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Grade (Slope) - Wikipedia
Grade (Slope) - Wikipedia
Grade (slope)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The grade (also called slope, incline, gradient, mainfall,
pitch or rise) of a physical feature, landform or constructed
line refers to the tangent of the angle of that surface to the
horizontal. It is a special case of the slope, where zero
indicates horizontality. A larger number indicates higher or
steeper degree of "tilt". Often slope is calculated as a ratio of
"rise" to "run", or as a fraction ("rise over run") in which run d = run
is the horizontal distance and rise is the vertical distance. Δh = rise
l = slope length
The grades or slopes of existing physical features such as α = angle of inclination
canyons and hillsides, stream and river banks and beds are
often described. Grades are typically specified for new linear
constructions (such as roads, landscape grading, roof pitches, railroads, aqueducts, and pedestrian or
bicycle circulation routes). The grade may refer to the longitudinal slope or the perpendicular cross
slope.
Contents
1 Nomenclature
1.1 Equations
2 Roads
3 Environmental design
4 Railways
4.1 Compensation for curvature
4.2 Continuous brakes
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
Nomenclature
There are several ways to express slope:
1. as an angle of inclination to the horizontal. (This is the angle α opposite the "rise" side of a
triangle with a right angle between vertical rise and horizontal run.)
2. as a percentage, the formula for which is which could also be expressed as the tangent of
the angle of inclination times 100. In the U.S., this percentage "grade" is the most commonly used
unit for communicating slopes in transportation (streets, roads, highways and rail tracks),
surveying, construction, and civil engineering.
3. as a per mille figure, the formula for which is which could also be expressed as the
tangent of the angle of inclination times 1000. This is commonly used in Europe to denote the
incline of a railway.
4. as a ratio of one part rise to so many parts run. For example, a slope that has a rise of 5 feet for
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every 100 feet of run would
have a slope ratio of 1 in 20.
(The word "in" is normally
used rather than the
mathematical ratio notation of
"1:20"). This is generally the
method used to describe
railway grades in Australia and
the UK.
Any of these may be used. Grade is
usually expressed as a percentage,
but this is easily converted to the
angle α from horizontal or the other
expressions.
Slope may still be expressed when
the horizontal run is not known: the
rise can be divided by the
hypotenuse (the slope length). This is
not the usual way to specify slope; it
follows the sine function rather than
the tangent function, so it calls a 45
degree slope a 71percent grade
Illustration of grades (percentages), angles in degrees and ratio.
instead of a 100percent. But in
practice the usual way to calculate
slope is to measure the distance along the slope and the vertical rise, and calculate the horizontal run
from that. When the angle of inclination is small, using the slope length rather than the horizontal
displacement (i.e., using the sine of the angle rather than the tangent) makes only an insignificant
difference. Railway gradients are usually expressed in terms of the rise in relation to the distance along
the track as a practical measure. In cases where the difference between sin and tan is significant, the
tangent is used. In any case, the following identity holds for all inclinations up to 90 degrees:
In Europe, road gradients are signed as a percentage.[1]
Equations
Grades are related using the following equations with symbols from the figure at top.
Tangent as a ratio
This ratio can also be expressed as a percentage by multiplying by 100.
Angle from a tangent gradient
If the tangent is expressed as a percentage, the angle can be determined as:
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If the angle is expressed as a ratio (1 in n) then:
Roads
In vehicular engineering, various landbased designs (cars, SUVs, trucks, trains, etc.) are rated for their
ability to ascend terrain. Trains typically rate much lower than cars. The highest grade a vehicle can
ascend while maintaining a particular speed is sometimes termed that vehicle's "gradeability" (or, less
often, "grade ability"). The lateral slopes of a highway geometry are sometimes called fills or cuts where
these techniques have been used to create them.
The steepest roads in the world are Baldwin Street in Dunedin, New Zealand and Canton Avenue in
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.[2] The Guinness World Record lists Baldwin Street as the steepest street in the
world, with a 35% grade (19°) overall and disputed 38% grade (21°) at its steepest section. The
Pittsburgh Department of Engineering and Construction recorded a grade of 37% (20°) for Canton
Avenue.[3] The street has formed part of a bicycle race since 1983.[4]
Environmental design
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