Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Painting in Oil by The 5-Color Method
Painting in Oil by The 5-Color Method
Painting in Oil by The 5-Color Method
he l^-color method
First Edition
introduction vii
part I
3 working conditions 14
13 space I 63
17 rhythm 81
part II
18 what is art? 87
20 imagination in art 96
21 originality in art 101
conclusion 197
a dictionary of art terms and phrases 201
introduction
begun to learn that he, too, has need for creative expression. And
he has begun to realize that creative activity is within his reach.
to
to acquire a working knowledge of oil painting. In addition
becoming acquainted with the principles of composition and
design, he will become familiar with the materials of the
artist
art is not the aim of the amateur painter, the emphasis should be
on composition and design, which anyone can learn. I have had
many students poorly at first, but who went on to
who drew
paint beautiful pictures.love of color and a feeling for pattern
A
and rhythm will carry the amateur painter a much longer way
than mere drawing wdll.
the mere possession good voice will not make you a good
of a
singer. And there are pianists with phenomenal technique who
never amount to much, because all they have is the remarkable
facility toplay notes. So it is with painting. Dexterity with a
pencil not necessarily an indication of how well you may do
is
with a brush. Besides, most drawing ability is not innate, but has
to be learned just like anything else. It is true that some people
show drawing ability faster than others, but, as I have said before,
it doesn't prove anything when it comes to painting. Furthermore,
many students draw much better after having painted a while
than they did before. Their eyes and hands begin to correlate
with experience and, as a consequence, drawing becomes more
natural to them.
With these obstacles out of the way, we can concentrate on a
more important element of painting— composition. The foundation
Oil paints: of every good painting is its composition. Without it the picture
- ALIZARIN will fall apart, no matter how well its individual parts are exe-
CADMIUM RED PALE cuted. A house cannot be built \vithout an architect's plan; so,
- CADMIUM YELLOW LIGHT too, the picture must follow some plan to make its structure secure.
ULTRAMARINE RLUE Once a person has decided he would like to try painting in
VIRIDIAN (Guignet's Green) oils, his first concern is about materials. For some unaccountable
plus: titanium or zinc white ( lb. tube reason there is a belief prevalent that in order to equip oneself
Rrushes: Size No.l, No.3, No.5, No.8 with the supplies necessary for painting, there must be an outlay
Palette ( disposable paper of money beyond what the average person can afford— and this
palette preferred scares some people away. But it so happens that ten or eleven
Palette knife dollars (depending on the quality of the merchandise and where
Oil cup it's bought) will provide all the materials necessary for a good
Linseed Oil (2M oz. bottle) start in oil painting, and that includes brushes, six full-sized tubes
Gum Turpentine ( 8 oz. bottle of paint, palette, canvas, oil cup, linseed oil, turpentine, charcoal,
Box of Vine Charcoal fixatif and sprayer.
Canvas Panel (14x18) It is only logical that you should know something about the
Fixatif and Sprayer materials you have to work with before you can proceed to the
Newsprint Pad ( 18 x 25 ) (rough actual business of composing and painting your picture. Conse-
quently, the first item will be a thoroughgoing discussion of all
that you need to know about supplies: their selection, use, care,
and how to get the best results out of them.
At the left is a list of the basic necessities for oil painting.
You must bear in mind that though art supply stores are full of
interesting and attractive-looking gadgets, including fancy paint-
boxes and intricate easels, none of these are essential. All you
really need are the paints and the tools for mixing and brushing,
and the canvas and charcoal for drawing your composition.
miscellaneous articles
The rest of the materials needed are: a palette knife, oil cup, a
small bottle of linseed oil, and a larger bottle of gum turpentine.
(Make sure it is not wood-distilled turpentine. Gum turps, by
virtue of its resinous base, has an affinity with the materials used
in the manufacture of artists' oil paints ). As for a palette, I recom-
mend the disposable paper kind. It is made of specially treated
paper that resists absorption of oil, and can be peeled ofiF and
thrown away when the work is done. As a result, there is very
little fuss or cleaning to be done afterward.
easel
A cheap easel of the folding variety will do, but is not essential.
In the absence of an easel, the canvas may be leaned against the
back of a Fancy equipment can wait until later. When the
chair.
beginner convinced that he loves painting so much that he
is
brushes
Brushes, too, should be carefully examined before bought, as
they are an important tool of the painter. It is advisable to get flat
'
Gesso: a chalky compound of gypsum, or plaster. Whiting: pulverized
chalk, sometimes used as a pigment.
would advise against doing it on a panel, as these have a tendency
to warp in the larger sizes. The warp is not permanent and the
panel is capable of being bent back ( although care must be taken
in doing this so as not to crack the backing). However, it is best
they will not help the beginner to paint well. On the contrary,
they only make for confusion.
By confining himself at the outset to a hmited number of tubes,
the student learns something about each color. Since he will have
to mix a lot of the colors that he could have bought ready-made
in tubes, he will have a chance to learn a great deal about his
six tubes of paint. In the process of mixing the various combina-
tions he learns why certain pigments fuse with others to
produce
different colors, etc. As the student becomes more experienced in
thehandhng of his medium, additional colors may be added.
The following is a description of each of the colors recom-
mended for the beginner in oil painting. The character, property,
and function of each is explained in detail. The reader will
be
well advised to pay a lot of attention to these instructions.
In
fact, it won't hurt to refer to them again and
again in the early
stages of painting.
Jslote: If you already possess a set of
oil colors and have been
painting with them for some time with unsatisfactory
results,
it might be well for you to put
aside temporarily all but the tubes
of paint recommended below. In the chapter
on "Expanding the
Palette" I will separately analyze the various
colors available in
art supply stores.
should not be in the least surprising that colors
It
which look
so attractive in the tube, or set off
against the old-fashioned
dark-brown palette, should produce such disappointing results on
the canvas. Many people who fall heir to, are given, or (in their
paints, don't have the vaguest idea of what these paints are
com-
posed of. \Vhen you have acquired a satisfactory
acquaintance
with the properties of the beginner's palette of the five tubes of
color (plus white), and feel ready to e.xpand your palette, then
the advanced chapter will provide you with the information you
should ha\e about the rest of your paints. You will then be in a
better position to judge which colors you may later use to advan-
tage and which it would, for specifically stated reasons, be best to
discard entirely.
too acid in its raw state. Needs mi.xing with a little white to give
it body and make it bland.
produces a fiery blue. When mi.\ed with too much white, how-
ever, it becomes milky and loses character. Combines with
yellow to make green. With alizarin and white to make violet,
with red to make brown. Fairly quick-drying.
'
By covering power is meant the capacity of a color to conceal what is
9
TITANIUM WHITE Preferred to zinc white because it has a
greater covering power. Never to be used by itself, as it will look
small amounts of
chalky or pasty. Needs to be mixed with
yellow or green for areas of the painting that are
meant to be
white. Makes all colors it is mixed with lighter, but at the same
time makes them less bright, excepting the deep colors such as
alizarin, viridian and ultramarine. It is essential for mixing of
grays and violets. (For additional combinations see Color
Wheel)
Here we have just five tubes of paint, plus white. The beginner
will be amazed at the range of tones and hues that he can get
from Later on I will introduce several addi-
this limited palette.
10
place it in tlie center of the palette. Wipe the knife elean, pick up
some vellow and put it beside the blue. Mix them together, but
do not use the tip of the knife. Gently slide the blade with its
full length under both colors and keep turning the batch o\er
11
The desire for economy is perfectly understandable; no one
bothersome.
What happens when you start out to paint with little smidgins
of color without realizing it, you put off hunting for the
is that,
the remain-
desired color, and the attempt is made to "stretch"
increasing amounts
ing morsels of pigment on the palette with
into the canvas,
of turpentine. The turpentine is rapidly sucked
and the cardboard backing of the panel becomes a
veritable
on the surface giving
blotter, leaving' dry, crusty residues of color
the picture a hfeless appearance.
The best thing to do is to put out ample amounts of each
This
color-and you should certainly do this at the beginning.
way you will have a chance to observe how much of each color
is left over, and when it begins to
appear that more is left over
of some than of others, then you will be in a good
position to
judge where to cut down. But if you begin with tiny amounts you
will never be able to ascertain the real difference in the quantities
of each color used.
When you get right down to it, the amount of paint you are
capable of wasting after one session of painting can run into
pennies-unless you squeeze tremendous gobs of it out on the
palette. But it is true that some people will have a tendency
to
paint thinner, and some will paint thicker, and the only formulas
in this regard are the dictates of one's personal preference.
Here,
the matter of personality or temperament enter into it and no one
is to say which person is to paint thin or which
one is to paint
thick, provided, of course, that one paints neither too thin nor
too thick.
stands to reason that some people are going to find
them-
So it
selves with more paint left over than others. If you should happen
into this category, you must be vigilant against
the tempta-
to fall
tion to cut down too much; for the person who has the tendency
to work thinner also has the tendency to work tighter, and a
more, seeing all that paint on your palette may have a psycho-
in your
logical effect in inducing you to be a little more expansive
work, which would be all to the good.
But if you are concerned about economy and are bothered by
seeing perfectly good paint go to waste, then here is what you can
do: Transfer the remaining color onto a pane of glass (or an old
plate) and submerge it in a pan of water, making sure that the
12
level of the water is sufficiently over the paint to allow for evapo-
ration, and your paint can stay this way for weeks. The water
prevents the oxidization that normally dries up your paints, and
keeps it fresh for the next time you are able to paint again.
It is preferable that you follow this method of saving rather
than to fall into the habit of becoming skimpy about the amounts
of color you squeeze on your palette. It will also be helpful, in
this respect, for you to learn about the characteristics of various
of your tubes of color. After a certain amount of experience in
painting you will begin to observe that some colors, such as
viridian, ultramarine blue (and umber, ochre, sienna, etc.— which
are discussed in Chapter 22), are relatively quick drying, whereas
alizarin, cadmium yellow light, and to a lesser degree, cadmium
red pale are slower-drying colors.
But there isone thing that you should never do. You may
think that your painting is so near completion that all you need
however, should you ever start to paint without your full comple-
ment of colors. The improvisational element that must inevitably
enter into your work (which is one of the reasons why painting
is such an exciting experience) must not have the restraint imposed
13
3. working conditions
:s mce
early fall, when the weather
In the spring, summer, or
out-of-doors and try your hand
at
you will probably want to go
(see Chapter 14). But during colder months,
doing a landscape
rainy weather, or if you don't
have time for paintmg in the day-
problem of working indoors. For
time you must consider the
people this really does present a problein, because not
some
spare room, attic, or shed to do his paintmg m.
everyone has a
take chances of messing up the
And certainly no one wants to
14
can only serve to work the stain deeper into the weave
of
this
the cloth. do is to take a dry, clean cloth and
The first thing to
there are rugs and good furniture, then you should pro\ide your-
self with something underfoot such as a tarpaulin, old bedspread,
or sheet. These can be rolled up and tucked into the bottom
cubicle of your apple-box cabinet.
There are perfectly good lanolized waterless hand-cleaners on
the market (not to be used on clothing). A little bit of this cleaner
rubbed into the hands and then wiped off with a paper towel \vill
remove almost all of the paint. Soap and water will do the rest—
with a fingernail brush to take care of your manicure. If your
hands have any tendency to chap, then a few drops of a mixture
of glycerin and water ( glycerin and rose water can be purchased
in any drugstore, but unless you want the scent you can mix your
own; about one part of glycerin to four parts of water) rubbed
into the hands after washing will do better than any fancy lotions.
Always work under good light. If you can manage it, a blue
"davlight" bulb or fluorescent light is best, as the ordinary electric
bulbs give a vellowish light tending either to cancel out
light
yellows somewhat, or give a yellowish tinge to other colors.
All of the above instructions are obviously not intended to
be a deterrent or to discourage you in your desire to paint. On the
contrary, they should only serve to keep you from becoming dis-
couraged because of consequences to your clothing and furni-
ture, had you not been forewarned. As you gain experience you
will find it increasingly possible to paint without fear of getting
You will learn how to go about doing things in a
things soiled.
more workmanlike fashion in proportion to the familiarity you
gain with vour materials.
dump it into vour dirtv-turps jar, wipe ovit your cup and pour in
15
some fresh turpentine. It only takes a second to do it, and you
>
this practice.
will be sure of having clean color if you follow
Wipe palette knife and brushes clean after each using. Paints
always
should be laid out on the palette in an orderly fashion,
with the same arrangement. This way there is no need to
hunt
for a color you want, as after a while you know
instinctively
where to reach for it. Squeeze your paints as close to the outer
rim of your palette as possible (see Fig. 3). Allow yourself as
much room on the palette as you can for mixing and testing
colors. It stands to reason that if you squeeze your colors two
inches away from the edge of the palette there will be that much
wasted working space.
Brushes should be washed with soap and warm ( not hot ) water
after each day's use, otherwise the paint will dry and harden
between the bristles and in the ferrule, impairing their usefulness.
Unused paints should be transferred with the knife to another
surface (a pane of glass will do), the palette cleaned with cloth
and turpentine, and then the paints transferred back to their
position on the palette again. This makes it possible to resume
work the next day without very much fuss or delay. If you are
using the disposable palette, you just transfer the unused paints
to a new sheet and there will be no cleaning of the palette
necessary.
Paint that hasn't been used for several days may or may not be
used again, depending on the nature of the pigment. A skin gen-
erally forms over color as it dries. You can test it with the knife.
'
Sediment will accumulate bottom of your dirty-turps jar and it
in the
their shape.
Good habits of working pay off in the long run. They save time,
rather than the reverse. It takes very little e.xtra effort to work in
an orderly way. The eagerness to get started working is some-
times very compelling, to be sure. Nevertheless, there is more to
be lost than gained by this impatience. So take your time getting
set up, and vou are bound to have better results than if you did
not. Continued practice eliminates the need to fish around for
elusive implements and other time-wasting obstructions to good
painting.'
'
For additional hints abont painting conditions, sec Cliapter 7.
17
4. how important to good painting
is sl(illful drawing?
people to thmk
There seems to be a great tendency among most
connected. What is
of drawing and painting as being integrally
not generally known is that the slickest
drawing can still be a
pencil or charcoal are
poor composition. Flourishing strokes with a
the elements in a
frequently a cover-up for poor organization of
picture. And good composition is neither
more nor less than good
organization. A person who is capable of
putting things into
or her house or apartment is capable of
attractive order in his
your
portant are the means you use to organize the elements of
picture so that they give the feeling of being part of a
whole.
18
reduced an object to its visual "denominator," it is so much easier
19
contact-the point of the charcoal and the two fingernails. The
advantages ofthis are twofold: there is greater freedom of move-
ment than the charcoal were held like a pencil, and there is no
if
'
Beginners frequently confuse values with color, and it takes a certain
amount of experience to learn the difference between the two. It is diffi-
cult for the inexperienced person to see that something that has color can
be darker than something that has comparatively little color in it. This per-
ception comes with time, but whenever there is any doubt the surest way
of settling it is by using what is called the "artists' squint." By closing the
eyes until they are practically shut— so that you can just barely see— you are
able to judge value relationships ( independent of color ) that would fool
the naked eye. This squint can be one of your most valuable tools in
painting, and you can fall back on it with confidence every time— that is,
if you squint properly. Some students, when told to squint, wrinkle their
nose a little and think they're squinting. The eyeHds must be practically
touching to make effective use of this device.
20
has a value distinctlv dilfeieiit from the other two. The one that
is farthest awav from the light is deep; the one closest to, or
facing the light, is, of course, light; and the one in between (that
is, in half-light) is intermediate.
The problem, now, is to try to reproduce the three values you
see with charcoal, so that you can create a solid-looking, box-like
form on paper. It will require several practice strokes with the
charcoal on a separate sheet of paper to trv matching the values
that you see. \\'hen you have succeeded in getting the three val-
ues of the cube, there will be no mistaking the sense of solidness,
or tactilit)', that it gives (see Fig. 7).
Note: Each of the surfaces of the cube is called a "plane."
Planes occur in exervthing you see in nature, but thev are not
always as perceptible as in the cube, because of its well-defined
edges.
The next form to which we introduce \alues is the cylinder.
It gets a little tricky when any of the forms have roundness, as
does the shaft of the cylinder. But, again, we will stick to the
three values. The side farthest from the light will again receive
the deep value. The intermediate value, however, will be used
t\vice here— once on either side of the light (that will be running
lengthwise along the ridge of the curve). For the stub end of
the cylinder we use the deep value.
And now Placed on its butt end, with the point
for the cone:
up, it be treated somewhat the way we did the cylinder
will
shaft. The difference will be in the way the values radiate down-
ward from the point in steadily widening planes.
The trickiest of all is the sphere. As we see it in outline, it
appears as just a flat circle. There are no ends or corners to help
us feel a third dimension. We cannot, simply by putting three
values in any order across the surface of the circle, create the
sensation of roundness like a ball. If we place a ball on the table
at an angle to light (overhead) we see that the light strikes the
round object at the point that rises closest to it. In this respect it
is very much like the earth in its relation to the sun at high noon.
The problem, here, is to isolate that small point of light, not
by shading or blending of tones, but adhering to the use of
still
the "L," the crescent, and the ellipse (see Fig. 8).
Apart from their function in composition of "connecting"
things to give greater organic unity to the picture, they also act
as "motifs" which, when repeated in different parts of the compo-
21
. .
22
5. gimmicks and gadgets
23
who soon discover the inadequacies of this method, and who
eventually seek more wholesome and satisfying ways of painting.
There is no harm in trying to get some ideas about nature from
picture post card if you are stuck indoors on a
wintry day and
a
feel likedoing a landscape. More than one great painter has re-
sorted to this means of refreshing his memory about things that
are not available for him to see at the time he is
working on a
details
particular picture. But to copy a post card exactly in all
infinitely more
will teach you nothing. It is always better-and
satisfying-to paint something based on your own feeling
and
perception (even if it should turn out a little clumsy at first).
you keep painting, you're bound to improve. It does not mat-
If
ter you experience occasional disappointments in your progress
if
every time ijou lift a brush you learn something, even though it
may not be apparent to you at the time. Remember that painting
own reward; and though there will be times when you feel
is its
24
6. still life composition
There are some people who don't care very much for still life,
and there are others who prefer it to any other type of painting.
But it is a fact that the student of painting can learn more from
still life than from any other subject. Its advantages are almost
too many to relate. Its best feature is the fact that the objects you
are painting remain perfectly still. This immobility affords the
painter an opportunity for the most careful study, with atten-
tion to all details of lightand shade, color, form, te.xture, etc.
In still-life painting there
is no concern about atmospheric
25
In the little drama that is going to be unfolded, you will be
director, stage manager, lighting director, casting director; in
short, you are in supreme command. As casting director, while
you may have a personal liking for an applicant, you must first
consider whether he or she has the qualifications necessary for
a particular role. Similarly, in the still life, sound judgment must
have precedence over sentiment. Things that are very frilly or
vague in shape won't have much to recommend them as having
functional value in composition. Later on, when you have become
more expert in composition, not everything you paint will have
to be absolutely functional. But while you are learning, it is
best to select just those things capable of helping you create
space in your picture.
10 a
For order to see the table edge running straight across your
in
vision, you have to be situated exactly equidistant from both
ends of the table, and there would be nothing gained by this
except to make it more difficult to get a feeling of space in your
picture. For instead of the edge of the table helping to lead the
eye into the picture, it would become a barrier to the eye. The
eye would then be compelled to leap-frog over that barrier to
get into the picture.
Let me explain this simply by pointing out a very simple rule:
THE EYE WILL AUTOMATICALLY FOLLOW AN OBJECT IN THE DIBEC-
10 b
TiON OF ITS LONGEST SURFACE. Try it somctimc with any object
around. Take a pencil, a ruler— or any long object. Notice whether
your eye will tend to follow it by its length or width. It should
be clear then that the eye will have a tendency to follow the
edge of the table in a direction away from us, but if the table
edge runs straight across our vision then it cannot gain the im-
pulse into the picture that seeing it at a slight angle would
provide.
But if you place yourself nearer to one corner of the table,
then you can begin to have space. For in drawing the corner of
the table in the composition close to the bottom of your canvas,
you are really pushing two sides of a plane into space (see Fig.
10 A). The impulse of this plane is, of course, in the direction of
its longest surface. Avoid putting the corner of the table near
the center of the canvas, however, for this would divide the pic-
ture in half and create additional confusion, as the eye wouldn't
know which way to follow.
There have been great still-life painters, such as Chardin and
Cezanne (see Figs. 12, 79) who painted masterpieces showing
the front of a table parallel to the picture surface. But these men
26
)
of paper on a table close to vou and another of the same size near
the far end of the table. You cannot mistake how much more of
the first sheet you see. 10 d
Standing is, of course, best; but if \ou must sit try using a
high stool. The higher your position, the more vantage you will
have of your still-life objects. It gives you better command of
the space around them, and you don't have to rely as much on
tricks with highlights to make them seem real.
For example, take an ordinary water glass and set it on a table.
Look at it from a sitting position, then rise gradually. Notice how
both the mouth and bottom of the glass grow steadilv wider the
higher you rise above it. Also observe how much more of the
table area surrounding it you see from the higher position. Paul
Cezanne, one of the greatest masters of spatial composition,
would deliberately tilt still-life objects (such as vases, bowls,
etc.) forward, so as to show wider openings in these receptacles.
This gives the viewer an increased sense of the volume of these
objects. This also makes them more convincing than if he had
reduced their openings to narrow elliptical slits, such as you are
from a sitting position.
likely to see
(Very frequently Cezanne took a position high above a land-
scape setting he intended to paint. By looking down upon the
terrain he had a better grasp of its expanse, which is one reason
why his work communicates such a spatial feeling.
Many conventional painters do still-life pictures from a de-
cidedly frontal view. They show a lot of the table front (or
apron ) and hardly anything, if at all, of the sides. The table top
is quite shallow,' with not very much suggestion of spatial re-
cession into the picture. The objects are also treated frontally,
Figures 10 A, B, C, D, and E shown
and you don't see very much of the openings of jugs, vases, or
here represent the logical progres-
other receptacles. In such pictures the artist is called upon to
sion of composition in the sample
display his virtuosity with the brush. Deftly applied highlights
still life. For instruction in the use of
do the trick of presenting an illusion of three dimensionality to
color, see Fig. 15
the objects. By the use of certain tricks, they are made to gleam
like either glass, pewter, silver, or copper, as the case may be.
But all that is created is an effect, and no real sense of the volume
of the objects is achieved.
.Amateurs have a tendency to admire cle\er brushwork, but it
is a mistake to try to imitate it. Unless one has years of training
Z7
drawing and the perfecting of painting techniques, such
imi-
in
something that looks pathetically inept. There
tation can result in
is no harm in admiring clever
performance of any kind, but it
must be remembered that much of this kind of painting has been
reduced to an art of mere legerdemain and does not have
very
When selecting objects for your still life, be careful not to have
any of them identical in size or height. Also, avoid repetition of
identical shapes as much as possible. And do not limit the num-
ber of objects you use because you think that it will be easier if
there are just a few things to paint. Your picture will gain inter-
est through the diversity of its objects. Furthermore, it takes
much more skill to paint one or two things effectively than it
include anything that you think belongs in the picture you plan
to paint, just so long as does not have an indifferent status in
it
scale
By "scale" is meant the relative proportion of things. You
have
seen pictures of an artist holding a pencil at arm's length, meas-
the
uring the proportions of his subject by sliding his thumb, in
manner of a gauge, along the pencil a certain distance from the
tip.This practice has gone out with the horse and buggy, but
remains one of the most popular stereotypes of artistic proce-
dure. Proportions of things need not be exact, but by the same
token they should not be so vastly disproportionate as to be
absurd. There is no need to go through the rigmarole of the
extended pencil. Simply take a good long look at your subject
and measure relative sizes with your eye. After you have put
RIGHT WAY
them down with charcoal on your canvas, step back from your
easel and, by shifting your eye back and forth from your subject
to your canvas, check to see whether size relationships in your
drawing compare more or less with those of your subject.
^
Another thing for you to make certain of in your drawang, is
that objects which stand close together in your still life don't
crowd each other so much as to destroy their ability to coexist
in your picture. For example, if a bottle and a wine glass stand
side-by-side the base of one must not impinge on the area of
canyas occupied by the other (see Fig. 11 ).
In solid (nontransparent) objects it is difficult to perceive
very much of their bases, consequently many beginners tend to
draw horizontal lines for the bases of objects, as that is almost the
way they appear underneath the bulk of their upper parts. But
it is important that you remember that, whatever they may look
like to you, bases will be more or less elliptical, and that i/ou
must allow enough space for these ellipses otherwise the objects
will look like they are on the verge of toppling over.
foreshortening
There will be occasions when you will see objects of some length
"foreshortened"; which is to say they will appear very much
shorter to you when seen at a certain angle, so that they do not
seem to perform the function of leading the eye in the direction
of their longest surface. In such instances it is always wiser to
state the object as you know it to be, rather than being bound
by any necessity of painting it exactly as you see it.
Of course when you're setting up your own still life you are
free to arrange things so as to avoid this type of problem. There
is certainly no point in looking for trouble; therefore, my advice
to you is to avoid problems in composition in\'olving too much
foreshortening until you have gained more experience. The logi-
cal thing is to place some of your objects at an angle which will
permit you to see enough of their surface, so that when you draw
you don't make them appear so stunted as to impair their spatial
function-that of leading the eye into the picture. But what if
you happen to be painting out-of-doors? You obviously can't go
around manipulating fields or bodies of water and you may find
yourself confronted by elements of this sort, which from your
view happen to be considerably foreshortened. There is no law
which states that you are bound to reproduce the scene exactly as
you see it. Your painting is going to be judged on the basis of
its merits, and your primary obligation is to make the picture
29
scene, whether landscape, sea-
the composition of any kind of
of this book you will receive
scape or whatever. In the latter half
will enable you to ap-
some 'instruction in perspective which
problem of foreshortening with more assurance, and
proach the
until you are ready for it,
with greater possibility of success. But
it is best that you avoid
foreshortening.
"cubic volume,
The table must first be painted in terms of its
three values of light, intermediate, and
deep (see Chap-
with its
erasure
eraser for
When drawing with charcoal you can use a "kneaded"
can be purchased
taking out lines you want to correct. This eraser
for about a dime. In drawing on a canvas
an eraser is not actu-
so heavy that
ally necessary, unless your lines have become
a soft
there's nothing else that will take them out. But ordinarily
for rubbing out charcoal lines on
canvas. It
cloth is adequate
completely, as the
does not matter if the lines don't come out
an eraser, make
paint will cover them eventually. But if you use
sure you don't torture the canvas too much.
You must bear in
guide for
mind that your charcoal drawing is only intended as a
so there no need to be too fussy about the
your painting, is
drawing as such.
30
12 STILL LIFE WITH APPLES by Paul Cezanne. Collection of the Museum of Modern Art, New York. Lillie P. Bliss Collection
"motifs" recur in different objects in the Thus, you find a still life.
curve in the pipe, in the spout of the teapot, and in the shape of
the pear. In a larger wav, it also occurs in the shape of the bottle
and the edge of the drape. This motif is sometimes called the
"S" curve. ( It occurs very frequentlv in nature. You will find it in
but also the negative areas (those in between the objects) form
attractive and diversified patterns. All of these functions help to
engage the eye and keep it interested.
Note that none of the objects repeat each other in either size,
height, or bulk. Apart from their "active" function, they also
appear to have different "passive" functions. There are things
that stand, lie, lean, and hang. All of these separate, yet interre-
lated functions in the picture create a powerful sense of unity
among the objects. When a picture is organized in such a way
it takes a derrick, figuratively speaking, to pull it apart.
I think it would be helpful for the reader to be able to follow
each step in a samplewas composed. Notice that
still life as it
the complete table top was not drawn first. The idea is not to
make a table and put the objects on it, as one would in real life.
The reason for this is that space must be created first, otherwise
your objects, no matter how well drawn or painted, will not
come For space is the life-giving element in painting.
alive.
As soon I had one "L" of the table top drawn, (representing
as
the corner of the table nearest me) I immediately put down a '
plane for the magazine. My first concern was to "push" into the
picture spatially, and the length of the magazine starts the ball
rolling, so to speak, in that direction. Diagrams A, B, C, etc.
show, step-by-step, how each successive stage in the composi-
tion is accounted for until every object is spatiaUii situated. Ob-
serve how I did not complete the table top until all of the stand-
ing objects were drawn. For prior to that I would not have been
able to tell at what point the rear line of the table top intersects
these objects.
Notice that there no fancy drawing here— just a design for
is
Notice that this "L" ff)rtTi.s an obtu.se angle, ( an obtuse angle being a
wide angle, and an acute angle being narrow, or sharp) as corners of rec-
tangular objects that are nearest you have the optical illusion of appearing
wider. And the same holds true of the corners directly opposite; whereas,
the two remaining side angles have the appearance of narrowing to acute
angles. You will observe how this operates later on when you come to the
painting of houses, bams, or rectangular fields in landscape painting.
.37
I have ignored most of
the lower part of the
Notice, also, that
have get the whole table in-legs and
table. Were I to tried to
of making them look transparent. This also calls for more tech-
nique than you can expect to have just yet. Besides, you should
want to include as many different colors in your still life as you
can. Clear glass obviously has no color interest. Just as you
plan
your still life in terms of diversity of size and form, you must also
think of having diversity of color in your objects.
32
scure). This interplay between light and shade was one of the first
means devised for creating lifelike appearance of reality on a
two-dimensional surface.
artificial light
33
color
7. the beginner's attitude toward
impor-
amine our attitude toward color. This is of the utmost
thinking of
tance. For at the outset we should absolutely not be
whatsoever. At
subtle hues, blending of tones, or any nuances
this point of the painting women have an
advantage over men,
harmonies in
for thev are more experienced in using broad color
their evendav dress. And it is precisely with that
approach to
color that the painting at this stage of its development
should be
34
concerned. Just as a woman might ask herself which color scarf
she should wear with the blouse, handbag, hat, or skirt she has
on, so should one attack the problem of coloring one's painting.
The trouble is that most women fail to capitalize on this ad-
vantage. For, like everyone else, when they begin to paint they
see the subtlety in things and want immediately to start to paint
them as realistically as they appear. What most people fail to
realize, until it is pointed out to them, is that a picture has to
35
Another important advantage in painting at the outset with
clear, bright colors is that paints that have been mixed too much
( especially with white ) make for tacky
surfaces requiring longer
drying periods before painting can be resumed. For there is a
certain amount of pastiness that results whenever you mix white
with other colors. Unless one knows from great experience how
to handle such surfaces when they are still wet, many discourag-
ing things can happen. Therefore, everything is to be gained by
starting your painting with clear, bright washes of pure color.
36
how to ait
off from a work of art in order to judge it in the totality of all its
parts. Too much sublety in the painting, especially in the early
stages of development, will be lost on the viewer.
the brush
Brushes should never be held as one would a pen or a pencil.
This only makes for tightness of work and brings the painter up
too close to the canvas. It is best to hold the brush lightly be-
tween the finger tips, an inch or so below the ferrule. Balanced
this way, the handle of the brush rests against the heel of the
palm (see Fig. 13 A).
The idea is to treat the brush as though it were an instrument
(which it is, but which a lot of people seem to forget) responsive
to the most sensitive of impulses from the painter. There must be
freedom in the stroking of the paint. When the motion comes
from the shoulder it eliminates the possibility of niggling work.
the palette
As for how to hold the palette, there seems to be some con-
fusion about The thumbhole in the palette is a carryover
this.
37
your still life, you should go on to painting the values of all the
I know, to
other objects in the picture. It is awfully tempting,
get started on the painting of an object of which
you are particu-
larly fond, and to try to make it look real.
But try to remember
that no object in a painting is more important
than the painting
38
8. the function of color
But there is still another factor that will cause certain colors
J
to come forward and others to retire. Certain colors are opaque,
such as white or black, and have a tendency to obstruct the eye
as if a wall had been erected before it. Others do so by virtue of
a density and heavy concentration of pigment in their makeup.
Still others, which are saturated and murky, such as dark browns
39
.
ideal in the mixing of shadowy hues-or for any part of the pic-
Once you have gotten all the surfaces of the canvas covered with
broad clear washes of harmonious color, the next step is to break
each object up into its component values of dark, intermediate,
and light. Remember, again, that the dark parts of an object are
deeper values of the same color. Proceed to introduce values in
all parts of the picture, which must, of course, include the cast
shadows (on the table, wall, or wherever they may occur); and
don't stick to painting the objects only. All the parts of your
painting, particularly at this stage of its development, are equally
important. Later on, when you are about to bring the picture to
its completion, will be the time to dramatize the features that
40
Pay strict attention also to warm and cool colors.
the matter of
A emphasized is that w here
rule that cannot be too frequently
THE LI GHT IS vv ARM^ sHAnnws j^RRj-Qni., and vice-versa. Check
your light and see whether it is of the yellow ( warm ) or blue
(cold) kind, and be guided in your painting accordingly. You
will have difBculty in getting your forms to turn if you don't
have the necessary balancing quality of both warm and cool
colors in your painting of them— one for the shadows and the
other for the light— depending on whichever quality of lighting
you have in your room.
highlights
Highlights are something else that, unless properly and tastefully
handled, have a tendency to "jump" out of the picture. To paste
a gob of white where you perceive a highlight to occur is ob-
viously not going to suggest light reflected at the highest point of
an object (which is what highlights literally are) but will look
like just so much white stuck on the surface of your canvas.
you may have one main source of light, shiny objects are capable
of reflecting lights from more remote areas of your room. Try to
ignore these, as they can only create confusion and add little of
any value to your painting. Also try to see if you can't give them
some interesting pattern, shape, or rhythmic linear flow (see
Figs. 12, .30, 79 for the way Chardin and Cezanne painted high-
lights), regardless of how small the area of reflected light may be.
Highlights, in order to be effective, must be painted with the
greatest amount of delicacy and sensitivity. Never mind the slap-
dash technique you may see used in pictures shown in the win-
dows of framing shops. These were done by highly skilled crafts-
men, and, if the truth be told, not always in the best of taste or
artistic motivation.
' Black is not yet part of your working palette of colors, but a very good
approximation of black can be made by nii.\ing your three deep colors:
alizarin, ultramarine and viridian.
41
9. an exercise in mixing color
42
)
43
is a cool green, the addition of yellow will tend to make it
warmer). When you have your dab of the second green down,
mix a green of orange and blue, and then orange and viridian.
These should give you, respectively, an olive-green and a bottle-
green. So much about green for the time being.
Returning to the lower left-hand corner of the palette— a little
to the right of your alizarin— will be the place for your violet.
This you get by mixing ahzarin, blue, and white (first mix alizarin
and blue to get a deep purple, and then add white ) Again, the .
44
pens to them when tliey are all brought close to each other
in value.
Note: Some will obviously require more of these steps than
others: For example, yellow and red, being lighter colors than
alizarin, blue, or viridian, are already higher in value (or
closer to white, which is the highest value) than these three deep
colors. Consequently, several steps in the addition of white
would be necessary to bring them up to value-par with cadmium
yellow or cadmium red pale.
You can expand this exercise further with variations of warm
and cold hues in all combinations involving blue in their mixture.
For instance, red-violet as opposed to blue-violet; blue-green as
opposed to yellow-green, etc. Observe what happens to these
wnth each successive addition of white.
Titanium white unlike zinc white has a tendency to turn yellow-
ish in time though it has the advantage of greater covering power.
\Miiche\er you use, you have to take these factors into account.
Consequently, when the underpainting color is of a cool variety,
it is preferable that the painting of any white object be done
with
titanium as the yellowish cast that this white acquires will be
offsetby the cool underpainting.
Thus we come to the end of a very valuable exercise. The
quantit)' of colors you get from these few tubes of paint is ob-
viously very great. The following chapter will tell you how to
keep a convenient record of all the colors you have learned how
to mix here. But before I bring this chapter to a close, I want to
discuss one color that is very vital in painting. That color is gray.
grays
Gray is one of the most useful and desirable colors in painting.
45
Complementary colors, or those that are opposite to each other
in the ColorWheel (see Fig. 14) combine to make gray. But
is the prime agent
they require the addition of white, as white
forproducing grays. A good rule to remember is to make com-
plementary colors equal in value before mixing them. For ex-
ample, orange is lighter in value than blue. Therefore, add the
necessary amount of white to the blue to make it as light as
the
orange. When you mix the two colors that are now equal in value,
you get a lovely shade of gray.
Make the same experiment with the other opposites in the
color wheel. The squint should settle any doubt about value
dif-
1 primary colors:
Blue (here indicated by their triangular shape). Note: None
of
Red Yellow
It is more important that you
the colors used here are true primaries.
should know how to place your tubes of paint in terms of their position on
in the cre-
the wheel, than to be concerned with any orthodox method used
is the cadmium
ation of the Color Wheel. Consequently, the yellow here
your tube. The red is a combination of
yellow light which you have in
2 complementary colors:
Any mixture of two primaries is a comnlementary of the third.^ or example:
yellow and blue combine to make green; hence, green is the complementary
hold true of red
of the third primary, red. Note: Technically the same would
46
: -
3 secondary colors
Secondary colors are a combination of two primaries in e qual proportion .'
Note: The colors you see on the outer ring of the Wheel are not all true
secondaries. The light red is the cadmium red pale in your tube. The same
is true of the alizarin, ultramarine, and viridian.' The rest— orange, yellow
medium, violet, and the light and dark green — are the result of mixtures in-
dicated on the rectangles (simulating the index cards you will use in your
"color library") adjacent to each of the colors.
4 tertiary colors:
(Tertiary means "third" in the order of mixing.) Tertiary colors are mixtures
^
of two secondary colors. They are gray^: ceiL£tay, hliie-gray and yellow-gray
/where the primaries in the mixture predominate. Where the secondary colors
predominate, you have green-gray, violet-gray, or orange-gray. The tertiaries
you see here are on the inner ring of the Color Wheel. They are a com-
bination of the two colors at either end of each "spoke" of the Wheel. The
two different hues of the same mixture represent the greater amount of one
or the other color in the mixture. For example: where blue and orange were
combined, the tertiary shown underneath the blue has a cooler cast, while
that underneath the orange obviously appears warmer.
Tertiaries require the addition of white to their mixture; consequently, you
must remember the rule from your color mixing exercises— when mixing
two colors of different value you must first raise the value of the deeper
color (with white) to that of the lighter color before combining them. Also
don't forget to squint, otherwise you won't be able to judge the values of
What is remarkable about this Color Wheel is the fact that all the colors
shown here came out of just five tubes of paint, plus white. Nor is this all
that can be accomplished with these few colors, for the range of hues pos-
besides color, and (particularly in the more costly cadmiums) manufacturers will be
more sparing in the use of certain pigments than
Now the secondaries:
in others.
' Note that in the "color wheel" proper, each of the three deep colors (alizarin, ultra- 1 Orange and viridian. Add white.
marine, and viridian) were made a shade lighter in order to keep them in a more logi- 2 Orange and ultramarine. Add white.
cal value sequence.
^Obviously, none of the deep colors (as they exist
3 Alizarin and viridian. Add white.
in the tube), such as alizarin,
ultramarine, or viridian, can be technically called "prismatic." But with the addition of 4 Cadmium red pale and ultramarine.
white, they can be made to approximate the hues found in the spectrum. Add white.
47
time less opaque than black paint. Alizarin and viridian will also produce a
handsome black.
ultramarine, and orange (see color mixing exercise, p. 44); cadmium red pale
and viridian; etc., will provide you with a handsome variation of browns.
Note: All sorts of further experiments are possible, following the same pro-
cedure. I recommend the use of at least two stages in the addition of white
to your mixtures — first in raising the value of the deeper color to that of
the lighter, and then an additional stage of adding white to the final mix-
gray. These will prove very valuable for your "color library."
Remember, there are no absolutes in the mixing of colors. Also, there are
no exact measurements; consequently, the secondaries you mix may differ
to a certain degree from those 1 have prepared here, and the tertiaries will
come up with widely different results, one not necessarily better or worse
than the other. So don't let it bother you if you didn't get a set of hues pre-
cisely like those you see here. It is also worth knowing that one manufac-
turer's product may to some extent be different in hue from that of another's.
Once you have followed the instructions you will see what command you
gain over the whole business of color mixing. From then on it will be child's
play to keep a detailed record for your "color library" of all the colors you
ever mix, and you will then be able to understand exactly what you got
and why.
Note: that the color wheel is divided into two zones of warm and cool colors.
The terms WARM and COOL here are relative, those whicii are on the
"equator" being practically neutral in this regard, the rest being progres-
When you have advanced to the "Expanded Palette" in Chapter XXII you will
then be able to substitute some of the secondaries on the Color Wheel with
colors directly out of the tube, such as, cadmium orange and manganese
violet. This violet, in particular, is a much richer violet than you get by
mixing alizarin and ultramarine, consequently, the tertiaries that result will
tensity that would result from the use of more expensive pigments. How-
ever, it is plain that a decent brand of student-grade paints is adequate to
produce as brilliant and varied an assortment of colors as is necessary at
your present stage of development. My advice is not to undertake the ex-
pense of costlier paints until you become satisfied that you are capable of
mixing your colors properly from these student-grade pigments. In other
words, you should not blame it on your equipment if you get unsatisfactory
results. If you follow the instructions here, there is no reason why you
should have poor results.
Cadmium Red Pale Cadmium Yellow Light
i
COLOR W^HEEL
THE 5C0L0R METHOD: SHOWING HOW TO PREPARE YOUR COLOR LIBRARY BY FILING
ALL COLOR-MIXING RECORDS ON INDEX CARDS FOR INSERTION INTO AN ALBUM
1 Added
White
10. how to keep a color library
If you want to know quickly how to mix flesh tones, terra cotta,
open your album and
different shades of violet, or whatever, flip
you have the information. You have spared yourself a lot of
fruitless work, and avoided cluttering your palette with wasted
paint.
be necessary to resort to the album for the less obvious and in-
frequently used colors. But the confidence you gain from the
knowledge that the information is there any time you need it,
is immeasurable. You never know, unless you are thoroughly ex-
50
the color you want, discard the whole batch and start afresh. If
you find yourself on a deadend, which sometimes happens, it's
futile to try to go on. There's nothing to do but retrace your steps
and start all over again.
There are some colors you may want to mix that are beyond
the scope of your present equipment. In the chapter on expand-
ing the palette I will introduce you to several additional tubes
of paint. But for the present I suggest that you content yourself
with learning all you can about the potentialities afforded in
these fi\'e tubes of color.
51
11 . painting tlie still life
color in a section of the sample still life in order that you may
step one
Here you see four colors, only one of which ( the background ) is
a mixture of two of the other colors— viridian and cadmium yellow
light; the rest are right out of the tube. My first concern was to
get in some bright colors; in this instance cadmium red pale and
yellow, and then the semibright of the warm background green.
Not wanting to use white in the underpainting (remember that
white makes your color tacky ) , I then thinned out viridian with
turps for the teapot. (Viridian, having a gelatinous consistency,
does not apply smoothly, as you can see here.) Following that,
a wash of ultramarine for the table. Notice that I was careful to
use enough turpentine so as to enable the canvas to gleam through.
The object is to maintain as much as possible the luminescence
deriving from the whiteness of the canvas.
If you have been wondering about the underpainting of the
^reen bottle with red, and the red teapot with green, the explana-
tion is simply that the underpainting of the final (or local) color
with its complementary tends to produce a richer effect (see
Chapter 14). Furthermore, it is desirable, wherever possible, to
paint with coats of warm over cool, and cool over warm. If you
observe this rule, you are certain to have much better results than
if you painted warm over warm, or cool over cool. You will also
52
observe that I underpainted the music sheet with yellow to
eliminate the possibility of the final white being chalky.
step ttco
Here my priman' concern was to establish the "source of light,"
and to block out my forms accordingly. As you can see here, I
was not concerned with modeling or with putting in highlights.
I simply chose flat patterns (or planes) to indicate roughly where
step three
Notice here how, with the exception of the background, the paint-
ing is still flat. The teapot now has two distinct shades of red:
cadmium red pale right out of the tube in the light section, and
a mixture of cadmium red pale with alizarin for the dark side.
Notice that here, too, I allowed the viridian of the underpainting
to show through a bit. For the label on the bottle I loosely
blocked out the brand name with cadmium red pale, letting the
yellow underneath form the letters. For the lower part of the
label I mixed cadmium red pale and white, brushing it on loosely
enough to permit some of the vellow to show. Behind the teapot^.^
I painted a plane of ultramarine with a little alizarin for the cast
look realistic. This was left for the final stage of the painting.
In the background I verv loosely and freely brushed some cool
blue and violet grays, permitting a good bit of the warm imder-
painting to show through. Since wanted mv final painting toI
53
step four
Here, in the final stage, you can see the advantages of leaving
realistictouches for last. The light planes on the bottle and tea-
pot are no longer two dimensional, but you will notice that I still
had not modeled or blended my color. Every stroke of paint was
applied jkit. Thus, I was able to avoid having the different coats
of paint fuse vwth one another and become muddy. On the bottle
some of the red underpainting shows through, and this serves
still
strove not to vary the color quite as much in the final painting
I
54
step three
1
r)
step four
reason, it is well to pause a while to see how we may benefit
from our analysis of such a work before going on to the prac-
tical application of what we have learned.
And, of course, where the cloth hangs over the edge of the table
away from the light, we find a multiplicity of hues of practically
every variety— and how convincingly it manages to look like the
shaded part of the same blue cloth. This seems to contradict the
principle stressed earlier, to the effect that shaded areas of an
object must be painted a deeper \alue of the same basic color.
It however, proof again of how
is, a master can successfully
depart from the rules.
55
Finally, I want to point out the nervous bits of calligraphy
Cezanne employed here for both textural and decorative effect
(see Chapter 28). I believe it can safely be said that calligraphy
is to painting what spice is to food, adding just enough zest to the
56
12. how to paint flowers
If you are going to paint just a vase of flowers, and don't intend
to include other objects in your picture, it's best to avoid the
horizontal or sideways compositions. You have to allow for the
combined height and stems of the flowers, which the
of the vase
vertical composition can more easily accommodate. Furthermore,
you won't have the problem of large vacant areas of canvas on
either side of the vase to make interesting.
As in the case of the still-life painting, draw your composition
with an economy of descriptive statement. Keep your line as
simple and geometric as possible. Your primary concern should
be for spatial composition. There is no point in painting flowers,
however beautifully, if they are going to look flat as wallpaper
decoration simply because you made no provision in your com-
position for the space surrounding them.
Since the emphasis in this picture is going to be on the flowers,
57
another, and Canada in still another direction, and so on. The
same holds true, more or less, for flowers in a bouquet.
The question how
go about achieving this effect in
arises of to
the composition. In order to explain this, we will have to reduce
58
By no means should you start by painting petals. Once you
have drawn a secure-looking composition your next step should
be to think only in terms of color. And, here, bear in mind the
previously mentioned rule of achieving greater interest by means
of diversity. You may want very much to paint just a bunch of
vellow flowers, but in inexpert hands there is a danger of this
ered with color before you attack the problem of turning your
cones into flowers. If your bouquet is grouped into scattered
bunches of flowers of one kind and color, then each group would
receive one wash of their common color. You will say, "But if I
do this I will lose the outline of each separate cone, and how will
I know where to put each shape back again?"
There need be no problem about this; simply paint between
each of the lines (which you have sprayed with fixatif to keep
the black of the charcoal from dirtying your color). Remember
to keep your brush from becoming saturated with turpentine, or
else the paint will run. The advantage of having one-color group-
ings is that it enables you to distribute paint in larger areas in-
stead of having isolated bits of color, which have a tendency to
"jump."
When you have your colors "orchestrated" (a helpful term
designating the harmonious distribution of color throughout the
canvas) the task remains to give the flowers their characteristic
shape, thus departing from the rigid outline of the cones. At this
point it is necessary for you to establish your source of light. And
59
due to a lack of understanding that everything in nature has form,
no matter how feathery-soft it may appear on the surface.
Remember also what you have learned about shadows; the
difference between functional shadows and cast shadows. Ob-
serve how these occur in your bouquet, also in the surrounding
areas— on the wall, on the table, behind, and on the sides of the
table, etc.
By all means avoid using white as much as possible until the
Howers are near completion. There is no surer way of getting
sticky-looking surfaces than by pasting bits of white on your
painting, simply because you see silvery tips of petals gleaming
here and there in your bouquet. And if you should perchance
have included white flowers in the bouquet, then surely you
will have remembered to underpaint them with some bright
color, otherwise you are in for trouble. In any case, leave the
painting of the white part of these flowers for very near the end,
observing (as you should by now have learned to do) that they
are white only where the light strikes them, and that they take
on various hues of gray in their shadowy interiors.
Observe most of the rules you have learned in painting the
foliage— warm greens, cool greens, values, etc. The leaves must,
of course, be conceived in the mass, with here and there a leaf
or sprig of leaves taking on clear-cut identity or silhouette.
Your choice of vase shouldbe simple but interesting in shape,
with as little decoration on it as possible so as not to conflict with
or rival the flowers. It might be wise to avoid using a vase made
of clear glass, for clear glass presents additional technical prob-
lems, such as transparency, highlights, iridescence, and so on.As
I have already pointed out, if you must have glass make sure it is
colored glass— the deeper the color, the better. And be wary of
highlights; these should come at the very end, and should be ap-
plied as sparingly as possible.
If you like, you can drape your table with a bit of cloth. But
here again, avoid white— unless, of course, you feel like taking on
the challenge of trying to make it work. Your best bet is a col-
ored cloth, and don't be too fussy in your painting of it as you
should not attract more attention to it than is necessary. The
shadows that fall on the cloth will naturally be a deeper value
of the same color than those parts that are in the light.
When you have gained more experience and confidence you
won't find it necessary to go through the business of drawing
cones for your flowers, and so forth. When you feel more confi-
dent there naturally won't be the necessity of employing safe-
guards of this kind.
Your work will be increasingly freer as you go along, and even-
tually, you will be able to dispense with much of the preparatory
drawing with charcoal and leave a great deal of this to be done
with the brush. But you can only gain this kind of freedom when
you have trained yourself to understand and appreciate the
structural factors that go into the creation of a successful painting.
Too much freedom too soon, or too little freedom later on are
both obstructive to good painting.
60
Note: Some people try to mix colors right on the canvas. This
is not a good practice and can only lead to careless work and
muddy Make sure that you have mixed your color satis-
color.
factorily on your palette, and do not let impatience get the best
of you. If you try to rely on miracles happening on your canvas
because of impatience to get the desired hue on the palette, then
the chances are you will not succeed in having a picture that has
good color or pleasing surfaces. Moreover, your work will not
improve with each succeeding painting, as it has every possi-
doing if you follow the rules.
bility of
muddy gray. Just wash it out entirely and repaint the area.
61
facing up,
any of the others. Thus, we find some of the flowers
as well
and others down; some facing to one side or to the other,
as to the rear; and so forth. This spatial
envelopment of the
back-
bouquet is further augmented by the absence from the
ground of any solidly painted, or heavy tones. The
atmospheric
of yielding
quality of this background that gives the appearance
the result
before the thrusts of the various flower heads is simply
(mostly of a
of freely applied overlays of warm and cool grays
of soft blue.
violet or retiring hue ) interspersed with patches
Although the sunflowers are fundamentally yellow, here we
will probe the
see evidence of how an artist of Monet's caliber
heart of color so as to extract from it every possible
nuance or
shade. Consequently, we find the petals tinged here and
there
with white) for the places where the foliage catches the warm
light, a blue-green where the cold light hits it, with deep
violet-
greens for the shadows. The vase, too, has received its share of
color variation. Though obviously a white object, nowhere is
tions in the art of painting. As for the actual painting of the cloth,
we have further evidence of the artist's characteristic freedom
in the use of the brushstroke— seeming to "sweep" into a mound
of soft reds where the cloth is exposed to the light, with a host of
deep rich hues for the shadows.
62
19 SUNFLOWERS by Claude Monet. Courtesy of The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Bequest of Mrs. H. 0. Havemeyer, 1929.
The H. 0. Havemeyer Collection
13. space I
' This i,s not meant to nilc out entirely the .study of perspective (sec
Chapter 24).
63
.
ahead, but also up and down, and all around. In brief, they are
interested in space that has three dimensions.
Just as painting cannot show actual space, so it cannot show
actual motion. The painting that attempts to do so is bound to
tures are painted, seems quite a feat. How then does the
it
64
bility of a creative approach. The painter who resorts to such
devices has little respect for his audience and no love of art.
from that flat surface, like theopen window through which one
can view a scene that I mentioned earlier. Well, if you were to
draw just the few lines on a canvas, you're going to get some kind
of a feeling of spatial recession. You almost can't miss.
Take the letter "Z," for instance. If you draw a rectangle, and
inside it draw a quick "Z," and then a cone at each end of the
"Z," how much space there seems to be between both cones! (see
Fig. 21). The reason I chose the letter "Z" is because of the
jagged, lightning-like movement that its shape suggests. (It may
be no accident that drawings of a bolt of lighting are somewhat
in the shape of a "Z". ) For this letter is nothing more than a
series of joined lines of sufficient length to carry the eye from
one line to the other, so that when vou reach the farthest end.
65
22 a
traveled a certain
your eye experiences the sensation of having
Clist3.IlC6
compose
Butyou were to carry this idea a Httle further and
if
going in various directions-one line
a landscape by the use of lines
farther and farther
leading to the other so that the eye is carried
sense of a completed
into the distance and brought back again-a
in com-
circuit of will result. Let's see how this works out
space
position.
trees
like trees,
We are not going to start out by drawing trees to look
or mountains to look like mountains. We
know that the picture
is going to contain these elements, but
our primary concern is
to get space with as few lines as possible. The
realistic parts will
lawn
Most people who attempt to compose such a setting for the first
house from the roof down. First things come first. The
lawn
spreads out in front and is divided from the water by a
fence.
66
ward on a slight diagonal from the lower left-hand side. Since
trees tend to lean a little, we now put a somewhat tilted line
down for that. We don't stop to make it look treelike, but simply
indicate the division of foliage from sky by a long flowing line.
mountains
At about two-thirds of the height of the tree, the ridge of one
of the mountains breaks into view-just to the right of the foliage.
This undulates downward, also in a flowing line (perhaps a little
more jagged) and terminates in a peninsula. But the mountain
is pushing off into the distance. We indicate this by directing a
series of indented lines away from us, until the last one joins the
tip of the peninsula. In the distance a low mountain range is seen
to move kittv-corner behind the peninsula, so that together the
hvo mountains form an obtuse angle. Mountain number three now
juts into \ie\v from the right-hand side of the canvas.
lake
This is our largest mountain, being closest to where we are situ-
of water nicely hemmed-in. It's easy to see how much space we've
created on the two-dimensional surface— and with so few lines!
(see Fig. 22 C).
67
.
clouds
We complete our fence, losing it in a mass of shrubbery on the
right-hand side of the picture. The trunk and some of the
branches of the tree should now be drawn. A few clouds
should hang over the scene. These are drawn so as not to repeat
the angles of any of the other forms. We will make them "cumu-
lus" clouds,which billow up from a kind of floor. This "floor" is
established by a short straight line, with the billowing part rising
above it.
boat
The reader who is romantically inclined may want to include a
WRONG
24
14. painting the landscape:
69
can exploit
There are any number of other possibilities you
approach to landscape composition. It is always
with this basic
best, of course, that you paint a scene
with which you have some
familiarity-or at least that contains elements
with which you are
intimate. But for the present, it will be helpful to
more or less
of
you in whatever you are going to paint to follow the analysis
the problem of paint-
the sample landscape, and the approach to
one's attitude toward
ing it. But first a few additional pointers on
landscape painting.
house, fence, or
the right (or left, as the case may be) of the
whatever, it stands to reason that one end will be closer to
where
he is standing and the other end
farther away. That being the
70
)
71
color, harmony, and balance, even though you know these colors
won't be final.
left receives the intermediate value for its shadow, leaving the
72
grade it with increasing additions of white (with faint touches
of yellow or green in the mixture ) until it is palest at the horizon.
The question "Why, if white is most opaque, will
will arise:
increasing amounts of mixed with blue not make it come for-
it
atmospheric conditions
Trees should also be studied under varying atmospheric condi-
tions. You
will notice that the underparts of leaves are frequently
lighter inshade than they are on their surfaces. \\'hen there is a
breeze stirring, the underparts of leaves will show. In such cir-
cumstances the light striking the trees will be somewhat colder
than it would be in calm, for the warm green \\'ill be missing. If
blowing from the north, then other factors of light or dark,
it is
or warm
or cold will prevail. The painter must study these things
through constant observation. He must learn to judge when, and
imder what circumstances, to add warmer or colder tones to his
pigment.
In late afternoon, when the sun's rays are slanting from the
west, the quality of the trees is again different. The foliage be-
comes warmly translucent as the sunlight pours green gold
through it. The leaves facing east now become cold with the
reflection of the cold blue sky.
autumn colors
When painting autumn scenes, observe the same rules with re-
gard to warm and cool tones. Colors will range from warm to
hot in the red-orange-yellow bracket, and warm to cold in the
red, red-violet, \iolet bracket. Study the colors for the variations
in these different brackets. Beginnerswho attempt autumn scenes
frequently get their paintings too hot because of the failure to
maintain this important balance.
The absence or presence of sunlight will, of course, be a factor,
as well as the position of the sun.
But in everv case, this rule re-
mains unchanged: wherever the light is warm, the shadows must
he cold. Conversely, where the light is cold the shadows will be
warm.
73
15. painting the landscape:
they see more color in the trees in the foreground than in the
mountains beyond, they immediately conclude that the moun-
tains must be darker. This brings us to another cliche that has
somehow taken hold: that the less color you see, the darker things
must be.
74
But some people require more conclusive proof and are wary
of the finality of any such thing as a squint. Besides, many readers
of this book' will notbe toting cameras with them when they go
out to paint. So let us look at it from a purely practical point of
view. The mountain is across the lake, and there is atmosphere
between it and the trees in the foreground. It isn't that the moun-
tain grows any lighter, but just that the atmosphere hangs like a
filmy veil in front of it. This makes sense, I think; and the be-
ginner who finds himself resistant to the squint will recognize the
logic of it.
75
.
fundamentally the same as you did in painting the still life ( see
Fig. 15). In other words, you should try wherever
possible to
76
in the foreground. It must be remembered that all values are
relative to their spatial position. Consequently, the mountains in
the middleground of the scene will be broken up in three values
of less weight than those used in the lower third of the painting.
Those used for the mountains in the distance will be correspond-
ingly lightest of all.
lawn
We will employ three values as usual in breaking up the lawn.
But we won't divide it into equal thirds, as there is no need to be
mechanically repetitious about it. Moreover, we want most of the
lawn to be sunlit. So we'll shape our shadowy areas in interesting
patterns of dark and semidark, but not large enough to dominate
the lawn.
Note: Try to shape your shadow patterns in such a way as to
repeat some of the "motifs " that occur elsewhere in the picture-
contours of mountains, clouds, etc. The purpose of this is to intro-
77
16. painting the landscape:
78
Trees have different shapes from mountains or clouds ( they also
differ from one another, depending on the type of tree). Trees
turn in a palisading sort of way (see Fig. 27), with layers of
leaves receding in a progression away from the light. It is only
those fronds that catch the gleam of light that are distinguishable
from the mass of the foliage. To try to paint all the leaves you
see is only a waste of effort. Don't try to attract too much atten-
the volume of the foliage that will serve to keep the sky behind
the tree, and prevent the little dabs of blue from jumping forward
to attach themselves to the leaves. Furthermore, the sky seen
through the trees always deeper than that which is seen out in
is
it afresh about aweek or two later. But since anyone who really
likes to paint doesn't want to remain idle for so long a time, it is
advisable to work concurrently on two or three different paint-
ings. It helps to siphon off much of the concentrated interest in
the outcome of one project, and rela.xes the fear of spoiling the
picture that so many beginners experience.
Remember no such thing as an absolute color; that
that there is
79
on different characteristics when turned away from the light. And
they are always affected by the color of whatever it is that
they face.
kibitzers
If you will be painting anywhere within the view of passers-by,
you are going to be in for some kibitzing which you must steel
yourself against. People will be offering you all sorts of criticism
and advice. Ignore it. Most people admire anyone who has the
courage to paint, and secretly they envy you. However liberal
they may be with their opinions, they don't understand very
much about the construction of pictures and can only visualize
the finished product.
picture the finishing touches you think it needs, put it aside and
begin another painting. Once you have said all you can about
your subject, trying to refine the picture will not improve it. In
other words, don't try to rush your development as an artist. That
will come of its own accord, and in its own sweet time.
17. rhythm
is static. For all the darks in Diagram A cancel each other out;
81
to obstruct penetration by the eye of the flat-picture surface.
Symmetry can be beautiful in itself and is ideal for flat decorative
sistent for its spatial position. Its demand for attention over-
whelms the claims of the lesser darks. The eye is previatiirely drawn
to it and feels uncomfortably that things are somehow
not in
nature (as in the case of the earlier landscape study where the
tree looms larger and towers over the mountain, even though
that
82
abstract shapes of the darks. To alter the size, shape, or position
&3
values of bothmay be, and in most instances will be different,
but the unity of their combined darks will not be altered by
that fact.
The creative painter capitalizes on every opportunity to in-
clude these elements of design whenever he encounters them in
nature. He has trained himself to detect and ferret them out from
the abundant mass of detail he sees. They become easier to recog-
nize after a certain amount of experience in looking for them, and
pretty soon you pick them out almost by second nature. Don't
start worrying about using abstract shapes in the construction of
your picture. They are only the bricks and mortar, so to speak,
for making your composition secure. I am not trying to make an
"abstract painter" of you.
few short essays, and the likelihood is that it will do a great deal
of good.
For no phase of art is, or can successfully be, an isolated e.xperi-
ence. In order for one to learn how to paint a bottle or an apple,
or whatever, he should be curious to know how other painters
went about painting the same things, and where they got their
ideas, and so on. And he should draw inspiration from the amount
of heart's-blood that so many of the great painters of the past
poured into their efforts to further the knowledge to which we are
now heir.
Whether or not you think that reading the ideas contained in
these chapters will have any direct bearing on your immediate
painting problems, one thing it will add dimension to
is certain:
your work. The benefits may
become immediately apparent to
not
you, but eventually your work is bound to profit by it. You are
not asked to swallow whole all or even part of the things said
here. But if it has made you think a little about some of the ideas
advanced in these chapters then it has been all to the good.
18. what is art?
The question "What is art?", has confronted the world for cen-
turies, and although some great writers and critics have under-
taken to answer it, so far it has never been done satisfactorily.
Art is seemingly too vast and complex an affair for any individual
to be able to estimate its total depth and range, and all the values
that go into its makeup. The element of personal preferences in-
evitably enters into any such appraisal, and complete objectivity
is not given any man to e.xercise.
When you consider that two great artists like van Gogh and
Cezanne were said to be mistrustful and unappreciative of each
other's work, who is to say which of them judged correctly? It is
easy to look back from the convenient vantage of fifty years and
say that neither was right, that the work of both was great, regard-
less of what each thought of the other's work. But new Cezannes
and van Goghs are bound to crop up from time to time, or else
art would die out. No one can look fiftv years ahead to be able
to tell accurately which one will receive credit in the eyes of
the world.
It is impossible for anyone to say exactly what art is, but it is
possible to say what art is not. Art is not merely the making of
pretty pictures, accurate reproduction of things we see, or clever
illustration of a sentimental theme or story. The craft of paint-
ing has long ago bypassed the technical problems entailed in
doing any of these things and, artistically speaking, they're pretty
"old hat." Butit is remarkable how tliese feats continue to impress
87
their own skills in pencil portraiture and are only doing it to make
a living. A number of them are serious students of art and know
only too well how insignificant clever pencil drawing can be.
But the layman will say, "It's easy enough for you to talk, but if
I could only draw like that then I'd be happy." Would he,
though?
The person who earns five thousand dollars a year, or under,
can afford to say, "If I could only make ten thousand a year,
then I would be content." But what about the one who makes ten
thousand— is he happy to stay that way? Obviously not. The
point I am getting at is, patently, that no one is satisfied with
his attainments, that there is the ever-present need to surge
ahead, regardless of our station; and the same holds true in art.
The fact remains that the average person's taste in art is influ-
enced by his admiration of skills with pencil or brush that he
wished he himself possessed. It is precisely for this reason that
"potboilers" (
pictures painted mostly mechanically for the picture-
buying public) continue to be popular and so widely bought. The
stunts with the brush that so reahstically produce the effect of
moonlight gleaming on the water or of waves crashing against the
rocks, are the things most untrained people wish they could do.
And that is the kind of picture they will buy at first.
ago, and it has far less reason for being so, considering that we
have had photography for over a century.
To repeat: no one can say exactly what art is, but it is very
important for the student of painting to understand what art is
not. It is not a cheap or facile imitation of nature, no matter how
skillful. The amateur's painting need not necessarily be perfectly
pure, and honest. The amateur cannot hope for a better start in
his painting career. It does not follow that the amateur will not
develop painting skills. He may very well do so in time. But he
should not try to acquire them at the expense of creative integrity.
When photography was invented in 1839, the earliest photo-
graphs were composed in a manner to imitate painting. Ironically
enough, many people today expect painting to imitate photog-
raphy. The photograph, and the photographic painting are popu-
larly regarded as absolutes in the reproduction of lifelike appear-
ances of things. But it is a fact that there are savage tribes who
fail to recognize either themselves, their families, or fellow
tribesmen when shown photographs of them. They see nothing
but splotches of black, gray, and white in these photographs.
This would seem to indicate a fallacy in the assumption that
photographs are absolutes of realism in graphic reproduction,
otherwise everyone should be able to recognize things they por-
tray. And it must not be assumed that these tribes are deficient
in the powers of recognition with which we are endowed, for
they certainly are able to recognize reflections of themselves in
a mirror.
The point is that we have, over the course of many centuries,
developed a system of optic associations whereby we translate
certain graphic impressions as symbols of recognizable things.
Our sa\age friends have not had this particular kind of orienta-
tion and, as a consequence, see nothing at all in the pictures
which are for us marvels of realism.
So it is safe to conclude that art is not mere imitation of nature
in any form, but rather the creation of beauty in whatever form
it takes. And
conditioned by no absolutes, except that of
art is
the devotion that one brings to one's work. For it is that quality
that can kindle the representation of the most ordinary thing into
something of genuine beauty.
89
19. the meaning and beauty of art
90
Tlie answer is quite simple: Years of exposure, following the
shock of the unfamiliar, enabled people to recognize what
initial
was beautiful in an art form that they once were hasty to reject
as ugly.
Frequently, when people say that a picture is beautiful what
they mean is: "Gosh, I'd gi\e anything to be able to paint like
beautiful subjects
Let's take a look at some of the examples of paintings that are
popularly thought beautiful. We'll start with the painting of a
pretty girl with a lovely figure and perfect measurements— a Miss
America, in fact. Many people will look at such a picture and
say: "What What they mean, of course, is that
a lo\ely painting!"
the girl is and since the painting is of her, then, to them,
lovely,
the painting is beautiful. But the portrait of a beautiful woman
and a beautiful painting are not necessarily the same thing. For
a portrait can be beautiful e\en \\'hen it has a homely subject;
whereas, the painting of a beautiful girl can, artistically speak-
ing,be ugly.
There is much more that goes into a work of art than factual
representation, however beautiful the subject may be. It is not
the subject that makes the painting beautiful, but the artistic
conception of beauty that the painter brings to his work that
makes it so. For if the painter has nothing more than the skill to
reproduce what he sees, he fails in having the most important
ingredients of art.
91
30 STILL LIFE by Jean-Baptlste Chardin. Courtesy of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Massachusetts
phenomena of nature
There are some things in nature that are intrinsically beautiful
but paintings of them somehow manage to cheapen their beauty.
Sunsets are a good example. How many people look at a glorious
sunset and say to themselves, "Oh, if I could only paint!" But it
is unfortunately true that while sunsets can be breathtakingly
92
31 THE POTATO EATERS by Vincent van Gogh. Courtesy of the Museum of the City of Amsterdam
humble beauty
But a painter like Chardin can take a coarse, earthenware object
and by the means of his art, transform it into a thing of beauty.
The love with which he rolled little pellets of pigment and
tenderly piled them onto the canvas to produce a ceramic te.xture;
the serenity that comes from the interplay of horizontals, verti-
cals and diagonals in his composition (see Fig. 30), all bespeak
the poetry of his art. Instead of being merely a factual representa-
tion of the thing he sees, his painting becomes a celebration of
his love of the simple things in life.
Van Gogh's "Potato Eaters" cannot be considered attractive by
any standards of physical beauty. Hunger and malnutrition, bad
air and oppressive living quarters are not conducive to the forma-
vogue
Nor does art concern itself with fashions or styles as criteria of
esthetic beauty. Some of Renoir's nudes would be C(jnsidered fat
by today's standards of the ideal in feminine dimensions, yet his
93
32 THE DOCTOR by Sir Luke Fildes. © New York Graphic Society
sentiment
The picture of a country doctor keeping vigil beside the bed of
the painter's story, and are destined never to know whether the
child survives the crisis. Our interest in such a picture cannot be
sustained for very long. Once we have finished admiring the
94
painter's skill and exhausted our fund of sentimental curiosity,
can ever hope to do. The object of art is to create beauty that
doesn't already exist, although it may be— and very often is—
inspired by things beautiful in themselves.
But it is the artist's vision of beaut)' that moves him to create
works of art. It is like a spirit that keeps him perpetually seeking,
like the prospector of gold, for the "nugget" that will most per-
fectly correspond to his vision. He may never succeed in finding
that "nugget," and more often than not fails to do so; but in the
process of seeking, he may find many smaller nuggets of genuine
beauty, and these become the heritage of the world.
It is this vision of the artist, that elevates humble things into
the realm of beauty. It causes him to create art that does not
imitate or seek to rival nature, but is the artist's way of singing
his praises of nature's beauty. He uses his gifts as a vehicle for
the expression of that vision, and not to make himself a slave of
his talent.
This vision is not instinctive in man. It is the distillate of his
experiences in art— his experience in looking at paintings; the
inspiration he derives from the lives of the great painters; love
of his materials— the smell of paint— the texture of pigment— the
feel of the brush imder his hand. All this is communicated in his
art and is the emulsifying agent, as it were, between what he
sees and what he feels.
There aren't any real short cuts to the understanding of these
things. The person who paints has the better chance, because in
the process of learning he becomes familiar with the "language"
of art,and the message of the artist is more readilv communicated
to him. He recognizes what is beautiful in art in terms of art, and
not through any preconceived notions of what it ought to be.
His own work is consequently fed and nourished by this acquired
understanding. And his enjoyment of the whole artistic experi-
ence results in a stronger and deeper appreciation of what is
beautiful in his chosen medium of expression.
95
20. imagination in art
A woman once said to me: "I like a painter who sits down and
paints sees." One cannot dispute her right to Hke what-
what he
ever kind of painting pleases her most, but it is a very flimsy
esthetic as applied to the art of painting in general. There isn't
just one kind of good painting, any more than there is one
kind
of good writing or good musical composition. As there are writers
who tell merely a good yarn, there are those whose appeal is mostly
to the imagination. They evoke in us a response to the atmosphere
of fantasy or mystery with which they infuse their writing.
Dostoevski, Coleridge, Melville, and Poe are fine examples of this
type of vvriter.
about one each day. His stars are not just specks of light, which
is about all the naked eye is capable of seeing, but celestial balls
of fire in the act of cosmic explosion (see Fig. 34). The ecstasy
he brought to his work transformed everything he saw into paint-
ings of the most infectious excitement the world of art has ever
known.
The paintings of Paul Gauguin evoke a definite mood that is a
blending of nostalgia and mysticism. His work reveals a tor-
96
33 TOILERS OF THE SEA by Albert P. Ryder.
Collection, Museum of Modern Art, New York. Acquired through the Lillie P. Bliss Bequest
Museum of Art.
35 lA ORANA MAR I A by Paul Gauguin. Courtesy of The Metropolitan
or had seen the movie,and who were eager to start painting with
the fervor and seeming abandon of van Gogh. While sympathiz-
ing with their attitude, I had patiently to point out to them that
van Gogh did not start to paint that way, that, in fact, he drew
for fi\e years before he ever lifted a brush. For the turbulent
quality of many of his canvases has behind it an understanding
of the principles of composition that has been rarely surpassed.
If a person is spirited, fanciful, or emotional, then certainly he
must paint as his enthusiasm dictates. But it is the teacher's re-
sponsibility to explain the hazards of frustrationand disappoint-
ment involved. By all means we should have imagination in art—
the more the better. But the student who prepares himself with
a better understanding of the principles of composition has more
of a chance of succeeding in this direction.
But there are some beginners who say: "I am not the imagina-
tive type; I just want to learn how to paint what I see." I say to
them: "Fine, I am not going to try to get you to paint any other
way than you yourself want. But there are a few things that you
must know."
To begin with, it just isn't possible to paint things exactly as
you see them, regardless of how much technique you have. The
human eye is not a camera lens which automatically records what
it sees. The artist has to make some compromises with reality,
even though his picture may give the impression that he painted
his subject exactly as he saw it.
You may go to museums and galleries and admire paintings for
their lifelike, almost photographic appearance, yet you have no
assurance that the artists painted them precisely as they ap-
peared. The likelihood is that they edited, embellished or im-
proved upon what they saw to correspond to various artistic
refjuirements. If you were to have a dozen "realistic" painters of
the highest developed skills doing the same scene, vou would
still have twelve different impressions.
A certain amount of imagination, therefore, has to go into all
painting, be it ever so little. For in reality, the artist is called
upon to Iran.sJdte what he sees into pictorial terms. And as every
.9.9
competent translator knows, it isn't possible to be entirely literal
will flag.
or else the interest in his interpretations
like the seasoning in food-some like more,
Imagination is
100
21. originality in art
people that, literally speaking, these lines should turn out the
fire brigade. They quickly understand that Blake is not describ-
ing a tiger whose fur is on fire, but that the poet has conjured up
101
which is in the shape of a bottle. And when we say to someone:
"Do you see what I mean?" we don't expect him to examine our
person for visible evidence of our meaning. There isn't any point
in running the gamut of our idioms, for the point should certainly
be very clear by now.
Painting is a visual language and it has idioms peculiar to that
language. The person who has not familiarized himself with
those idioms indeed a foreigner to that language, and it isn't
is
personality
As everyone knows, there are people one encounters from time to
time who communicate a very strong impression of individuality.
We are impressed by what we call the "personality" of such an
individual. He may dress in the usual manner, vote the regular
ticket, and lead an existence not particularly distinguishable
from the average. Nevertheless, the impact of his personality is
felt by all who come in contact with him. There is something
style
102
originality of his approach. But to impose restraints on oneself
prematurely can serve no purpose that will be of any benefit to
the beginning student.
if the student
It is no indication of any inherent lack of ability
inventiveness
One of the aspects of originality in painting is inventiveness. The
in\entive painter sees that the object has a certain shape or color
but feels impelled to alter the shape or color in his painting to
correspond to some image he has of it that is more satisfying to
him than the actual appearance of the object. In other words, he
has the desire to interpret that object rather than to imitate it.
But often beginners who do the same thing jump to the conclu-
it is because they don't know how to state things
sion that the
manv great painters who take liberty with the natural appearance
of things in the interest of creati\e originality.
innovation
Originality in painting also takes the form of innovation. Not a
few great painters were distinguished by the innovations they
made in techniques and concepts of painting. This form of in-
venti\eness is partly of the scientific spirit which spurred artists
Always against the greatest odds, with critics and public alike
lined up against them, with only a few isolated champions for
support, they kept art from e\er settling into a stagnant, in-
grown affair, and constantly pumped new blood into it. For the
greater part, these painters recei\ed little thanks in their own
lifetimes and got manv hard knocks for their unyieldingness to
was not the easy way,
the currents of prevailing opinion. Theirs
and the rewards they got were often minimal. In too many cases,
in fact, recognition came posthumously.
The beginner cannot, of course, be expected to be governed bv
either of these two latter categories. Nevertheless, his creative
spirit can be nourished bv the experiences of the great artists to
'
See "Art Tcrm.s ami Plir.ise.s."
103
whom they apply. The most important thing he can learn about
art is that, in a sense, it is a great adventure in which many things
are unforeseen and that conformity is the very opposite of what is
creative in art.
primitive painting
Originahty also manifests itself in a type of painting that has
gained prominence in the last fifty years and is generally known
as "Primitive." This type of painting is characterized by an
untutored quality, and it has been said that Henri Rousseau,
104
)
But these are only rare instances, and for the most part Primi-
tive paintershave a true originality in their way of stating things.
Much of their work is awkward and is frequently gauche; the
space in their composition is usually "at sixes and sevens," and
the relative proportions of things are impossible. But because
so many due to age
of these people have no access to training, or
factors, are beyond training of any appreciable kind, they very
often bring to their work an originality that is denied better
trained painters. This is no argument, of course, against training
in art. Those who are capable of benefiting from such training
should certainly do so. By the same token, those who cannot have
such training should not deprive themselves of the kind of
achievement they are so uniquely qualified for. Good Primitive
painting is, after all, preferable to sophisticated painting which
has no distinction whatsoever.
705
22. expanding the palette
tubes
Once you have seen what can be accomplished with just five
tain hues you simply cannot get with your beginner's palette of
colors and if, in your impatience, you took a sneak preview of
this chapter you can't be entirely blamed for it.
However, it is
to be hoped that you were able to restrain your
impulse until
you have satisfied yourself that you are sufficiently familiar with
the properties of the initial five colors.
nonprismatic colors
The you have been using up to now are generally known
colors
term comes from the refraction of light,
as prismatic colors. This
very much like those seen in a prism ^ which these hues are
capable of producing. Ranging from alizarin to ultramarine blue
you have a potential rainbow of colors in these tubes of paint.
'
See "Art Terms and Phrases."
106
But there are instances when less brilhant hues are desirable.
There are, for example, certain reds and greens that are less in-
sistent than those with which you are now familiar. Such colors
often ha\e a modifying effect that prevents your painting from
becoming too harsh.
We already know how to counteract the intensity of prismatic
colors through the use of grays, but since grays require the addi-
tion of white to their mixture, the inevitable result is that of
heiglitening the kev of the painting. Since some paintings-par-
ticularlv those done indoors— require a lower key, it is well to
have certain synthetic earth colors (synthetic because they are
not derived from clays, but are made from chemical waste ma-
terials) which supplv deep burnt-red and green hues that are
less intense than the cadmiums. You will, on the other hand, also
be introduced to colors that have even greater intensity' than the
prismatic pigments, such as thalo (phthalocyanine). Some of
these are fairly new to the chemistry of oil painting, and it is by
means of these that vou will be able to mix the colors that have
the "kick" of the aniline dves found in modern fabrics and the
like. Though intense, these colors are at the same time lower in
kev than the prismatic hues. With this in mind we may now
proceed to the study of both our basic and auxiliary palettes of
colors.
basic colors
BURNT SIENNA (
A fiery orange-brown color that
Tcrru di Siena
)
RAW UMBER A grayish brown with a greenish cast, this color pro-
duces silvery grays when mixed with white. It has a fairly
high degree of oil absorption (about 80 per cent) and is
107
)
PHTHALOCYANiNE BLUE (
Tholo) This is a very powerful, cold blue
(as distinguished from ultramarine which leans toward red
and is, consequently, a somewhat "warmer" blue). This color
is very efFective in combinations with green and white to
produce the appearance of water (or glass, porcelain, or any
surface where there is a great amount of sheen). Being a
cold blue, it is also useful, in parts of the painting that you
want to recede. Since it is a deep color it is not to be used
by itself.
CADMroM ORANGE This is another color that varies considerably
auxiliary colors
INDIAN RED {Venetian Red) This is a deep earthy-looking red
that has a slightly violet cast. It is moderate in its degree of
oil absorption (about 40 per cent) and has good covering
power. It is fairly quick drying. When combined with white
it yields cool shades of flesh color to offset the hotter variety
obtained from burnt sienna.
GREEN EARTH (Terre Verte) This is an exceedingly thin, dark
green pigment that has practically no covering power. It is
very gelatinous in the tube, and has a high degree of oil
absorption (about 100 per cent). It is very useful in the
painting of shadows in portraiture. It yields pearly green-
grays in combination with white. Being a deep color, it must
also never be used by itself. Because of its very thin texture
it must be handled with great delicacy in order to get the
best results.
CERULEAN BLUE This is a beautiful light blue with a faintly green-
ish cast. It is very valuable for achieving atmospheric tones
in landscape painting. It has very little covering power, and
is easily overpowered when mixed with other colors. It, too,
has to be treated delicately for best results.
108
ULTRAMARINE RED OF ROSE MADDER These are exceedingly thin
reds with a slightly bluish cast. Both of them are of question-
able permanence, although ultramarine red is considered the
stabler of the two.' Both superficially resemble alizarin, but
are very much subtler colors. Both these colors can be very
useful in portrait painting.
'
Recent synthetic manufactures have produced more permanent varia-
tions of the.se colors, such as alizarin rose-madder.
The question of quickness or slowness of drying in colors is of great
importance to the painter in oils for the simple reason that paint tends to
contract as it dries. When a quick-drying color is applied over a slow-drying
color its contracting action affects the paint underneath (which is still wet)
causing cracks to Unm on the surface of the painting.
109
BURNT UMBER This is a dark brown color which has a tendency
to "bleed." ^ It is a heavy, dense color that is inclined to
turn black in time. It is capable of producing warm grays
combination with white. However, its disadvantages out-
in
weigh its advantages, hence, should be avoided.
PRUSSIAN BLUE This is a very deep blue that has a coppery sheen.
It has a tendency to "bleed." It has very great tinting power
no
addition of a touch of alizarin to cadmium red pale (or light)
willproduce a workable approximation of vermillion.
COBALT VIOLET Very poisonous in its original state, it has recently
been manufactured synthetically and is now safe to use.
However, it is subject to darkening in contact with oil. A
good cobalt violet is very expensive but without practical
advantages.
LAMP BLACK This black paint is made from carbon soot. It is a
As for all the rest of the tubes of paint you see displayed in art
Ill
23. sketching out-of-doors
Once you have begun to paint you will be using your eyes in a
manner that you couldn't previously have anticipated. Almost
without your realizing it, your eyes will be gathering impressions
112
cide to call it, you, as a prospective painter, have a great deal of
adventure of "seeing" ahead of you.
113
Once you have satisfied yourself, however, that you have a
perfectly good scene, then it is time to get out your things and
get set up for painting. But wait a minute! The title of this chap-
ter is "Sketching Out-of-Doors." How does this differ from land-
scape painting?
114
Don't attempt to fill up all the tiny spots of white canvas that
show after you ha\e distributed all your washes of color. Avoid
fussiness of any kind. This t>pe of painting is supposed to be
fresh and impro\isational looking, and if there are little spots of
canvas showing the\- tend to enhance rather than detract from
its effecti\eness.
Everything in this sketch must be painted boldly and freely,
with absolutelv no concern for exactness of detail. A tree trunk,
for example, can be stated by a heavy dark sinuous line, and
foliage can be expressed by two or three contrasting masses of
green, with here and there a few calligraphic
' lines loosely and
paintings, what is the point of bothering with this kind of oil sketch
which can never look like a finished picture? Well, the object is
twofold: First of all, to give you the incentive to work freely and
spontaneously enough to be able to capture a fresh outdoor-like
quality in the painting. Otherwise it is usually more difficult for
the average amateur to work directly from nature. Secondly, such
sketches become the foundation for more carefully worked-out
painting.
There are no hard and fast rules about this. A canvas panel,
or any white board that is semiabsorbent will do for your sketch.
(Not boards, however, that have shiny or slick surfaces.) As for
the size, I would advise nothing that is too small. Panels size
12 -x 16 would be best. They fit snugly into the slots of the
standard sketch-box, eliminating the awkward problem of trans-
porting wet paintings by hand.
Another advantage is the opportunity to use the lid of your
sketch-box as an easel, due to the convenient way in which the
panel can be held upright in the notched into the lid of the
slots
if you allow the key of your painting to get too low, when you
take your sketch indoors you may discover, to your dismay, that
what didn't look too bad under the flattering light of day sud-
denly looks dull and rather dismal in color. Unless you con-
stantly check the values of your painting against those in the
scene before you, these unhappy consequences may be the result.
Apropos of this, it may be fitting to relate the anecdote of the
Impressionist painter whose choice of a vivid green for the grass
in his painting was challenged by certain critics. He thereupon
116
imited his critics to his studio, placed some of the offending
color on a piece of paper and asked his guests to step outside with
him. He put the paper with the seemingly brilliant green on the
grass and, lo and behold, the brightness of the grass exceeded that
of the paint!
The moral of this story should be fairly obvious. The art of
117
above all, that every time you paint you gain in experience. And
ifyou learn from your mistakes, then it is so much to the good.
panoramic scenes
Avoid great panoramas as subjects for your outdoor sketch— or
any landscape painting for that matter.' They can be very breath-
takingly beautiful, to be sure, but they are far too vast for ordi-
nary compositional purposes. Not only is the eye led too far in the
distance to be able to be brought comfortably back, but the
feeling of intimate contact between the viewer and the scene de-
picted (which is a prerequisite to good painting), is somehow
'
See Chapter 24.
118
lost. Furthermore, it takes a greater amount of skill to paint a
and at other times they race across the scene and out of sight in
a short period of time. Some have form, and others are fleecy.
You won't ha\e much time to study the clouds in the scene you
are "sketching"-nor is it necessary. Decide at the outset what
kind of clouds vou are going to paint, and with a few quick
strokes of the charcoal indicate their position in the sketch.
Also, remember pre\ious injunctions about the pasty use of
white. It is and amber tones (be
possible to use pink, \iolet,
them too "sweet") in the painting of clouds.
careful not to get
Clouds must communicate a feeling of floating over the scene,
not cotton\'-l()oking masses stuck on the surface of the canvas. A
few rhythmic "calligraphic" lines (see Figs. 38, 39) can give a free
"shorthand" suggestion of clouds (which is all that is necessary
for the sketch ) around an occasional plane of light isolated from
the deeper hue of the sky.
119
painting the sky in your sketch
Though the sky is generally blue, it may be fun to experiment
with different kinds of "sky painting." Under certain atmospheric
conditions the sky can have a definite yellowish cast. Painting
the sky a yellow stain and brushing over it quickly with a pale
blue can sometimes produce a handsome effect. One has to be
rather venturesome in painting at times; as a consequence many
interesting things can happen. Although you may not achieve an
exact replica of what you see, you can give the painting a flavor
that is more desirable than fidelity to the actual scene could
produce. Sometimes the sky can have a pinkish cast. Experiment
with these various possibilities and see what you can discover.
120
Whatever you do, though, don't become so enamored of the
brown, brown ( with a little violet stroked into the deeper brown
for coolness in the shade), plus a few crisp lines of alizarin
mixed with viridian or with blue is all you need for the barn in
the sketch.
patterns
Wherever be conscious of patterns without being
possible, try to
too deliberate about it. Remember
that these can be the con-
nective tissue that will hold together the more loosely wrought
parts of your sketch. To employ these patterns mechanically
throughout to the point where they begin to obtrude, would not
be a good idea. That would only serve to defeat the lightness and
airiness, the feeling of the outdoors that is desirable in your
sketch. But here and there a pleasing pattern, in the shadows or
in the clouds, can do a lot to give the sketch character.
121
But your greatest asset is going to be the new-found use of
your eyes— the countless impressions you will be storing up to
draw upon when it comes to painting your landscape. Though
your canvas may be home on its easel, or tucked away in a closet,
in your mind's eye you will be painting it in every bush or tree
or fieldyou see as you go sauntering leisurely out-of-doors. Thus,
your enjoyment of Nature becomes twofold: How much more
you begin to perceive of her beauty, and how much (once you
understand her secrets ) she teaches you about the way to paint
your picture.
122
24. space II: perspective
72.3
40 b
40 d
of the railroad track, it is not quite so obvious in cases where the
parallel lines are of shorter length, such as in buildings. This is
not students think they see lines going in one direction when
they are actually going in the opposite direction. They usually
have no difficulty when it comes to something like a railroad
track, but it is the short parallels that confuse them.
The fundamental difference between a railroad track and the
house we wish to draw is all too apparent, for the track lies flat
while our house must be solid, or three dimensional. In other
words, the track has only horizontal dimensions, whereas for the
house we have to add a vertical dimension. Now, if we were to
take that same railroad track and terminate it at a given point,
ready have our vanishing point, but for obvious reasons we don't
want to erect our house on the ground plane where it is now situ-
ated, for it would only result in having our view of the sides of
the house obstructed. Looking right down the middle of the
ground plane, as we do, all we could show would be the side of
the house facing us and the top (or roof)— a very unsatisfactory
view, I'm sure you will agree (see Fig. 40B). But if we shift that
ground plane to the side a bit, we have the advantage of being
able to keep our railroad track running off into the distance,
while at the same time having our house standing beside the track,
USING THE SAME VANISHING POINT FOR BOTH THE HOUSE AND THE
TRACK (see Figs. 40C, 40D).
You've no doubt noticed that I've been using the word "house"
rather loosely, for you see nothing in these illustrations really re-
sembling anv dwelling. In fact, all I've done was to draw some-
thing in the shape of an ordinary builder's brick. Evidently I
wanted to establish the house in terms of its "visual denomina-
tor," the cube, before concerning myself with any of its char-
125
40 e
into the distance, there remains something very static about the
houses in our scene. This is due to the fact that the eye has been
permitted to move
only in one direction. In other words, there
is nothing in our drawing to help the eye to move around the
houses, but only in between them. But there is a very effective
remedy for this. For now, instead of using only one vanishing
point, let's see what happens when we use two. Since it has al-
ready served its purpose, we can now afford to dispense with the
railroad track. Our object is to see what we can learn about linear
perspective without the help of this contrivance. Our first step
should be to establish the two vanishing points; but since we
no longer have the railroad track to help us, you may be won-
dering how we are to know precisely where to put these points.
The answer is that vanishing points always occur on the horizon.
the horizon
It is only logical that your ne.xt question should be how we know
where to locate the horizon, since it is seldom that we are in a
position actually to see it. Here we come upon another of the
fundamentals of linear perspective, and that is that the horizon
126
^
sent the horizon. Since we are not concerned with showing any
great vistas, we will avoid having both vanishing points occur
within the confines of the drawing proper, as such a compressed
view would tend to distort the perspective of our bricks. Conse-
quentlv, our ne.xt step is to draw a rectangle, considerably smaller
than the page, to serve as a reduced section of a scene in space.
(This functions not unlike the rectangle of space that we see
when looking through our view-finder.) We then place one of
our vanishing points (a) on the horizon within this rectangle,
while (b) will go at a spot somewhere outside the rectangle (see
Fig. 41).-
Now we must establish the nearest corners of each of these
two bricks. This we do by putting down two short verticals-
one (c) at a position clearly below the horizon line, and the
other (d) parthj above and partly below that line. From the
ends of each of these verticals we now draw (ruled) lines to-
'
In order for any .structure to be seen completely above eye level, it would
have to be up on a hill. Since this is too rare an occurrence, we can avoid the
more complicated problems in perspective that this involves.
" You may be inclined to wonder how far apart these vanishing points
must be placed. From a strictly scientific point of view— that is, if one were
planning to compose an entire scene with accurate regard for the laws of
linear perspective— this is capable of being worked out with mathematical
precision. However, our object is merely to ac(juire some rudimentary knowl-
edge of perspective for aiuilytical purposes only. This being the case, we can
dispen.se with any rigid approach to the problem and, within reasonable
limits, make arbitrary decisions about the spacing of our vanishing points.
The best guide, therefore, is still the one used in the foreshortening ot the
table surface in the still life exercise— that is, making certain that the nearest
corner is an obtuse angle. Thus you can determine how far apart to place
vour vani.shing points with a fair amount of accuracy, which is all that is
necessary for your purposes. For it should be obvious to you by now tiiat tlic
closer together the vanishing points, the more acute will be the angle formed
by the two joining lines. (See term Picture Plane in "Art Terms and Phrases.")
127
.
of each
ward both our v anishing points. For the two side corners
on either side ( but not equidis-
brick we put down two verticals
add a short line representing the farther end of the pitched roof,
and we have the framework for two solid-looking houses. The
addition of a few features such as gables, chimneys,
dormers,
the dwellings you may see along the street of any town
or vil-
129
tastically complicated business with the crisscrossing of hnes to
their vanishing points making a regular jigsaw puzzle of your
paper. For all practical purposes— unless, of course, one were
planning an architectural drawing down to the last detail— it is
a thankless project. All that one needs is to achieve some sort of
organization of the welter of detail into a comprehensive scene.
Do not allow yourself to get bogged down with detail before the
total scene is organized. The very first thing you must do is to
institute a plan for geometric order in your drawing before even
giving a thought to subject matter.
Here is a clue. Let us try to visualize our panoramic scene as
a vast checkerboard (which it not infrequently resembles) with
the outlines of each square converging toward their respective
vanishing points. However, we don't want to be too rigid in this
employment of the checkerboard idea; consequently, we will lose
a square here and and even round out a few of the corners
there,
so as to suggest the contour of a lake, the winding of a road, etc.
(see Fig. 43).
Now, if you were to take an ordinary checkerboard and dis-
tribute miniature objects on one or another of the squares, you
would have, to all intents and purposes, a panoramic scene in
perspective. I think you can begin to see the advantage of this
concept in the panoramic scene, for no matter what you put into
your picture, it will remain firmly rooted to the square to which
ithas been assigned. Once you have plotted your scene in this
manner, you are free to decide which of the elements in the
scene to include in your picture. (You realize, of course, that it
is impossible to put everything you see in it.) Your main re-
130
is to pro\ide your drav-ing with
sponsibilit)' just enough detail to
131
)
above and the other below eye level. In a few minutes she had
a drawing showing both bricks in perfect perspective. It was
obvious that she had learned her lessons well. But when it came
to applying these rules to her creative work, she completely ig-
nored them. When I pointed this out to her, she said, "Oh, you
mean to draw the whole room in perspective?" and proceeded
to demonstrate that she knew how to do that, too. Every step
of the stairway and every stick of furniture was drawn in perfect
perspective. But it all had the stiffness of rigor mortis. Apparently
she still didn't get my point, for she could conceive of no happy
medium between the extremes of precise technical knowledge
and creative expression. Like so many other art students of her
generation, she was apparently influenced by erroneous ideas as
to the meaning of the word "creative" as applied to painting and
drawing. Art students who try to begin where van Gogh left off
frequently mistake the turbulence in his work for chaos. But
underlying van Gogh's turbulence there is solid structural order
such as can only come from a profound respect for the laws of
linear perspective.
And now for a brief review of the few things we have learned
about linear perspective:
which can see out of both sides of its head, the minute you
move your eyes to follow any lines that are parallel then you
must be guided by the laws of linear perspective.
2 Nature has given us the ability to see objects in three di-
mensions; consequently, we have to use at least two vanish-
ing points in order to achieve the sense of the third dimen-
sion. ( It is possible to have recourse to any number of van-
ishing points, as only objects in parallel rows have common
vanishing points. But again, for our purposes this is a need-
lessly involved study.
132
(such as a house) must be longer from bottom to top than
either of the farther corners. But since the sides of the canvas
(or paper) on wliich we work remain parallel, hence per-
spectivehj stationary, the movement of receding lines toward
their vanishing points will induce a sense of interior space in
pictures.
look up in order to see them are above eye level, hence, ris-
133
25. marine painting
But what has all this to do with you? Very simply it has to do
with your attitude toward the painting of marine scenes. For, if
you are, or ever have been, inclined to admire this popular con-
ception of a seascape you may find yourself tempted to emulate
the shck brushwork that goes into the painting of such pictures.
Since few amateurs can put in the time to acquire the skill that
is necessary to bring this off successfully, any attempt in this di-
rection can at best turn out to look like a poor imitation of a trite
theme. But does this mean that you are to be denied the pleasure
of painting seaside scenes? Far from it! Provided you don't at-
tempt to imitate the seascape pro, you should be capable of
painting some very satisfactory pictures of this popular subject.
I have students who do it all the time. A good solid composition,
fresh and creative in the use of color, will more than compensate
for the absence of crashing waves and the like.
134
THE PRIMARY OBJECTIVES IN PICTUBE MAKING IS TO CREATE SPACE.
To achie\'e tliis, as you already know, it is necessary to begin your
composition at the bottom of the canvas. But one of the things
that puzzles many beginners is to know just how much of the
water thev should include in the composition. If this has ever
been your problem, here is a hint. Regardless of how viade an
expanse of sea (or river or lake) you may see before you, it is
best to include no more of it than is absolutely necessary to give
the picture seaside character. For the less water you show,
its
the less you are apt to miss the bag of tricks of the commercial
seascape painter.
Look around vou and see what you can find to provide your
composition with its initial spatial thrust. Wharves, docks, piers,
jetties, boats-there isno end of things capable of performing
this vital function, if vou remember the rule about the eye follow-
ing a form in the direction of its longest surface. And make sure
you don't stint on the number of objects you include in your pic-
ture, as these will serve to distract the viewer from any expecta-
tion of seeing evidence of watery turbulence. Your "view-finder"
( see Chapter 23 ) will help you to isolate a section of waterfront
containing most of the articles you need to gi\e your composi-
tion spatial mo\ement. But if you should happen to see these ob-
jects scattered over a wide area, don't feel under any compulsion
to duplicate the scene exactly as you find it. Greater artists than
you or I haven't hesitated to take liberty with reality wherever
necessarv. It is the success of the picture that counts most, not
diagonal in from the bottom of the canvas will ser\e to keep the
water contained, and thus safeguard against your painting com-
ing to grief on this score alone.
J35
while the fruit bowl (minus its pedestal) easily assumes the
shape of a boat anchored a short distance offshore. The music
sheet, due to its slant, could represent the slope of some hills
enclosing the right hand side of a cove. And it doesn't require
too much imagination to recognize the possibilities of turning
the bottle into a lighthouse. As for the teapot, what with its
curved spout conveniently serving as a quaint stovepipe, can you
not visualize it as some sort of tumbledown fisherman's shack?
(See Fig. 45.)
These are of course all figments of my imagination, but the
range of possibifities along this line is unlmited. You can substi-
tute any number of objects that appeal to you as being suitable
for a scene of this kind. The important thing to bear in mind is,
that the scene must first of all be spatml before it can succeed as
a seascape, or landscape, or whatever. I chose the sample still-life
136
painting the seascape
painting of a sea-
Is there anv essential difference between the
I'm fre-
scape and any other type of picture? This is a question
so many
quently asked, largely due to the misconception that
painting.
people have about this particular subject as a theme for
in terms of color, as
It seems as if people conceive of a seascape,
137
don't give undue prominence to any one part of the scene at
the expense of the picture as a whole.
don't forget to turn your canvas upside down every once in a
while, so as to avoid the risk of having an unevenly developed
picture.
don't "drown" your vertical objects, as so many beginners tend
to do, by pushing your horizon too high up on the canvas. Such
things as trees, masts, etc. have to be given a chance to rise above
the level of the water. Here you can take a leaf from your exer-
cises in still-hfe composition, where you had to check the point
of intersection between the faredge of the table and the vertical
objects on it.
138
26. portrait painting
like this?"
The portrait painter looked at samples of my somewhat crude but
por-
earnest early work, and then glanced over to a large polished
trait on his elaborate easel. He turned to me and
said, "Son, I'd
for me
give anything to be able to change places with you. But
there's no turning back. You can li\e well as a
portrait painter,
but you soon have to forget about art. You begin to make money,
and then you want to live in proportion to your earnings. You
keep on earning a lot to meet your increased living ex-
have to
penses. And you have to take on as many portrait commissions
139
Look at that," he said, pointing to his easel. "I can do a pretty
good portrait, but ask me to paint something creative and I'd be
a terrible flop."
I've never forgotten that visit. Needless to sav, I never became
a fashionable portrait artist.
There is a moral to this story, and it is not being related here
out of pure anecdotal interest. The moral is, simply, that the
majority of amateurs take up painting as a hobby because of the
love they feel for this kind of occupation. And yet, ironically
enough, so many of them will employ as a criterion of painting
ability the one quality that proved so destructive to the creative
life of the successful portrait painter.
The best bet for the amateur is not to try to do a closeup por-
J40
.
We begin first with the head and ask ourselves what would be
its visual "common denominator." Here we encounter a new
form, which is an expansion of the sphere— and that is
in effect
in trying to draw the eyes, mouth, and nose the way they see
them, not realizing how impossible it is for them to succeed with
this approach.
141
)
47 b
Once you realize this you will know how to go about placing
the eyes and ears, as well as the other features, in their proper
position in the ovoid structure of the head. And you will not run
the risk of painting them in a flat and unreal-looking way.
Now, just as the head turns laterally ( or sideways ) in an egg-
likeway, so does it turn longitudinally (or lengthwise) like the
egg, from crown to chin. That being the case, the mouth and
chin will not be in flat longitudinal alignment with the forehead,
eyes and nose, but will turn downward toward the chin, in a
gradual recession from the forward position of the nose. Simi-
larly, the head will turn, running backward from the crown, till
For then you will see that the column of the neck runs at an angle
to it. ( You will notice that I called the neck a column, for that is
142
in to try to get the head and neck in vertical alignment, you will
see what it is to keep it that way, and yet that is
a physical strain
how the uneniightcned amateur tends to \isualize the position of
the neck in relation to the head.
One of the reasons tlic beginner has tills difficulty is because
he looks at his subject frontally, so that the "axis" of both the head
and neck appear to be running straight up and down, or verti-
cally. Even for the professional painter, the completely frontal
view is more difficult. It calls upon tlic greatest fund of experi-
ence and skill to create the suggestion, from the frontal view, of
the full roundness of the head, so that, in his mind's eye, the
viewer can reach around and feel the back of the portrait head.
To the amateur, there is no advantage in painting a portrait
from the frontal view— it is only asking for trouble to try doing it
that wav. More or less the same difficult^' uoukl be encountered
in trying todo a portrait in profile, for it takes the greatest amount
of skill tokeep it from being flat. The best bet is to approach the
portrait from a three-quarter view; tliis way it has the greatest
likelihood of succeeding, and also of being esthetically satisfying
(see Fig. 48).
But before vou rush to paint a portrait, it is advisable that you
do a few exercises so that you will understand some of the things
it is vital for you to know. For, regardless at whicli angle you
are going to view your subject, you wouldn't want him to sit rig-
idly in his seat— e\ en assuming that he could hold such a position
verv long. Such a situation would only be rough on your subject
and make the portrait look very stiff. No, you would want him to
be relaxed; and, in order for him to be so his head would be in-
clined to lean a little to one side or the other.
143
.
get about the comfort of your subject. For this reason it is a good
idea to place a clock within his view so that he can time himself.
For the nonprofessional model, I would advise ten- to fifteen-
minute periods of posing, with five- to ten-minute breaks in
between.
After you have posed your subject the like, you must way you
consider the position of his eyes— whether you want him to look
straight at you or away from you. If away, then ask him to pick
some point or object in the direction you want him to look. When-
ever you will be working on painting the eyes, ask him to fix his
eyes on the chosen spot. For the rest, let his gaze rove at will,
a large mirror behind you so that he can watch you as you paint.
This will certainly keep him interested, and there is little danger
of him going to sleep on you. You might also try to keep him
engaged in conversation, if it is not too distracting to you. And if
you employ the mirror behind you, let him freely comment on
the progress of the portrait. You will be surprised how helpful it
can be to avail yourself of an objective view of work while it is
in progress.
144
.
you will ha\c to be looking up at him. The easiest and most satis-
ifying position is for the subject to be seen slightly
from above;
a high
the subject is seated, with the painter standing or sitting on
stool.
But let us examine the head as viewed from all three positions
and see what we can learn about the difference in each position.
At eye level the eves would be just about at the "equator" (as
long as we are being so geographical about our study) with the
hairline and noseline each cur\ing slightly away from that equa-
tor. But when seen from above, all the lines will curve more or less
46D).
be higher than your nose, in which case your "gauge" will curve
upward to meet the ears. But if you face upward then the ears
will be lower than the nose and your gauge will curve downward
(see Fig. 46E). It may be a good idea for you to practice these
things in front of a mirror so that you can see exactly how they
occur.
145
Sidney Bernstein
ing of the depth of the cavities in which the eyes are set, other-
wise they will appear in unnatural relationship to the face as a
whole. Again, some persons' eye sockets are more recessed than
others. Each particular case will require its own kind of adjust-
ment. But regardless of the degree, the eyes must appear to be
peering out, as it were, from the overhanging ledge of the
forehead.
To a lesser or greater degree, there will occur facial depres-
sions at the temples, under the cheekbones, and directly under
the mouth. The value to you of acquainting yourself with the
principles involved in the "sculptural" evaluation of the features
of your subject will become apparent once you start running into
snags in the portrait.
You must remember at all times that you are painting on a flat
surface,and to communicate the impression that certain features
come forward, and others stay back, is governed by very definite
laws of facial construction. In order that you may better famil-
iarize yourself with the way these laws operate it is advisable
that you get out your charcoal and apply what you have learned
in the use of the three values in constructing the human head and
49 a its facial features.
Now not be easy at first, and the hkelihood is
this exercise will
that it be some time before you are able to get things exactly
will
right. But you must remember that it is only an exercise, not a
test of any kind, and its value lies in what it enables you to learn
about the human head.
Don't fuss or strain over this exercise, and do as many different
charcoal studies as you are able to do without getting bored
with it. Use your kneaded eraser liberally, but if your paper gets
messy from too much erasure then start all over again. You will
learn more with each try. For this exercise you can again use
your newsprint pad. Since these are fairly cheap, you can feel
quite free about the amount of paper you waste in the process
49 b
of doing this exercise.
Bear in mind that no subtle shading or tonal nuances are of
any value in this exercise. You will learn nothing at all if you try
to shade, but only achieve the most superficial appearance of a
face. The sole object of the exercise is that you may learn the
things that are vital for you to know as preparation for doing a
portrait, and not to make finished looking drawings. For this exer-
cise you must use flat planes of the three values, indicating by the
darkness or lightness of each value, which forms emerge toward
the light, and which will recede.
The plaster-cast studio head photographed here (see Fig. 49)
has features completely devoid of all personality. It shows the
essential "planar" construction of human features in a way that
is ideally suited for study purposes. You are able to study
the
makeup of this head and its features without any concern about
capturing likeness. Nor does it matter how much the subject of
your intended portrait differs from the overall shape and char-
acter of this plaster head. But what you learn in the course of
doing it will make it easier foryou to paint the portrait you
have in mind.
146
head, neck and shoulders of the portrait
pre\i-
Forgetting ffutiires for tlie moment, let us return to tlie
whole.
ously mentioned 'o\()id," or egg shape, of the head as a
in this form by
It is easier for you to get the feeling of roundness
means of \alues, than in the sphere. Its longer shape calls for
treating it some\\hat as a cross between the sphere and
the
(see Fig. 46). Since this form is wider toward the top
than
cone
at the bottom, the \alues should correspond in width so
as to be
proportional to the widening or narrowing of its contour.
But since it is balanced diagonally on the cylindrical column
of the neck, the values of both these forms will be running
in
contrasting directions. For the diagonal tilt of the head will cause
its \alues to follow the direction of its a.xis, whereas the \alues
of the neck follow the vertical axis of that form.
Now wemust consider how to represent the shoulders and
upper or chest. There is considerable variance in the
torso,
shoulder and chest formation in all people, as well as between
the sexes. The masculine frame is generally broader across the
shoulders and narrower at the hips, and with women it is usually
the reverse. But the nature of the rib cage is such as to give that 49 c
147
paint a gargantuan head on pigmy shoulders, or vice-versa. Nor,
as I have should you strive for exact proportions. Relative
said,
proportions are all that will be necessary. And if you are going
to distort, always try to do so in the interest of the overall design
of your painting. Absolute fidelity to your subject will not matter
half so much as faithfulness to the idea that a painting, regard-
less of the subject, is fundamentally judged in terms of design
and color.
Observe how in most of the portrait illustrations here the
shoulder line does not cut straight across the bottom of the pic-
ture (a sure way of getting stiffness in the portrait) but by push-
ing in diagonally past the column of the neck it helps to create
a feeling of space around that form.
Notice also that it does not occur across the center, another
way of making the picture static, but moves into the picture from
the lower right-hand side. As you can see, the problem is not
148
the actual painting of the portrait
After you have done several of the cliarcoal exercises you may
feel encouraged to undertake tlie actual painting of your por-
trait. Now that you've learned some of the essentials in the con-
struction of the human head, neck and shoulders, the problem is
Remember that highlights come last, but that you can at this
point of the painting begin to brush in planes of color, represent-
ing the darker or recessed passages, isolating the light areas of
the portrait, as it were. It will be helpful for you to recall a
valuable principle at this stage of your painting experience, and
that is generally to paint with cool color over warm, and with
149
warm color over cool. Consequently shadow passages painted
over warm orange can be grayish-violet in hue, etc.
Another thing you should know about the painting of your
portrait is that the overall key of the painting should be lower
than would be the case in landscape painting. The bright outdoor
light requires a higher color key— which means a greater amount
of white mixed with your But indoors, and especially in
color.
the case of portrait painting, the lower key is advisable.
Don't let yourself get confused by the bright lights that you see
bouncing off the face of your subject. Before long you will be
tempted to add more and more white to your pigment and the
key of your color will become entirely too high for the good
of the painting, and is apt to get chalky looking as a result.
If you are in doubt about this and feel impelled to load your
pigment with white to correspond to the light you think you see
in the face of your subject, then here is what you can do. Mix the
color you think would be right, then pick some of it up on your
brush. Walk over your subject and hold it against his face
to
and you can which is lighter. Chances are that you will
easily see
find the color you have mixed several shades lighter than the
skin tones of your subject.
judge how approach the painting of it, based on what you have
to
learned about the painting of cloth in your still life and flower
studies. Don't rush into getting what you perceive to be the final
color. Notice the way it drapes itself around the shoulders or neck;
what part of it comes to light, and what part recedes, and paint
it accordingly, laying it in with flat planes at first.
150
seem excessive to you. Such accents might seem in pUice under
the nose or chin, on the ears or eyebrows, or on the head by
the delineation of a lock of hair, etc.
Whatever you do, don't start putting in black lines all over your
portrait. Bluish or violet, or even green or deep red lines will
not obtrude and yet provide the desired accent.
As for the rest, you are on your own. You must expect to make
many mistakes and get better as you go along. Think always of
painting as a pleasurable experience, and never as a chore of
any kind. The results will certainly reflect the attitude you adopt.
addenda
A Modem Painter's Approach to Portraiture. I am including ex-
amples of portrait work by four modem artists so that you can
see how, though conceived and executed in the modern manner,
each of them can be analyzed along the classical lines of portrait
construction. Again these are not shown here as examples for the
beginner to emulate, as each painting clearly differs from the
other in terms of style and form of expression. Nevertheless, it is
interesting, as well as instructive, to see how even modern painters
like Dufy and Rouault do not depart very radically from the
classical mold in their portraiture (see Figs. 50, 51, 52, 53).
50a LOISETTE by Roland Oudot Collection, Museum of Modern Art, New York.
50 b
51a SELF-PORTRAIT by Oskar Kokoschka.
Collection of the Museum of Modern Art, New York
52 b
27. drawing the human figure
why I didn't give her instruction in that subject. It seems she had
been reading some letters of van Gogh in which he stressed the
importance of anatomy, but she apparently didn't realize that he
was referring to the career artist and not the amateur painter. For
the study of anything as complex as human anatomy is obviously
a full time job. But this doesn't mean that amateurs cannot learn
to draw the human figure effectively. While it may be true that
the knowledge of anatomy is useful to the professional artist al- (
154
lines, to describe
immediatelv proceeds, bv means of one or Uvo
before even giving a thought to the
this "action" of the figure
his drawing its stiong
shape of his subject. It is this that gixes
popularly
lifelikeappearance, not the tricky shading that is
thought to be proof of artistic ability. When he finally does intro-
etc.) interms of our four visual denominators. Now you may say,
looking at the manikin, that (strictly speaking), there are no
cones, cylinders, spheres, or cubes visible. Superficially this is
true, but only because the manikin has been designed to give
it
155
.
156
When you consider what can be done with just a few planes, you
can imagine what the possibihties are for creating hfehke form
merely by the addition of a few physical characteristics. But we're
not ready for that yet. We have still to attain our primary object
of learning how to state the "action" of the figure, of which I
spoke As you have probably guessed, the problem is to
earlier.
the bottom (or feet), but from the head.' We're going to try to
give our lines a sweeping movement from crown to toe. These
lines will have nothing whatever to do with contour but, as you
will see, go right through the figure (see Fig. 60, 61).
Now for our exercise. It is going to take a lot of practice for you
to be able to get it right. But this practice can also prove to be fun if
60 a
vou approach it with the right spirit. In other words, again
tliink of it as a challenge and not a chore. For this exercise you
ha\e the option of either using your newsprint pad, or, if you
want to be really economical, you can save your Sunday papers
and draw right on them. This may strike you as a very novel idea,
but there is certainly nothing new about it. It has a number of ad-
vantages; one being the greater amount of freedom that it can
induce, for you can tear up as many of your false starts without
any concern for expense, until you feel that you are beginning
tomake headway. The print of the newspaper tends to eliminate
some of the "shock" of the blank white drawing paper that so
often has an inhibiting effect on beginners. It can also provide
"Begin the anatomy at the head, and
'
finish it at the soles of the feet."
Leonardo da Vinci)
60 b
61b 61c
61 a
—
7.5.9
63a ODALISQUE EN GRISAILLE by Jean Augusts Dominique Ingres. Courtesy of The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Wolf
Fund, 1938
proportions in children
You may have noticed that twice I referred to the adult in
discussing the ratio of head to figure. The reason for this is that
in children the scale is vastly different than in grownups. Chil-
dren's heads are usually much larger in proportion to their bodies,
and in infants the disproportion is even more exaggerated. How-
ever, I strongly advise beginners not to attempt to draw infants
160
or small children. No matter how cute and desirable a subject a
child, grandchild, niece, or nephew may seem, it takes special skill
shoulders are also less knobby looking than men's. Another im-
portant difference is that women's legs are usually shorter in
women with wide shoulders and men with broad hips, and you
are apt to see so many contradictions to the general rule that you
may at times wonder which is the exception and which the rule.
You mustn't letyourself become confused by such things. Those
who differ from the rule are the ones who stand out; hence, they
are the ones you are most likely to notice. Be guided at all times
by the ratio of one to eight of head to figure, and then make the
63 b
necessary allowances wherever the subject of your contemplated
drawng departs from this rule. You must also learn to distin-
161
.
values
We come once again to the problem of the use of values in draw-
ing. Until now we have stuck to one uniform scheme in value
relationships— intermediate, light, intermediate, deep— with the
light occurring at a point about three-quarters the width of the
subject. For our present purposes we are going to employ a new,
somewhat more flexible treatment of value relationships. Rigidity
of any kind is, for obvious reasons, unsuited to the treatment of
anything as soft as human flesh. Consequently, we are now going
to make a switch and shift the deepest value from the extreme
end somewhere nearer the middle of the form. The light— in
to
white of the paper— will now occur at the farthest
this case the
edge. Hence our value relationships now read as follows: light,
intermediate, deep, intermediate ( see Fig. 64 )
background
Beginners have a tendency to "suffocate" their figure drawings
as soon as they start to introduce values into the background.
This usually comes about from the attempt to make the drawing
imturalistic by jamming the background values hard up against
the outlines of the figure. As a consequence of this the drawing
isn't given an opportunity to "breathe." A drawing isn't meant to
.-^iy
of lifelike —but not photographic—solidity on a flat surface. Con-
trast thiswith drawings you see in medical books, full of ana-
tomical detail down to the last muscle, and I think you will agree
that the latter look lifeless by comparison. This should prove how
needless it is to concentrate on superficialities.
wash drawings
Reproduced here you see some wash drawings, done by one of
the most consummate masters of all time, Rembrandt van Ryn
( see Fig. 65 ) Notice how bold and free his strokes are, and with
.
what sheer economy he states his forms. I also call your attention
to the simple geometricality of his constructions, so perfectly
balanced in the interplay of curvilinear and rectilinear rhythms.
Few people can hope to execute such drawings with the assur-
ance of a Rembrandt, but we can all try to benefit from his ex-
ample. What he so eloquently demonstrates is the complete
unimportance of factual detail in the drawing of the human fig-
ure. The powerful suggestivity of human fife is everywhere pres-
ent in these drawings, yet none of them are photographic replicas
of people. He is obviously more concerned with contrasting line
and mass with the gleaming white of the paper, and the excite-
ment produced by the textural quality of his hnes. I do not sug-
gest that you copy any of these drawings; on the contrary, I
would discourage it, as you would gain nothing from it. However,
I do suggest that you study them, and then put them aside and
see what you can accomplish on your own on the basis of the
things you have learned.
For your wash drawings I suggest that for a while you stick to
65a JACOB AND RACHEL by Rembrandt van Ryn. Courtesy of The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Rogers Fund, 1906
H4i>- iin:^._^
65b NUDE WOMAN SEATED ON A STOOL by Rembrandt van Ryn. 65c BEGGAR WOMAN LEANING ON A STICK by Rembrandt van Ryn.
Courtesy of The Art Institute of Cfiicago. Clarence Buckingham Collection National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C. Rosenwald Collection
65 d STUDY OF A NUDE by Rembrandt van Ryn. Courtesy of The Art 65 e PORTRAIT OF A MAN by Rembrandt van Ryn. Courtesy of The
Institute of Chicago. Gift of Tiffany and Margaret Blake Fogg Art Museum, Harvard University
using black oil paint thinned with turps (see Fig. 66) (wash draw-
ings are usually done with diluted India ink). Experiment with
drawing both on old newspapers and on your newsprint pad,
and compare the effects you achieve on both. Work freely. Never
mind how clumsy your efforts seem at first. Make your mistakes
and get them out of your system. You are bound to gain assur-
ance with increased practice.
ures seen more or less up close. But from time to time the prob-
lem arises of how to treat figures seen at a distance. You may for
example be working on a painting in which you wish to include
some strolling figures, or figures grouped around tables, or
sprawled on a lawn or beach. I'm sure you realize by now that
any attempt to render such groupings with emphasis on detail
would tend to focus too much attention on the figures, at the
expense of the painting as a whole. Outdoor scenes must at all
costs retain a sense of atmospheric hghtness. Consequently, any
figures included in these scenes— particularly those seen at a
—
distance must not be permitted to outweigh their surroundings,
else the overall balance of the picture stands to be destroyed. A
few plastic lines suggestive of the "action" of each of the various
figures, plus a splash here and there for their clothing, is all you
need to produce the desired effect. ( Notice how effectively Rem-
brandt (see Fig. 65A) employs this kind of shorthand statement
for figures seen at a distance.) Chairs, tables, shade-umbrellas,
and the like, are accorded similar treatment.
foreshortening
Again I raise the question of foreshortening which, unless you
are forewarned, can plague most of your attempts at drawing
the human figure. My advice is to resist, at all costs, the tempta-
tion to foreshorten until you are confident that you have learned
to draw the figure satisfactorily in its normal aspects. Fore-
shortening will often trip up even the professional artist. The
difference being that the professional is usually capable of de-
tecting flaws resulting from incorrect foreshortening, whereas
the untrained person normally doesn't possess the ability to
make these adjustments. As I have pointed out several times
166
67a WOMAN WITH A PARROT by Gustave Courbet. Courtesy of The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Bequest of Mrs. H. 0.
Havemeyer, 1929. The H. 0. Havemeyer Collection
addenda
And now let us turn to the work of a few other masters for a
diagram analysis of the way they employed some of the principles
of figure drawing we have just been studying. Notice the varied
analytical methods in every case. Some, as in the case of the
Velasquez, are represented merely by the action line; others are
represented by a drawing of a manikin, and so on. The object,
of course, is to show you the many different avenues of approach
there can be to the study of the human figure in terms of render-
67 b
ing it as a spatial drawing (see Figs. 67, 68, 69, 70, 71).
168
68a FEMME NUE by Pierre Bonnard. Courtesy of Sotheby & Co.
69a VENUS AND THE LUTE PLAYER by Titian. Courtesy of The Metropolitan Museum of Art. I^unsey Fund, 1936
71b
70a JEUNE ITALIENNE ACCOUDEE by Paul Cezanne.
70 b Courtesy of Dr. and Mrs. Bakwin
172
motifs
let us proceed to our inventory of the numerous textural
in this striking picture.
into picture
Starting with the floor (remember, the impulse
space is always from the bottom), we see
some sort of diamond-
shaped weave in the rug. On the right-hand side of the composi-
tion we encounter a series of \erticals representing the folds of
what appears to be a draped dressing table topped by an agitated
line that wriggles diagonal])' past the \'ase of flowers
and other
bric-a-brac scattered around the table. Each of these objects
has
174
brush, liowexer fine, is capable of producing the unique effect of
the scratched line.
You may think that you see no earthly use to which you can
put this technique, particularly if your main object in painting is
tactile texture
heavy pigmentation is, of course, not new to oil painting and has
been in practice for hundreds of years. The term for this is "im-
pasto," deriving from the same root as the word for "paste." Both
the palette knife and the brush (either in combination or sepa-
175
rately) are used for this technique. But it requires considerable
experience to make it work. It is generally pretty hazardous for
the beginner to experiment with achieving thickness in his pig-
mentation for the simple reason that, more often than not, he
will forget about or disregard the rules about painting fat over
lean, or will not be sufficiently familiar with the respective densi-
ties of different pigments to know whether they are slow-
drying or fast-dxymg, etc.
wax emulsion
Another modern method of building up the paint on a canvas is
the use of "wax emulsion." This is a thick, whitish fluid which
176
when mixed with a color will cause it to coagulate. Thus, it is
possible to build your paint up without having it slide
around
on your can\as, which oil paints might otherwise have a tend-
uni-
ency do. But this agent does not appear to affect all colors
to
formly, as I have found that it will cause
some colors to thicken
more perceptibly than others (cadmium orange, for example,
seems to respond more readily to its coagulative effect than any
other color). The relative thickening of various colors in contact
with wax emulsion depends upon different chemical factors in
their makeup. The best thing is to perform separate
experiments
with each color on your palette, adding similar quantities of wax
emulsion to each, so that you will be able to anticipate the re-
sults you get for future use. You could even keep a record of this
in your "color library."
ture. The wet paint is applied fairly thickly and is deftly shovelled
177
just firm enough to enable you to control it properly. The blade
must always be tilted so that it never lies flat against the canvas
with only one edge or the other brought in contact with the can-
vas. The paint is smeared on just about the way you would butter
your toast. This keeps the paint from being forced into the pores
of the canvas (as is certain to happen if the blade is held flat)
and insures the possibility of having pleasing surfaces in your
picture.
There are many kinds of painting knives on the market. The
best kind for you to buy has a blade about two inches long and
not more than about half-an-inch wide. The best knives are
those which are forged from shank to blade. Avoid those that
have a welded look, as their blades have a tendency to snap off
at the shank. This will, of course, happento any knife, depend-
ing upon length of use— and I should add, kind of use; but it is
lessapt to occur with the forged knife. After a length of time the
blade may begin to lose some of its tempered quality at the tip.
When happens you can trim off the tip with a pair of sharp
this
shears, making sure, however, to have your cut follow the curve
of the original tip. A few quick strokes with an emery board will
smooth away the roughness of the cut edge.
scumbling
So much for the painting knife. We turn again to the brush for
another textural device, which we call scumbling. The object of
this technique is to get an uneven distribution of relatively dry
paint over a given area of the canvas (over which deeper colors
have already been painted). This permits the underlayers of
color to show through here and there and can at times produce
some very handsome effects. The brush must be quite dry, how-
ever, or else the turps will cause the paint to liquify and there-
fore spread too evenly. A fairly large brush is best, and it must be
178
gripped ever so lightly, letting the "tooth" of the canvas do the
work, as it were, by picking the paint off the bristles as they are
being dragged over it. There will be more than one occasion
when you will find this particular technique very useful, such as
for the treatment of tlie bark of a tree, sandy beaches, dirt roads,
and so forth.
highlighls
Painting highlights is a very tricky business and unless handled
with great delicacy and taste can prove the ruination of the finest
picture. A highlight, as I've pointed out before, is precisely what
the term implics-^/ie highest point at which the light strikes any
object. Now, I have spoken more than once about the harmful
practice of pasting gobs of white paint on the canvas for such
things as clouds, choppy seas, etc. This is no less applicable to the
painting of highlights. The first thing you must do is to make cer-
painting media
far, the only painting medium I have recommended
(with
So
the exception of the few drops of oil to be mixed with your
white
paint) has been turpentine. For already-stated reasons, linseed
oil used by itself is undesirable as a painting medium. However,
there are painters who like to use mixed mediums, for which
there are a number of different formulas. Some of these include
eliminate the varnish and just use oil and turps, in a ratio of one
179
part oil to three parts turps. The object of including the varnish
in mixed mediums is to retain the luster of colors that have a
tendency to "sink in."
retouch varnish
The best way to counteract the tendency of colors to "sink in" is
to use a retouch varnish. This is a synthetic product that is now
available in spray cans. It not only restores the luster of sunken-in
finishing varnish
There are some paintings that benefit from the application of a
finishing varnish, while other look best when allowed to remain
"matt." This, of course, depends largely on the type of painting,
and you have to be the judge of whether you want your picture
to have a glossy finish or not. If you use retouch varnish a lot
you will find that when the painting is finished it has all the luster
it needs. However, if you are convinced that your painting will
look better with a coat of varnish, then here are some of the
things you should know:
1 Finishing varnishes must never be applied before six months
or so after the picture's completion. This depends, of course,
on the thickness of the paint, for if it is heavily pigmented
then you should wait at least a year.
2 There are several different finishing varnishes available, most
of them containing either mastic, damar, coach, co-pal, or
ethereal varnish. But in recent years manufacturers have put
out some synthetic varnishes that have proved satisfactory.
You must make sure, however, that the label states that it is
a finishing varnish for oil paintings.
3 Varnish should be applied with a very soft brush. Art supply
stores carry an inexpensive camels hair brush that is specially
made for varnishing paintings.
4 When varnishing a picture you must make sure to stroke only
in one direction, not back and forth.
5 Do not saturate the painting with the varnish, or it will take
on a hard enamel-like sheen that can detract from the paint-
ing's beauty-not enhance it. Pour a little varnish into the
screw-cap of the bottle and dip your brush into it. You will
way of doing it.
find this the easiest
180
6 Hold the painting against the hght so that you can check
forbare spots. Let the painting lie flat for an hour or so after
you've finished varnishing it to prevent the varnish from
streaking.
7 Clean the varnishing brush witli a little turps, and wash it
out with soap and water as you would your other brushes.
Make sure to throw out the turps you have used, though, for
if you put it back in your dirty-turps jar it will turn gummy.
181
29. space III: shallow space
182
surface design. For wherever the
space is "shallow the pictxire
done was to telescope the space in his picture so that the "axes"
and wall-plane are fused into one, thus
of both the floor-plane
combining the interior space of the scene with the exterior di-
space.
mensions of the picture surface. Hence the term equivocal
All the
Notice that there is no perspective in this composition.
inward-thrusting diagonals are counteracted by the strong
verti-
183
interiority of the room.^ What is the explanation for this phe-
nomenon? The secret hes in the design (see Fig. 72B).
For what Matisse has achieved is total integration of all the
elements in the picture in terms of pattern. Nothing is an entity
in itself. All the elements are locked securely together in the over-
all integration of these patterns, so that it is impossible to shake
them apart. This makes it model
possible for the to appear to be
resting comfortably in a chair that stands on a floor that is, in
effect, as vertical as the walls of the room. The result is that the
painting gains more surface excitement, while in no way detract-
ing from the interest in the subject itself. On the contrary, it only
serves to enhance the subject in a way that no photographic rep-
resentation could accomplish.
76 STILL LIFE: LE JOUR by Georges Braque, National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C. Chester Dale Collection
and the cone." Thus his work differs from Matisse in several
important respects. To begin with, he is far less concerned with
some instances, such as the pitcher and the guitar, Braque was
evidently willing to sacrifice all semblance of tactility in the inter-
est of design, using these objects merely as veliicles for the pas-
the same time left with the impression of being able to feel that
there is space around the table (and by inference, the objects
on it), while being constantly reminded of the impenetrability
of the picture surface. For, as you can plainly see, all the legs of
the table seem to exist on the same frontal plane. There is an-
other curious device in operation here, which you may have no-
ticed. I refer to the reverse perspective of the table surface. The
con\ergence of parallel lines in perspective is normally away
from one's point of vision (see Chapter 24). However, here we
see the table wider at the rear and becoming narrower toward
the front. Had Braque painted the table in correct perspective—
that is to say, with the wider edge in front— he would have had
to create the space in the picture to accommodate it, else he
couldn't have shown the third side. Here we have evidence of
departure from the rules for deliberate creative effect. But being
a master composer, Braque was able to bring it off successfully.
There is an additional aspect of equivocal space that Braque
makes use of, and that is in the interplay of line and mass inde-
pendent of the boundaries of his objects. Thus, we find intercon-
necting masses of light, intermediate, and dark passing through
certain objects in apparent violation of their structural form.
This interferes with their being apprehended as volumes, the
shapes being indicated by (not very precise) linear definition
alone. Braque thereby makes it very clear that his primary in-
tention is to impart to these elements of composition (line and
mass) a life of their own— not merely to function as auxiliaries of
representation. Note, also, the textural interest created by the
alternation of light and dark lines. In some places we find him
using a light line against a dark field, changing into a dark line
when it passes through a light field. But Braque refuses to be
consistent about this, for in other places he turns around and
shows a light line against a light field, becoming dark as it passes
through a dark field. As for other textural interest, I'm sure that
by now you will have little difficulty in recognizing the handsome
effect produced by the distribution of various motifs— such as
the vertical and horizontal rhythms of the grain in the table, the
185
printing in the section of the newspaper, the wallpaper decora-
tion, etc.
As you can Cubism is an advanced form of painting, and
see.
really shouldn'tbe undertaken by anyone not thoroughly familiar
with the principles of traditional composition. However, it is a
phase of painting that had a vital effect on the growth of modern
art. For this reason, you, as a student of painting (regardless of
the direction you wish your own work to go), cannot afford to
ignore this or any other form of contemporary art. Therefore, the
foregoing analysis of a typical work by Braque will provide you
with some understanding of other paintings in the same idiom.
Such understanding cannot fail in the long run to help you be-
come a better painter.
186
some of the proportions adds to the sense
The exaggeration of
creative painter of the modern age who, at a given stage in his development,
could not fail to have been influenced bv contemporary idioms.
187
.
188
-m.
*.
i
'•^
78 BREAKFAST ROOM by Pierre Bonnard. Collection of the Museum of Modern Art, New York
30. an analysis of some great paintings
189
.
tween positive and negative space ( see Chapter 6 ) you will have ,
190
79a THE CARD PLAYERS by Paul Cezanne. Courtesy of Archives Photographiques, Paris
191
) :
192
80a YOUNG WOMAN WITH A WATER JUG by Johannes Vermeer. Courtesy of The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Gift of Henry
G. Marquant, 1889
how a master can violate a rule for a specific
reason and make
of
it work. I refer to the red tablecloth
where, contrary to tlie prece-
light and
dent established for the picture as a whole (i.e. cool
warm shadows), you see the red warm in the light and cool in
the shadows. The reasons for this are twofold: firstly because a
brilliant
cooler red would necessarily be a deeper, hence, a less
dress
red, thus inpoor contrast with the bordering deep blue of the
as well as to the underside of the basin, .\nother less obvious
instance of this departure from the rule may be found
in the girl's
mantle wliere the light is warm and the shadows cool. The
moti-
bal-
vating factor, here again, was that of maintaining effective
picture.
ance and contrast between neighboring areas of the
One can go on almost indefinitely pointing out seemingly un-
limited treasures of subtle beauty-the diaphanous quality of
the mantle, the glass in the window, the lovely sculptured
girl's
quahty of the girl's head, etc. However, the brief analysis of this
painting that I have provided you with should serve as an open-
ing wedge for all your future understanding and appreciation of
the work of this incomparable master. The accompanying dia-
193
81a THE HOLY FAMILY by El Greco. Courtesy of the National Gallery of Art,
194
What is there about this portrait that makes it so exceptional?
But these are only the major movements; there are many more of
a subtler variety which I shall not attempt to catalogue.
So much for spatial movement. Now I would like to call your
attention to the beautiful use of textural design in this picture.
You should by now be able to detect most of these by yourself;
however, I want to point out the ingenious interplay of light and
dark in the decorative weave of the Doge's cloak— light where
the field is dark, and dark where the field is light. As for any of
the other attributes, I think that with the help of the accompany-
ing diagram (see Fig. 82B) you will come to reahze how much
more there is to artistic mastery than meets the eye. In short, it
is not enough to say that a portrait resembles the sitter— any
196
conclusion
know about the subject of painting. No one who is the least bit
creative ever stops learning, and this has been attested to by some
of our greatest artists at the very height of their careers. However,
it is safe to say that if you have conscientiously followed the in-
structions found in this book you have at least obtained a foot-
hold in the theory and practice of oil painting. The rest is simply
a question of application.
Obviouslv, anyone who has gone to the trouble and expense of
buying and reading this book all the way through, must genu-
inely love painting. But some people will do so in the hope or
belief that it will prove to be a panacea of some kind— that there
is some hocus-pocus involved in the art of painting, the secret of
from the beginning again, then you are on the right track to
becoming a fairly competent painter.
But if you ever find yourself becoming despondent because
successive paintings have resulted in failure, the following story
should be of some comfort to you. An eminent journalist once
complained to Ernest Hemingwav that writing novels always
ended up in failure for him. The following day he received in the
mail some thirty-four separate drafts in manuscript of one of
Hemingway's best known novels. The moral here is pretty clear.
There has never been an artist— be lie painter, writer, or composer
—who has found creative work smootli sailing and who has not at
one time or another experienced disappointment or frustration
comparable to yours. One simply learns to swallow these little dis-
appointments and keep plugging away. "Practice," as the old say-
197
ing goes, "makes perfect." But practice by itself isn't enough, for
theory and practice that are the true foundations of progress.
it is
bors to meet once or twice a week so that you can paint together
and criticize each other's work on the basis of the theoretic
knowledge you have gained. Without presuming to actually
teach the others, you nevertheless could act as a sort of leader in
such discussions. To use my friend's expression, it will keep you
"sharp."
subject matter
A few last words about subject matter. There are some— but not
many— subjects which are intrinsically unsuited for creative
painting. For the rest mainly a question of one's attitude
it is
198
ing needs to gi\e it life. Heed tliis ad\ice, and yi)u will never be
sidetracked by inducements to start a picture for any other
reason except its fundamental appeal to painting. There's hardly
an amateur painter I know who isn't besieged by relatives and
friends with requests for paintings. While such admiration is
comforting, one must be wary of being led into ready acqui-
escence with these demands. Let's face it, most people have
rather prosaic notions as to what art is, and you may find your-
self being urged to do a Paris street scene or some other subject
that has gained popular appeal. By all means give away as many
paintings as you like, but you should make it clear that you will
not comply with any dictates as to subject matter. Any insistence
on this score can easily be offset by encouraging such people to
take up painting themselves, offering to give them the benefit of
the knowledge you have gained.
199
a dictionary of art terms and phrases
Every field of specialized thought has its own jargon, and the art of
eager to get as much knowledge as they can on the subject, but often
find themselves baffled by the obscurity of the language they en-
counter in art books, articles, and reviews. Even the household
dictionary seems to be of little help in unraveling the meaning of
many of these expressions. With the rapid expansion of popular interest
201
Expressionism (q.v.) which is characterized by a freer and more
expressionistic approach to the use of the brushstroke.
ACADEMIC ART: A term used to denote the conservative, traditional
branch of painting in any given era. It imphes the utilization of
styles and techniques of the past. However, many techniques
considered heretical yesterday are today considered academic.
The best example of this is that present day academic art is
202
integration (e.g. color, pattern, line, etc.) into a single, har-
203
bitumen: a slow-drying, fugitive pigment obtained from mineral pitch.
It was used to a large extent by painters of the early nineteenth
color.
BURNT UMBER; A dark-browu earth color.
CADMIUM: A metallic source of cadmium pigments.
CALLIGRAPHY (CALLIGRAPHIC te.xture): The art of fine handwriting.
A decorative feature in painting, freely executed with the brush
to produce a "handwritten" effect. It is also used as a textural
device in composition.
CAMERA OBSCURA ( CAMERA lucida) : Apparatus for reflecting any
object onto a surface by means of a mirror and lens in double
convex form, which permits it to be traced exactly as reflected.
The camera lucida is a much later invention which differs from
the camera obscura in that it employs a prism to eliminate all
distortion.
canvas panel: A panel of prepared canvas (q.v.) with cardboard
backing.
CANVAS TOOTH: The raised point of the canvas where the threads
cross each other, giving the canvas its surface texture.
CARTOON: A full-scale drawing on paper, used as a model for easel or
mural paintings, "mosaics," stained-glass work, or "tapestry"
(qq.v.).
CARTOUCHE: An architectural ornament in the form of a scroll.
204
.
tures. The term derives from the Italian, chiaro (clear) and
oscuro (obscure).
chroma: The term applied to the degree of concentrated color satu-
ration where it is untainted by white, or gray; the degree of de-
parture of color from either black or white. Bright colors, for
example, have a high chroma.
chromatic: Of or pertaining to color or colors. Also used as an index
of tonal sequence, as from deep to light hues.
CHROME pigments; Synthetically prepared colors which as compared
to the"cadmiums" (q.v.) are inexpensive but are also imper-
manent and subject to darkening.
ciNQUECENTO: Italian for the "fifteen hundreds" (abbreviation of
mil cinque cento, or 1500), designating the century beginning
with 1500 A.D.— actually the sixteenth century. This was the
period known as the "Late," or "High Renaissance" (q.v.).
(q.v.).
COLLAGE; (See PAPIERS COLLtlS.)
COLOR oncHESTR.\TiON: Ths term used to describe the functional dis-
20.5
complementary of the third. Thus the complementary of red is
green, etc.
COMPOSITION: The functional arrangement of form and color in a work
of art or the means bv which elements of design are employed to
create the illusion of space in pictures. The interrelation of all the
forms drawing or painting as a cohesive unit.
in a
CONCEPT: The mental image or creative idea that motivates the exe-
cution of an artistic work.
CONCRETE ART: The alternate term for abstract art, preferred by
Kandinsky. ("The very act of painting gives substance to the
idea, hence, it is more accurately to be described as concrete":
Kandinsky)
CONICAL; Cone-shaped.
CONSTANTS: "Organic constant universal forms." Those found in nature
(such as eggs, sea shells, etc.) as distinguished from "mechanic
constant universal fonns," which are man and machine-made
things (such as wheels, bowls, jugs, etc.), both of which are used
as compositional motifs.
CONSTRUCTIVISTS : Members of a Russian movement in abstract art who
rejected the painted canvas entirely and resorted to the use of
materials of the architect and engineer, building abstract figures
from bits of pasteboard and complex arrangements of wood and
metal.
CONTE; A type of black or sepia crayon named after the original mak-
ers— Conte of Paris.
CONTENT: The subject matter in a work of art, as distinguished from
the form by which it is given expression.
CONTOUR (or outline): The outer boundaries of a form.
CONTROLLED SPACE: See SPATIAL VOLUME.
CONVERSATION PIECE: A form of "genre" (q.v.) painting representing
a group of figures linked by a thread of common interest, best
exemplified by the work of the English painters of the eighteenth
century.
CORUSCATING COLOR: Very brilliant, harsh color.
COVERING power: The capacity of certain colors, by virtue of weight
and concentration of pigment in their chemistry and manufacture
to effectively cover those colors over which they are applied.
CRAZING: The accidental fracturing of glazes in pottery. Also the mi-
nute interlacing cracks on the surface of a painting that are
caused by the unequal degree of contraction in canvases where
quick-drying colors have been painted over slow-drying colors.
CROSS-HATCHING: The crisscrossing of parallel oblique lines often used
as a method of "shading" (q.v.) in pen and ink drawing and
etching.
CUBISM: Basically, a simultaneous presentation of different views of
the same object, arbitrarily selected and arranged by the painter
into an organized pattern within a flattened, controlled space. This
concept was developed by Picasso and Braque around 1907
Cezanne published that year:
largely as a result of a letter that
"You must see in nature the cylinder, the sphere, and the cone."
The first phase. Analytical Cubism, was followed by the phase
known as "Simultaneity" which, in turn, was succeeded by "Syn-
thetic Cubism" (qq.v.).
CURVILINEAR: Lincs that are characterized by curves, as opposed to
"rectilinear" (q.v.).
DADAiSM: An experimental movement in art and literature that began
during the First World War, relying heavily on shock tactics for
206
)
DRYERS: Chemicals that are added to oil paints to hasten dr\ing. (See
SICCATI\'ES.
DRY POINT: A method of engraving in which the needle is used directly
on the plate, without the use of acid (as opposed to "etching"
q.v.}.
DUCENTO: Italian for the thirteenth century.
DYE: A coloring matter, as distinct from "pigment" (tj.v.) in that it
207
)
rectangle.
EARTH colors: Colored mineral pigments usually produced from clays;
"ochre,"
the so-called iron pigments such as "umber," "sienna,"
"green earth," etc.
208
"felt" line: Any line in drawing that is not glib or tossed ofF, but in
the execution of which the artist has invested feeling or sensi-
tivity. Anv linear description of a form that betrays great per-
209
to the demands of geometric pattern and design; art in which
functional and decorative factors supersede factual representation.
GESSO: A thin paste of plaster of paris, or gypsum, used to cover raw
canvas as preparation for painting.
GESTALT: A theory originating in psychology in which the perception
of any object (as applied to its representation in art) is deemed
incapable of expression in terms of any of its parts but must be
considered as a whole.
GLAZING: The method of applying semitransparent color, such as raw
or burnt sienna thinned in oil, over opaque or brilliant under-
painting so as to permit the underlying colors to shine through.
GOLDEN SECTION ( Or GOLDEN mean): An esthctically pleasing division
of any geometrical figure (such as the rectangle of a canvas);
that part of a line or figure in which the size of the smaller part
is to the size of the greater part, as the greater part is to the
210
gestive of the hi-at of fire, as contrasted with the "cold colors"
iq-v.).
HUDSON RIVER SCHOOL: A iiativc American school of painting founded
by Thomas Cole in 1825, principally concerned with landscape
painting of the Hudson \'alley.
HUE: Literally refers to the actual name of a color (i.e. yellow, red,
blue-green, etc.) -in other words, the color Hues or colors
itself.
or idea.
IMPASTO: Painting that is done in a particularh' thick or hea\y fashion.
Literally, the pasting on of the paint.
IMPRESSIONISM: A movement in art that made its formal appearance
in an historic exhibition in Paris in 1874. A variety of "Naturalism"
in painting based on the use of broken color and the "prismatic"
palette (qq.v.). Impressionist painting represented a revolt against
the dark "tonal" painting (q.v.) of the academicians.
iMPniMATURA: Grounds toned with a thin transparent color, such as
p,rct'n earth, to reduce the absorbency of the grounds. This method
was used mostly by the Old Masters.
INDUCED COLOR; The tendency of a color to appear more complement-
ary to its surroundings. Thus, a red smrounded by greens appears
redder than when surrounded by yellow or orange, which would
induce it to take on a slightly more violet or crimson hue; the color
blue would in the same way make red appear more orange.
INDIA INK; A black ink that has been treated with an addition of sus-
pended carbon so as to render it indelible to erasure or
to moisture. It is used in pen-and-ink and "wash drawings"
(q.v.).
INTENSITY-; This term often used in place of chroma, differentiates pure
or intense colors from those that ha\e been neutralized, to what-
ever degree, by gray. Thus, poppy red may be spoken of as
having a strong intensity, or chroma, while brick red is rela-
tively less intense, or pure, to the degree that it is a more neutral
or grayish red.
JAPANF-SE PRINTS; A traditional form of Japanese popular art produced
in multiple color from woodblocks (see woodcut), a process in
which their skill has seldom been rivaled. The.se colorprints had
considerable influence on "avant-garde" painting (q.v.) of the
middle and late nineteenth ccntiny, helping to determine the
course of modem art.
used; the higher the key the lighter the values, and the lower the
key the deeper the values. Hipli key painting is generally asso-
ciated with outdoor work, as it is influenced by the brilliance of
the light out-of-doors, while low keij painting is usually reser\ed
for indoor work, where the light is more subdued.
key; This term is also used to describe a that is made
triangular wedge
to be inserted in each corner of the stretched canvas which, when
211
.
212
)
the linear direction of the anns, linked with other elements in the
composition, which provide the spatial movement.
MURAL; A painted wall decoration (sometimes extended to the ceil-
ing) usuallv having religious or social significance. (See al
FRESCO.
NATURALISM; Art in which the princijial object is resemblance to the
213
. . . .
cation as to hue.
NOCTURNE: A term in music adopted by Whistler to describe his paint-
ings of evening and night scenes.
NONOBJECTIVE PAINTING (or NONREPRESENTATIONAL PAINTING ) : Alter-
native terms for "abstract painting" (q.v.)
ODALISQUE: A female slave or concubine in an Eastern harem, a subject
most often found work of such famous painters as Dela-
in the
and Matisse.
croix, Ingres, Renoir,
OIL PAINTING; Painting in which pigments ground in oils are used. It
has been the most widely practiced "medium" (q.v.) since it dis-
placed "tempera" painting (q.v.) in the fifteenth century.
OLD MASTER: The term applied to painters usually dating from the
early (or low) "Renaissance" (q.v.) through the eighteenth cen-
tury. Itis also used to describe any work by such a painter.
214
scheme. This feature was first introduced during the Synthetic
phase of Cubism. E.xamples: Picasso, Braque, and Gris.
PASSE partout: a kind of framing in which the "mat" (q.v.) of a
picture, as well as the protective glass and backing are all held
together by strips of tape pasted o\er the combined edges.
PASTEL: \ soft, colored crayon of ground pigment that is capable of
producing delicate, atmospheric effects. The term is also used to
describe anv work that is done in this medium, such as a "pastel
painting."
PASTICHE: An imitation or caricature of other artists' styles.
PATiN.\: An effect produced bv surface corrosion on antique sculpture.
It is often simulated in modern statuary and sculpture for en-
hanced esthetic effect.
PATTERN: A harmonious arrangement of certain elements of design:
in composition, the balanced disposition of lines, shapes and
color.
PAYSAGE: French for landscape painting.
PERMANENT COLORS: Colors which are proof against the action of time
and the effects of dampness, light, and atmospheric impurities.
Colors which are not ordinarily subject to chemical change and
discoloration, or susceptible to "bleeding" (q.v.).
PERSPECTIVE; Linear perspective is the means bv which the third
dimension is first represented on a flat surface, on the principle
that all parallel lines converge toward vanishing points on the
horizon. The effect of \isual recession produced b\' the gradual
diminishing of objects in proportion to their distance from the
viewer.
Aerial perspective is a technique designed to convev the feeling
that an object is far away and rather hazy. By virtue of the
softened outline and lessened color intensity, we receive the
somewhat out of focus.
impression that a distant object is
215
PLEiN AIR: From the French en plein air (in the open air). It is the
expression used to describe the practice of painting out-of-doors
so as to capture the effect of light and atmosphere unobtainable
in the studio. Although pioneered by the painters of the "Barbi-
zon School" (q.v.), it is usually associated with the work of the
"Impressionists" (q-v.).
poiNTiLLiSM: The method of painting invented by Seurat and used by
the "Neo-Impressionists"; a development of the "spectrum
palette" (qq-v.) in which minute dots (or points) of color were
substituted for the freer, more atmospheric "broken color" (q.v.)
of the Impressionists.
POST-IMPRESSIONISM: A movement of late nineteenth century paint-
ing which was in revolt against "Impressionist Naturalism" {q.v.),
and which concerned itself with the more formal, emotional or
symbolic aspects of painting, as expressed in the work of Cezanne,
van Gogh, Gauguin, Seurat, et al.
POT BOILER: The slang term for art work done purely for mercenary
See buckeye. )
reasons. (
PREPARED canvas: Canvas that has been primed with "gesso" or other
semiabsorbent "grounds" (qq.v.). (See priming.)
PRIMARY COLORS: Red, bluc, and yellow. Any combination of two of
these three colors is "complementary" (q.v.) to the third. These
combinations are also called "secondary" colors. Two secondary
colors combine to make a "tertiary color." (qq.v.).
PRIMING: The preliminary ground of gesso and/or glue that is applied
to raw canvas as preparation for painting.
PRIMITIVE PAINTING: The term that is loosely applied to painting that
is either provincial, "unschooled" (q.v.),
unsophisticated, naively
grotesque, savage, or dating from the time before the science of
"perspective" (q.v.) was known.
primitivism: The term that is used to describe a manner of painting
by accomplished artists who, inspired by savage, peasant, or
child art, seek to incorporate similar qualities in their own work.
Picasso and Gauguin are the best examples of this type of painter.
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exacting work. But because of its extreme softness it is not as
suitable for most oil painting techniques as is the firmer bristle
brush.
salon; Although originally referring to all public art exhibitions in
France, it has come to be associated with exhibitions sponsored
by official groups such as the Academic de Beaux-Arts.
SALON DES REFUSES: A Special gallery assigned bv Napoleon III in
1863 for the exhibition of many paintings rejected bv the
official salon. It was here that the Impressionist rebellion against
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produced by the mixture of alien substances, such as sand, gravel,
etc. to the paint, or by the building up of the
paint by means of
"volume" (q.v.).
TiLT-BOABD; A vertical working surface for drawing or painting that is
changeable.
TONAL PAINTING: A term used to describe painting in which color has
been subordinated to the requirements of photographic represen-
tation. (See NATURALISM.)
TONE: A color value. Every color has \alue gradations, from dark to
light, such as deep red, intermediate, light red, etc. The term is
also used to describe the manner or mood of a work of art.
torso: The trunk nf the human body, independent of head, arms, or
legs.
tour de force: An artistic accomplishment brought about b\- sheer
force of skill. Clever artistic performance that is beyond the range
of normal expectancy.
TRACING: The method of transferring a design, pattern, or picture, usu-
ally by means of superimposition of semitransparent paper over
the original and impressing the lines thus copied onto another
surface. (See camera obscura.)
TRECENTO: (Italian for three hundred) The term that is used to de-
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)
colors" that are painted over them do not fuse with the under-
painting. The age old principle of painting "fat over lean" is
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WOOD-BLOCK PRINT: An impression on paper or fabric that is made
from an incised woodblock.
WOODCUT: A wooden block on which a picture or design has been
engraved, carved, or otherwise incised and from which prints
are made.
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