-4 3×10-4 ≈1
IC I hf 50 -0.98 -50
α= β= C ho 25μS 0.5μS 25μS
IE IB
where: IE = emitter current
Comparison between 3 transistor configurations
IB = base current
CB CE CC
IC = collector current
Zi low moderate high
α = CB short-circuit amplification factor
β = CE forward-current amplification factor Zo high moderate low
Ai low high moderate
Relationship between α and β: Av high high low
β α Ap moderate high low
α= β= shift none 180° none
β +1 1−α
B. Re Model
Stability Factor (S): Note:
∆I C
S ( I CO ) = Unitless Common Base : hib = re ; hfb = –1
∆I CO Common Emitter: β = hfe ; βre = hie
∆I C
S ( I CO ) = Siemens FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTORS
∆VBE
∆I
S ( I CO ) = C Ampere • JFET
∆β 2
 V  2 I DSS
I D = I DSS 1 − GS  g mo =
Small Signal Analysis  VP  VP
A. Hybrid Model 2 I DSS  VGS  ∆I d
Vi = h11 I in + h12V0 gm = 1 −  =
VP  VP  ∆V gs Vds = 0
I o = h21 I in + h22V0
0 ≤ VGS ≤ 5
If Vo = 0 where:
Vi Id = drain current
h11 = ohms Idss = drain-source saturation current
I in Vgs = gate source voltage
If Iin = 0 Vp = Vgs (off), pinch-off voltage
Vi gm = gfs, device transconductance
h12 = unitless
V0 gmo = the maximum ac gain parameter of the JFET
If Vo = 0
I0 • MOSFET
h21 = unitless I DS = k (VGS − VTH ) 2
I in
If Iin = 0 k = 0.3mA / V 2
I0
h11 = siemens • FET biasing
V0
where: h11 = input-impedance, hi
h12 = reverse transfer voltage ratio, hr

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 DC bias of a FET requires setting the gate-source Vdc = average value of the filter’s output
voltage, which results in a desired drain current. Vgg voltage
is used to reverse bias the gate so that Ig = 0.
Vr (rms ) = 0.385Vm half–wave rectified signal
POWER SUPPLY Vr (rms ) = 0.308Vm full–wave rectified signal

• Transformer • Filter
I p Vs N Zs Vr ( p − p )
a= = = s = Vr (rms ) =
Vr ( p )
=
Is Vp N p Zp 3 2 3
where: a = turns ratio I dc 2.4 I dc 2.4Vdc
Vs = secondary induce voltage Vr (rms ) = = =
4 3 fC C RL C
Vp = primary voltage
Ns = no. of turns on the secondary windings V ( p − p) I 4.17 I dc
Vdc = Vm − r = Vm − dc = Vm −
Np = no. of turns on the primary windings 2 4 fC C
Ip = current in the primary windings V (rms ) 2.4 I dc 2.4
Is = current in the secondary windings r= r × 100% = × 100% = × 100%
Vdc CVdc RL C
Zs = impedance of the load connected to the
secondary winding where: Idc = the load current in mA
Zp = impedance looking into the primary C = filter capacitor in μF
from source RL = load resistance at the filter stage in kΩ
Vm = the peak rectified voltage
• Rectifier Idc = the load current in mA
Half–wave signal C = filter capacitor in μF
f = frequency at 60 Hz
Vm
Vdc = 0.318Vm Vrms =
2 • Regulator
Vdc = 0.636Vrms PIV = 2Vrms Voltage Regulation
Ripple frequency = AC input frequency Vnoload − V fload
V .R. = × 100%
V fload
Full–wave rectified signal (bridge type)
V
Vdc = 0.636Vm Vrms = m Stability factor (S)
2 ∆Vout
Vdc = 0.9Vrms PIV = 2Vrms S= (constant output current)
∆Vin
Ripple frequency = 2×AC input frequency
Improved series regulation
Full–wave with center-tapped transformer
R + R2
Vdc = 0.9Vrms of the half the secondary Vo = 1 (VZ + VBE 2 )
= 0.45Vrms of the full secondary R2
= 0.637Vpk of half of the secondary
= 0.637Vpk of the full secondary INSTRUMENTATION
PIV = 1.414Vrms of full secondary
• DC Ammeter
AC Vr (rms ) Relationship between current without the
r= =
DC Vdc ammeter and current with the ammeter
I wm Ro
Vr (rms ) = Vrms − Vdc
2 2
=
I wom Ro + Rm
where: r = ripple factor where: Iwm = current with meter
Vr(rms) = rms value of the ripple voltage Iwom = current without meter
Ro = equivalent resistance

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 Rm = internal resistance of ammeter I Ro
D= =
I fs Ro + Ru
Accuracy Equation of an ammeter
where: Ifs = full scale current
I
accuracy = wm Voc = open circuit voltage
I wom Ro = internal resistance of ohmmeter
D = meter deflection
Percent of loading error Ru = unknown resistance
%error = (1 − accuracy ) × 100%
• AC Detection
Ammeter Shunt 0.45
S ac = Sensitivity for a half-wave rectifier
I fs Rm Rm Rsh I fs
Rsh = Rinsh =
I t − I fs Rm + Rsh 0.9
S ac = Sensitivity for a full-wave rectifier
Vin I fs Rm I fs
Rin sh = =
I in It
where: Rsh = shunt resistance • DC Bridges
Ifs = full scale current Wheatstone bridge ohmmeter
Rm = meter resistance Bridge is balance if
It = total current R1 R3
=
Rinsh = input resistance of the shunted meter R2 R4
Vin = voltage input
Iin = current input
• Attenuators
Ro = Rins Rino
• Voltmeter
For full scale current where: Ro = characteristic resistance
Vfs = (Rs + Rm)Ifs Rins = input resistance with output terminals
V fs shorted
Rs = − Rm Rino = input resistance with output terminals
I fs
open
Rin = Rs + Rm
where: Vfs = full scale voltage L type or the voltage divider
Rs = series resistor R2 V 1
Rin = input resistance gain = attenuation = in =
R1 + R2 Vout gain
Sensitivity of Voltmeter R1 X RC
= C1 C1 = 2 2
1 V fs R2 X C 2 R1
S= Rin =
I fs I fs
Symmetrical Attenuator
R
Voltmeter Loading Error m = 2 ; R2 = mR1
V Rin R1
accuracy = wm =
Vwom Rin + Ro
Symmetrical T Analysis
R V
Vwm = in wom Vin 1 + m + 1 + 2m
Rin + Ro R0 = R1 1 + 2m a= =
Vout m
• Ohmmeter
V Voc Symmetrical Pi Analysis
I fs = oc I= R2 V 1 + m + 1 + 2m
Ro Ro + Ru R0 = a = in =
1 + 2m Vout m

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 Design Formulas for T Attenuator 6 1001
a2 −1 a +1 7 1010
R1 = Ro R2 = Ro 8 1011
2a a −1
9 1100

Design Formulas for T Attenuator Gray Code (Reflected Code)

a −1 2a DECIMAL DIGIT Gray Code
R1 = Ro R2 = 2 Ro 0 0000
a +1 a −1
1 0001
Variable Attenuator 2 0011
Analysis 3 0010
R1 4 0110
R1 = R0 a= +1 5 0111
R2
6 0101
7 0100
Design 8 1100
R0 a −1
R1 = R0 R2 = R3 = 9 1101
a −1 R0 10 1111
11 1110
COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS 12 1010
13 1011
r's complement 14 1001
(rn)10 – N 15 1000

(r – 1)’s complement DECIMAL 84-2-1 2421 Biquinary

(rn – r-m)10 – N 5043210
0 0000 0000 0100001
Types of Binary Coding 1 0111 0001 0100010
Binary Coded Decimal Code (BCD) 2 0110 0010 0100100
DECIMAL DIGIT BCD Equivalent 3 0101 0011 0101000
0 0000 4 0100 0100 0110000
1 0001 5 1011 1011 1000001
2 0010 6 1010 1100 1000010
3 0011 7 1001 1101 1000100
4 0100 8 1000 1110 1001000
5 0101 9 1111 1111 1010000
6 0110
7 0111 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS
8 1000
9 1001 VD = V+ – V-
where: VD = differential voltage
Excess-3-code V+ = voltage at the non-inverting terminal
DECIMAL DIGIT Excess-3 V- = voltage at the inverting terminal
0 0011
1 0100 Ad
2 0101 CMRR =
Ac
3 0110
4 0111 where: Ad = differential gain of the amplifier
Ac = common-gain of the amplifier
5 1000

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 Slew rate • Logic Family Criterion
∆Vo Propagation delay is the average transition delay
SR = = 2πf max V pk
∆t time for a signal to propagate from input to output.
where: fmax = highest undistorted frequency t +t
t p = PHL PLH
Vpk = peak value of output sine wave 2
where: tp = propagation delay
Differentiator tPHL = propagation delay high to low
dVin transition
Vo = − RC tPLH = propagation delay low to high
dt
transition
Integrator
1 Power dissipation is the amount of power that an IC
RC ∫
Vo = − Vin dt drains from its power supply.
I + I CCL
I CC ( AVG ) = CCH
Basic non-inverting amplifier 2
R PD ( AVG ) = I CC ( AVG ) × VCC
gain = 1 + 2
R1 where: ICCH = current drawn from the power supply
at high level
Basic inverting amplifier ICCL = current drawn from the power supply
at low level
R2
gain = −
R1 Noise Margin is the maximum noise voltage added
to the input signal of a digital circuit that does not
LOGIC GATES cause an undesirable change in the circuit output.

• Boolean Algebra Low State Noise Margin

Postulated and Theorems of Boolean algebra NM L = VIL − VOL
X +0 = X X •1 = X where: NM = Noise Margin
X + X '= 1 X • X '= 0 VIL = low state input voltage
VOL = low state output voltage
X+X =X X•X =X
X +1 = 1 X •0 = 0 High State Margin
NM H = VOH − VIH
(Commutative Law)
where: NM = Noise Margin
X +Y = Y + X X •Y = Y • X
VIH = high state input voltage
VOH = high state output voltage
(Associative Law)
Logic Swing
X + (Y + Z ) = ( X + Y ) + Z X • (YZ ) = ( XY ) • Z
Vls = VOH − VOL
(Distributive Law) where: Vls = voltage logic swing
X (Y + Z ) = XY + YZ VOH = high state output voltage
VOL = low state output voltage
X + (YZ ) = ( X + Y )(Y + Z )
Transition Width
(Law of Absorption) Vtw = VIH − VIL
( X + Z ) X + XY = X X + (X + Y ) = X
where: Vtw = voltage transition width
VIH = high state input voltage
(De Morgan’s Theorem)
VIL = low state input voltage
( X + Y )' = X ' Y ' ( XY )' = X '+Y '

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 TYPICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF IC LOGIC F = force (Newton)
FAMILIES Q = charge (Coulomb)
IC Fan Power Propagation Noise V = voltage across the plates (volt)
Logic out Dissipation Delay (ns) Margin d = distance between plates (m)
Family (mW) (V)
Standard 10 10 10 0.4 Coulomb’s Laws of Electrostatics
TTL First Law:
Schottky 10 22 3 0.4 “Unlike charges attract each other while like charges
repel.”
Low 20 2 10 0.4
power
Schottky Second Law:
TTL “The force of attraction or repulsion between
ECL 25 25 2 0.2 charges is directly proportional to the product of the
CMOS 50 0.1 25 3 two charges but inversely proportional to the square
of distance between them.”
LEVEL OF INTEGRATION kQ Q
F = 12 2
Level of Integration No. of gates per chip r
Small Scale Integration Less than 12 1
(SSI) k= ε = ε rε 0
4πε
Medium Scale 12 – 99
Integration (MSI) Permittivity
Large Scale Integration 100 – 9999 A measure of how easily the dielectric will “permit”
(LSI) the establishment of flux line within the dielectric.
Very Large Scale 10000 – 99999 D
Integration (VLSI) ε =
ξ
Ultra Large Scale 100000 or more −9
10 F
Integration (LSI) For vacuum, ε 0 = = 8.854 × 10 −12
36π m
CAPACITOR/INDUCTOR TRANSIENT
CIRCUITS Capacitance
Q A
C= C = (n − 1)ε
• Capacitors V d
The Gauss Theorem where: Q = charge
“The total electric flux extending from a closed V = voltage
surface is equal to the algebraic sum of the charges n = number of plates
inside the closed surface.” A = plate area
ψ ≡Q d = distance between plates

Electric Flux Density Relative Permittivity (Dielectric Constant) of

various dielectrics
ψ
D= Dielectric Material εr(Average value)
A Vacuum 1.0
where: D = flux density, Tesla (T) or Wb/m2
Air 1.0006
ψ = electric flux, Weber (Wb)
Teflon 2.0
A = plate area, m2
Paper, paraffined 2.5
Rubber 3.0
Electric field strength or intensity (ξ)
Transformer oil 4.0
F V
ξ= = Mica 5.0
Q d Porcelain 6.0
where: ξ = field strength (N/C, V/m) Bakelite 7.0

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 Glass 7.5 Cylindrical capacitor
Distilled water 80.0 ε rl
C= × 10 −9
Barium-strontium titanite 7500.0  b
(ceramic) 41.4 log 
 a
where: a = diameter of single core cable conductor
Dielectric strength of some dielectric materials
and surrounded by an insulation of inner
Dielectric Dielectric Strength
diameter b
Material (Average Value) in V/mil
εr = relative permittivity of the insulation of
Air 75
the cable
Barium-strontium 75
l = length of the cylindrical capacitor
titanite (ceramic)
Porcelain 200
Capacitance of an isolated sphere
Transformer oil 400 C = 4πεr
Bakelite 400 where: r = radius of the isolated sphere in a medium
Rubber 700 of relative permittivity εr
Paper, paraffined 1300
Teflon 1500 Capacitance of concentric spheres
Glass 3000 a.) When outer sphere earthed
Mica 5000 ab
C = 4πε
(b − a )
Energy stored
Where: a and b are radii of two concentric spheres
1 Q2 ε = permittivity of the dielectric between two
E= CV 2 =
2 2C spheres

Capacitors in Series b.) When inner sphere is earthed

1 b2
CT = C = 4πε
1 1 1 1 (b − a )
+ + + ... +
C1 C 2 C 3 Cn
QT = Q1 = Q2 = Q3 = ... = Qn • Inductors
Inductance (L) is a measure of the ability of a coil
Capacitors in Parallel to oppose any change in current through the coil and
CT = C1 + C 2 + C 3 + ... + C n to store energy in the form of a magnetic field in the
region surrounding the coil.
QT = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 + ... + Qn
In terms of physical dimensions,
Other capacitor configurations N2A
Composite medium parallel-plate capacitor L=µ Henry
l
ε0A
C= where: μ = permeability of the core (H/m)
 d1 d 2 d 3  N = number of turns
 + + 
 ε r1 ε r 2 ε r 3  A = area of the core (m2)
where: d1, d2 and d3 = thickness of dielectrics with l = mean length of the core (m)
relative permittivities of εr1, εr2 and εr3 respectively
In terms of electrical definition,
Medium partly air parallel-plate capacitor dφ
L=N
ε0 A di
C=
  
 d − t − t  
 
  εr 

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 Faraday’s Law Mutual inductance
“The voltage induced across a coil of wire equals the It is a measure of the amount of inductive coupling
number of turns in the coil times the rate of change that exists between the two coils.
of the magnetic flux.” M = k L1 L2
dφ
ein = N LTa − LTo
dt M =
4
where: N = number of turns of the coil
where: k = coupling coefficient
dφ
= change in the magnetic flux L1 and L2 = self-inductances of coils 1 and 2
dt LTa and LTo = total inductances with mutual
inductance
Lenz’s Law
“An induced effect is always such as to oppose the Coupling coefficient (k)
cause that produced it.” M
dφ k=
ein = − N L1 L2
dt
flux _ linkage _ between _ L1 _ and _ L2
k=
Induced voltage by Faraday’s Law flux _ produced _ by _ L1
di
eL = L
dt Formulas for other coil geometries
(a) LONG COIL
Energy stored N2A
1 2 L=µ
WL = LI l
2
(b) SHORT COIL
Inductance without mutual inductance in series N2A
LT = L1 + L2 + L3 + ... + Ln L=µ
l + 0.45d
where: L = inductance (H)
With mutual inductance (M) μ = permeability (4π×10-7 for air)
a.) when fields are aiding N = number of turns
LTa = L1 + L2 + 2 M A = cross-sectional area of the coil (m2)
l = length of the core (m)
b.) when fields are opposing d = diameter of core (m)
LTo = L1 + L2 − 2M
(c) TOROIDAL COIL with rectangular cross-
Total inductance without mutual inductance (M) section
N 2h d2
LT =
1 L=µ ln
1 1 1 1 2π d1
+ + + ... +
L1 L2 L3 Ln where: h = thickness
d1 and d2 = inner and outer diameters
With mutual inductance (M)
(d) CIRCULAR AIR-CORE COIL
a.) when fields are aiding
L1 L2 − M 2 0.07( RN ) 2
L=
LT ( a ) = 6 R + 9l + 10b
L1 + L2 − 2 M
d b
R= +
b.) when fields are opposing 2 2
where: L = inductance (μH)
L1 L2 − M 2
LT ( o) = N = number of turns
L1 + L2 + 2 M d = core diameter, in

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 b = coil build-up, in L  − t 
R R
− t
l = length, in τ = v R = E 1 − e L  v L = Ee L
R  
(e) RECTANGULAR AIR-CORE COIL
0.07(CN ) 2 Decay Phase:
L= E − t E −
R t
1.908C + 9l + 10b i= e L = e τ
where: L = inductance (μH) R R
C = d + y + 2b L
τ = RT = R1 + R
d = core height, in RT
y = core width, in
b = coil build-up, in RC Transient Circuit
l = length, in Charging Cycle:
t
−
(f) MAGNETIC CORE COIL (no air gap) q = EC + (q 0 − EC )e RC

0.012 N 2 µA  
L=
t
−
lc q = EC 1 − e RC  with q0 = 0
 
t t
(g) MAGNETIC CORE COIL (with air gap) E − −
i = e RC v R = Ee RC
0.012 N 2 A R
L=
l  −
t

lg + c vC = E 1 − e RC  τ = RC
µ 
 
where: L = inductance (μH)
N = number of turns Discharging Phase:
A = effective cross-sectional area, cm2 t
−
l c = magnetic path length, cm vC = Ee RC
τ = RC
l g = gap length, cm
Μ = magnetic permeability RLC Transient Circuits
Conditions for series RLC transient circuit:
• DC Transient Circuits (1) @ t = 0, i = 0
Circuit Voltage Current (2) @ t = 0, Ldi/dt = E
Element across flowing
R v = iR Current equations
v
i= Case 1 – Overdamped case
R 2
 R  1
L
v=L
di 1
i = ∫ vdt when   > then
dt L  2L  LC
C q 1 dv i = C1e r1t + C 2 e r2t
v = = ∫ idt i=C
C C dt E
C1 = −C 2 C2 = −
2βL
Response of L and C to a voltage source r1 = α + β r2 = α − β
Circuit Element @ t = 0 @ t = ∞
R  R  1
L open short α =− β =  −
C short open 2L  2 L  LC

RL Transient Circuit Case 2 – Critically damped case

2
Storage Cycle:  R  1
when   = then
E − t  E  
R t
−
 L 
i = 1 − e  = 1 − e τ   2L  LC

R  R  i = e αt (C1 + C 2 t )

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 E Total impedance, Z
C1 = 0 C2 =
L Z = R − jX C = Z ∠θ
R XC
α =− Z = R 2 + X C2 θ = − tan −1
2L R
Case 2 – Underdamped case Series RLC Circuit
2
 R  1 Total voltage, VT
when   < then
 2L  LC VT = VR + jVL − jVC = VT ∠θ
i = e αt (C1 cos+ C 2 sin β t ) (VL − VC )
VT = VR2 + (VL − VC ) 2 θ = ± tan −1
R  R  1 VR
α =− β=  −
2L  2 L  LC
Total impedance, Z
E
C1 = 0 C2 = Z = R + jX L − jX C = Z ∠θ
βL
Z = R2 + (X L − X C )2
AC CIRCUITS 1 (X L − XC )
θ = ± tan −1
R
• Introduction to AC: Formulas
V 0.707Vm Total Current, IT
Form factor = rms = = 1.11
Vavg 0.637Vm VT
IT =
Z
Vm Vm
Peak factor = = = 1.4142 • Parallel AC circuits
Vrms 0.707Vm
Parallel RL Circuit
Total Current, IT
1
X L = 2πfL XC = I T = I R − jI L = I T ∠θ
2πfC
IL
I T = I R2 + I L2 θ = − tan −1
• Series AC circuits IR
Series RL Circuit
Total voltage, VT Total admittance, Y
VT = VR + jVL = VT ∠θ Y = G − jBL = Y ∠θ
VL BL
VT = VR2 + VL2 θ = tan −1 Y = G 2 + BL2 θ = − tan −1
VR G

Total impedance, Z Parallel RC Circuit

Z = R + jX L = Z ∠θ Total Current, IT
I T = I R + jI C = I T ∠θ
XL
Z = R 2 + X L2 θ = tan −1 IC
R I T = I R2 + I C2 θ = tan −1
IR
Series RC Circuit
Total voltage, VT Total Admittance, Y
VT = VR − jVC = VT ∠θ Y = G + jBC = Y ∠θ
VC BC
VT = VR2 + VC2 θ = tan −1 Y = G 2 + BC2 θ = tan −1
VR G

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 Parallel RLC Circuit DC Pulse
Total Current, IT a a
I T = I R + jI C − jI L = I T ∠θ Vrms = V p Vavg = V p
b b
I T = I R2 + ( I C − I L ) 2
Triangular or Sawtooth
(IC − I L )
−1
θ = ± tan Vrms = 0.577V p Vavg = 0.5V p
IR
Sine wave on dc level
Total admittance, Y 2
Y = G + jBC − jBL = Y ∠θ Vrms = VDC +
2 Vp
2
Y = G 2 + ( BC − BL ) 2
( BC − BL ) Square wave
θ = ± tan −1
G Vrms = V p Vavg = V p

Total impedance, Z Total voltage, VT

White Noise
1
Z= VT = I T Z 1
Y Vrms ≈ V p
4
Power of AC Circuits
True/Real/Average/Active Power ENERGY CONVERSION
2
V
P = I R R = R = I RVR = VT I T cos θ
2
Types of three-phase alternators
R A. Wye or Star-connected

Reactive Power
2
Vx
Q = I X X eq = = I X V X = VT I T sin θ
2

X eq

Apparent Power
2
V
Q = I T Z = T = VT I T
2

Z VLine = 3V phase
P
cos θ = = Power Factor (PF) I Line = I phase
S
P3φ = 3VL I L cos θ
Q
sin θ = = Reactive Factor (RF) P3φ = 3VP I P cosθ
S
S = P ± jQ = S ∠θ
B. Delta or Mesh-connected
S = P2 + Q2
Q
θ = ± tan −1
P

• Values of other alternating waveforms

Symmetrical Trapezoid
a + 0.577(b − a) a+b
Vrms = Vp Vavg = Vp VLine = V phase
b 2b
I Line = 3I phase

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 P3φ = 3VL I L cos θ Mathematically,
βA ≥ 1
P3φ = 3VP I P cosθ

φ = n × 360° n = 1, 2,3...
Frequency of the AC Voltage Generated in an
Alternator
PN Basic Configuration of a Resonant Circuit
f = Oscillator
120
where: f = frequency (Hz)
P = number of poles (even number)
N = speed of prime mover (rpm)

Speed Characteristics of DC Motors

E
H = ks c
φ
where: Ec = counter emf • LC Oscillators
ks = speed constant Resonant-Frequency Feedback Oscillators
φ = flux Oscillator Type X1 X2 X3
Hartley L L C
Torque Characteristics of DC Motors Colpitts C C L
T = k t φI a Clapp C C Series LC (net L)
where: Ia = armature current Pierce Crystal C C Crystal (net L)
kt = torque constant
φ = flux A. Hartley Oscillator
Amplifier gain without feedback,
R
Speed of an AC Motor AV = −
120 f re
N=
P for a common-emitter configuration
where: N = synchronous speed (rpm)
f = frequency (Hz) The feedback factor,
P = number of poles L2
β =−
L1
OSCILLATORS
To maintain the oscillation,
• Introduction R L
Oscillator Requirements AV = = 1
a. Amplifier re L2
b. Tank circuit
c. Feedback The frequency of oscillation is
1
f0 =
Overall gain with feedback 2π Leq C
A
Af = where
1 + βA Leq = L1 + L2 + 2M

Barkhausen Criterion for Oscillation M = L1 L2

a. The net gain around the feedback loop must be
no less than one; and
b. The net phase-shift around the loop must be a
positive integer multiple of 2π radians or 360°.

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 B. Colpitts Oscillator Parallel
Amplifier gain without feedback, 1
f rp =
R
AV = − CC
2π L s m
re C s + Cm

The feedback factor, Note: Series resonant frequency, frs is slightly lower
C
β =− 1 than parallel resonant frequency, frp.
C2
The frequency of oscillation is • RC Oscillators
1 RC Phase-Shift Oscillator
f0 = The gain of the basic inverting amplifier is,
2π LC eq
Rf
where AV = −
Rs
C1C 2
C eq =
C1 + C 2 The feedback factor is,
1
To maintain the oscillation, β =−
29
R C
AV = = 2
re C1 To maintain the oscillation,
Rf
C. Clapp Oscillator AV = − = −29
Rs
The frequency of oscillation is
1
f0 = The frequency of oscillation is,
2π LC eq 1
f0 =
where 2πRC 6
1
C eq =
1 1 1 Wien Bridge Oscillator
+ +
C1 C 2 C 3 The open-loop gain is
Rf
AV = 1 + =3
• Crystal Oscillators Rs
Frequency drift
LC: 0.8% The feedback factor is
Crystal: 0.0001% (1 ppm) 1
β=
3
Natural frequency of vibration
1
thicknessα To maintain the oscillation,
f Rf
The thicker the crystal, the lower its frequency of =2
Rs
vibration
The frequency of oscillation is,
Series and Parallel Resonant Frequencies
1
Series f0 =
1 2π R1C1 R2 C 2
f rs =
2π LC s
Neglecting loading effects of the op-amp input and
output impedances, the analysis of the bridge results
in

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 Rf R1 C 2 Equations of closed-loop gain for different types
= + (bridge-balance condition) of feedback connections
Rs R2 C1
Feedback Gain with Type of
Type Feedback Amplifier
Therefore, for the bridge to be balanced,
Voltage Av Voltage
R1 = R2 = R and C1 = C2 = C
Series A = Amplifier
1 + β Av
vf

The frequency of oscillation Current Gm Transconductance

1 Series G = Amplifier
1 + βG
mf
f0 = m
2πRC Voltage Transresistance
Rm
Shunt Rmf = Amplifier
FEEDBACK AMPLIFIERS 1 + β Rm
Current Ai Currrent
Shunt Aif = Amplifier
• Types of Feedback Connections 1 + β Ai
Equations of open-loop gain, feedback factor and
closed-loop gain for different types of feedback • Performance Characteristics of Negative
Feedback Source Output A β Af Feedback Networks
Connection Signal Signal Equations of amplifier impedance levels when
Voltage Voltage Voltage v o vf vo using negative feedback connection
Series vi vs Feedback Input Output
vo
Current Voltage Current io vf io Type Resistance Resistance
Series Voltage Ri (1 + β A) Ro
v i v Series 1 + βA
i o s
increased
Voltage Current Voltage vo if vo decreased
Shunt ii vo is Current Ri (1 + β A) Ro (1 + β A)
Current Current Current io if io Series increased increased
Shunt ii io is Voltage Ri Ro
Shunt 1 + βA 1 + βA
Note: Some references try to designate the following decreased decreased
terms to describe the four main types of feedback Current Ri Ro (1 + β A)
equations. Shunt 1 + βA increased
2. Series-shunt = Voltage series
decreased
3. Series-series = Current series
4. Shunt-shunt = Voltage shunt
5. Shunt-series = Current-shunt dA f 1 dA
=
Af 1 + βA A
• Negative Feedback Equations
A dA f
Af = where: = change in gain with feedback
1 + βA Af
where: A = gain without feedback (open-loop gain) dA
Af = gain with feedback (closed-loop gain) = change in gain without feedback
A
1 + βA = desensitivity or sacrifice factor
βA = loop gain magnitude, |βA| = 1
phase-shift, θ = 180°

The limiting condition is for the negative feedback

amplifiers.

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 AC CIRCUITS 2 • Parallel Resonance
A. Theoretical Parallel Resonant Circuit
• Series Resonance

Characteristics of parallel resonance

1. At resonance, BL = BC, XL = XC, IL = IC.
2. At resonance, Z is maximum. Z = RP.
1 3. At resonance, IT is minimum. IT = IRP.
fr =
2π LC 4. At resonance, Z is resistive. θ = 0° (I in phase
where: fr = resonant frequency with E).
L = Inductance 5. At f < fr, Z is inductive. θ = – (I Lags E).
C = Capacitance 6. At f > fr, Z is capacitive. θ = + (I Leads E).

Characteristics of series resonance Q of a Theoretical circuit:

1. At resonance, XL = XC, VL = VC. R R C
2. At resonance, Z is minimum. Z = R. Q = P = P = RP
X L XC L
3. At resonance, I is maximum. I = E/R.
4. At resonance, Z is resistive. θ = 0° (I in phase
Resonant Rise in tank current
with E).
5. At f < fr, Z is capacitive. θ = + (I Leads E). I tan k = QI T = I L = I C
6. At f > fr, Z is inductive. θ = – (I Lags E).
Bandwidth (BW)
Quality Factor (Q) of a resonant circuit: fr
BW = f 2 − f1 =
Re active _ power _ of _ either _ L _ or _ C Q
Q=
Active _ power _ of _ R
XL XC 1 L B. Practical Parallel Resonant Circuit
Q= = =
R R R C

Resonant Rise in Voltage

VL = VC = QE

Bandwidth (BW) is the range of frequencies over

which the operation is satisfactory and is taken
between two half-power (3dB down) points.
f
BW = f 2 − f1 = r Equivalent Theoretical Circuit
Q

If Q ≥ 10; then fr bisects BW

BW BW
f1 = f r − f2 = fr +
2 2

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 Impedance transformation: Alloys commonly magnetized
Alloy Percentage Content
Permalloy 22% Fe, 78% Ni
Hipernik 40% Fe, 60% Ni
Perminvar 30% Fe, 45% Ni, 25% Co
Alnico 24% Co, 51% Fe

Coulomb’s Laws
First Law
“The force of attraction or repulsion between two
magnetic poles is directly proportional to their
Q of Equivalent Theoretical Circuit strengths.”
R
Q= P Second First Law
X Leq “The force of attraction or repulsion between two
poles is inversely proportional to the square of the
Q of Practical Circuit distance between them.”
XL
Q=
RS m1 m 2
F =k (Newtons, N)
r2
Resonant frequency (practical circuit) 1
where: k = µ = µ r µ0
1 2
R C 1 4πµ
fr = 1− S
; if RS = 0; f r =
2π LC L 2π LC
Magnitude of the Force
fr =
1 Q2
; if Q ≥ 10; f r =
1 F = BIl sin θ (Newtons, N)
2π LC 1+ Q 2
2π LC where: B = flux density (Wb/m2)
I = current (A)
Total Impedance Z l = length of conductor (m)
θ = angle between the conductor and field
Z = RS (1 + Q 2 ) ≈ Q 2 RS if Q ≥ 10
Magnitude of the flux surrounding a straight
MAGNETISM AND MAGNETIC conductor
CIRCUITS R
Φ = 14 Il log (Maxwells, Mx)
r
• Magnetism where: I = current (A)
Curie temperature (Pierre Curie) – the critical l = length of conductor (ft)
temperature such that when ferromagnets are heated R = radius to the desired limiting cylinder
above that temperature their ability to possess r = radius of the conductor
permanent magnetism disappears.
The force between two parallel conductors
Curie temperatures of ferromagnets 2I I l
Ferromagnet Temperature (°C) F = 1 2 × 10 −7 (Newtons, N)
d
Iron (Fe) 770 where: l = length of each conductor (m)
Nickel (Ni) 358 d = distance between conductors (m)
Cobalt (Co) 1130 I1 = current carried by conductor A
Gadolinium 16 I2 = current carried by conductor B

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 Magnitude of the flux between two parallel Ohm’s Law for Magnetic Circuits
conductors Cause
Effect =
(d − r ) Opposition
Φ = 28 Il log (Maxwells, Mx)
r
where: I = current (A) Then,
l = length of conductor (ft) ℑ
r = radius of each conductor (m) Φ=
ℜ
d = distance of the conductors from center to where: ℜ = reluctance
center (m)
ℑ = magnetomotive force, mmf (Gb or At)
Φ = flux (Weber or Maxwells)
• Magnetic Circuits
Φ
B= Comparison bet. Magnetic and Electric Circuits
A Electric Circuits Magnetic Circuits
where: B = Flux density in Tesla (T) Resistance, R (Ω) Reluctance, ℜ (Gb/Mx)
Φ = Flux lines in Webers (Wb) Current, I (A) Flux, Φ (Wb or Mx)
A = Area in square meters (m2) emf, V (V) mmf, ℑ (Gb or At)
Note: 1 Tesla = 1 Wb/m2 Total reluctance in series
ℜ T = ℜ1 + ℜ 2 + ... + ℜ n
Permeability
Weber H
µ 0 = 4π × 10 −7 or Total reluctance in parallel
Ampere − meter m
1 1 1 1
= + + ... +
ℜ T ℜ1 ℜ 2 ℜn
Note: μ = μ0; μr = 1 → non–magnetic
μ < μ0; μr < 1 → diamagnetic
μ > μ0; μr > 1 → paramagnetic Total flux in series
μ >> μ0; μr >> 1 → ferromagnetic (μr ≥ 100) Φ T = Φ 1 = Φ 2 = ... = Φ n

L Total flux in parallel

ℜ=
µA Φ T = Φ 1 + Φ 2 + ... + Φ n
where: ℜ = reluctance
L = the length of the magnetic path Energy stored
A = the cross-sectional area 1
Wm = ℜΦ 2 Joules
2
Note: The t in the unit A-t/Wb is the number of turns
of the applied winding. Magnetomotive force (mmf, ℑ )
ℑ = NI Ampere – turns, At
Different units of Reluctance ( ℜ ) ℑ = 0.4πNI Gilberts, Gb
Ampere − turn Ampere − turn
a.) b.)
Weber Maxwell mmf of an air gap
Gilbert Gilbert dB
c.) d.) mmf = Ampere-turns
Maxwell Weber µ0

Note: 1 Weber = 1×108 maxwells Tractive force or lifting force of a magnet

1 Gilbert = 0.7958 ampere-turns
1  AB 2 
1 Gauss = 1 maxwell/cm2 F =   Newtons
2  µ 0 

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 Magnetizing Force (H)
ℑ NI
H= H=
l l
Note: The unit of H is At/m

Permeability – the ratio of flux density to the

magnetizing force.
B
µ=
H

B and H of an infinitely long straight wire

µI I
B= H=
2πr 2πr

Steinmetz’s Formula of Hysteresis Loss

J
Wh = ηfBm1.6
m3
where: η = hysteresis coefficient
f = frequency
Bm = maximum flux density

Ampere’s Circuital Law

“The algebraic sum of the rises and drops of the
mmf a closed loop of a magnetic circuit is equal to
zero; that is, the sum of the mmf rises equals the sum
of the mmf drops around a closed loop.”
∑ ∩ℑ = 0 (for magnetic circuits)

Source of mmf is expressed by the equation

ℑ = NI (At)

For mmf drop,

ℑ = Φℜ (At)

A more practical equation of mmf drop

ℑ = Hl (At)

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