Advanced Quantum Mechanics, Notes based

on online course given by Leonard Susskind

- Lecture 1

Lightning Review of Quantum Mechanics

0:02:35 State Vectors

States vectors represented by Bras < Ψ | and Kets | Ψ >; one-to-one relationship between them, bra
and ket are complex conjugates of each other

Measurables/observables represented by linear Hermitian operators; he will give them Latin letters
ie A,B etc

Hermitian Operator A=A† , quantum mechanical equivalent of real

Eigenvalues and eigenvectors of these operators: eg A|α> = α|α>

◼ if A acts on the state vector and returns the same state vector multiplied by a number then the
state vector is an eigenvector

◼ α outside the ket is eigenvalue; set of eigenvalues are the possible results of measurement

◼ the eigenvectors are the state vectors which give a definite answer, ie the associated
eigenvalue

◼ inner product of two states is a number (can be complex), can represent as < Ψ | Φ >

◼ if two states are uniquely distinguishable by measuring some quantity < Ψ | Φ >=0 ie are
orthogonal, physically identifiably different

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0:11:30 Looking at Systems of Particles (false start at

0:08:27)
Position
Particles characterised by having a position in space eg in one dimension has co-ordinate x

Consider particle moving on line, x axis, location is x0

x should be thought of as an observable

x0

There are states that label position eg x0 > with the property that if you measure the position you
will definitely find it at x0
State vectors for different positions are distinguishable so < x | x’> = 0
Take any state of the particle and call it Ψ then <x|Ψ> = ψ(x) called the wave function

Probability density for particle at x, P(x)= ψ * (x)ψ(x) (the chance to find a particle at exactly x is
always zero, except when it is 1, in which case x is defined without any uncertainty; in this case the
momentum is completely undefined.)

Position operator X such that X | Ψ > = x | Ψ >

Eigenvectors of X are Dirac delta functions

If moving in three dimensions then can have three operators X, Y and Z
Position could be represented by |xyz>
Note <x’y’z’|xyz>=0 unless x=x’ and y=y’ and z=z’

Momentum
Next most important observable is momentum

For each component of position there is a component of momentum.

Can be represented by a Hermitian operator P

∂ψ(x)
Pψ(x) = -i ℏ
∂x

Eigenvectors of momentum? ie what are the states of definite momentum

P Ψ(x) >= p0 Ψ(x) > measured value for momentum is p0

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ip0 x
∂ψ(x)
-i ℏ =p0ψ(x) Solution of type ψ(x) = e ℏ where ψ(x) is amplitude of position
∂x

Given the momentum is known and is p0 what is the probability for measuring position x?

-ip0 x ip0 x
e ℏ e ℏ =1 (just means that it is the same everywhere on the line and that we haven’t nor-
malised)

So the probability distribution is smeared out over the whole line whereas the wave function for a
definite position was a highly concentrated, infinitely narrow Dirac function.

This is a manifestation of the uncertainity principle.

If you know the momentum of a particle, its position is completely uncertain and likewise if you know
the position of a particle, its momentum is completely uncertain.

There is also a momentum representation ψ(p) that is connected to Fourier Transforms for ψ(x) but
we wont go into details here.

0:29:46 Changing with time

The evolution of a system with time is a special case of transformation on a system / space of
states.

If no time elapses then the transformation is the identity operation.

Generally the time evolution operation depends on the elapsed time, call it U(t). U stands for unitary

U(t)|Ψ(0)> = |Ψ(t)>

U(t)|Ψ(t1 )> = |Ψ(t1 +t)>

U is a linear operator but it is not Hermitian.

Postulate: Information is conserved. If two states are orthogonal they will evolve into states that are
still orthogonal.
This postulate also means that the inner product is preserved during time evolution.

Postulate gives: < Φ | Ψ > = < Φ |U † U| Ψ> so U † U = I (this is definition of unitary operator)

Unitary operators have eigenvalues that are a phase. A phase can be represented by a point on
the unit circle in the complex plane.

U(t)|Ψ(t1 )> = |Ψ(t1 +t)>

If no time elapsed then nothing changes so: U(0)|Ψ(t)> = |Ψ(t)> U(0)=I

If a small time ϵ elapsed

U(ϵ) = I +ϵG
U † (ϵ) = I +ϵG†
U † (ϵ) U(ϵ) = I

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( I +ϵG† )(I +ϵG )= I + ϵG† + ϵG + ϵ 2 G† G = I

Ignoring second order ϵ

ϵG† + G)=0
G† = - G this is the analog of being pure imaginary.
G is anti-Hermitian. If we multiple G by i it becomes Hermitian.

If we define G as -iH (minus sign is convention)

U(ϵ) = I - iϵH
U † (ϵ) = I +iϵH †
( I - iϵH † )( I +iϵH) = I +iϵ(H -H † ) ie condition for U to be unitary in these equations is that H is Hermi-
tian ie H is an observable.

Question: why can we ignore the ϵ 2

Response: We are just working to order ϵ. We could work to ϵ 2 but then we would have to be
consistent and include the ϵ 2 term in the expansion for U(ϵ).
When ignoring higher orders one should come back and check that the equations make sense to
higher order.
Note for iϵ(H -H † )=0 ϵ factors out.

Consider the expansion of eϵh = 1 + ϵh where ϵ is small and h is some just a number
Now consider making ϵ twice as big then

e2 ϵh =eϵh eϵh =(1 + ϵh )(1 + ϵh ) = 1 + 2ϵh + ϵ 2 ℏ2

then can carry on repeating this n times
enϵh =(1 + ϵh )n
ϵ 2 h2
Get general expansion of eϵh = 1 + ϵh + ........ (ref Taylor’s series).
2

Instead of U(ϵ) = I - iϵH should use U(ϵ)=e-iHϵ

|Ψ(t+ϵ)> = e-iHϵ |Ψ(t)>

Going back to the U(ϵ) = I - iϵH approximation

|Ψ(t+ϵ)=( I - iϵH) |Ψ(t)>

rearranging:

Ψ(t + ϵ) - Ψ(t)>=- iϵH |Ψ(t)>

Ψ(t+ϵ)>- Ψ(t)>
=- iH |Ψ(t)>
ϵ
∂ψ(t) ∂ Ψ(t)>
=-iHψ(t) or state form =-iH |Ψ(t)> Time Dependent Schrodinger Equation
∂t ∂t
∂ψ(t)
(putting Planck’s constant back ℏ =-iHψ(t) )
∂t

H |E> = E |E > Time Independent Shrodinger Equation when E is the eigenvalue of H

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1:03:20 Symmetry
Examples of symmetry:

If you take a system that satisfies a certain set of equations and transform it and the equations and
properties of the system don’t change then that transformation is called a symmetry.

Translation; if move an object and its properties are unchanged. But the presence of an object
might break the symmetry eg if translate eg into a furnace, then the symmetry is broken. If move
everything including the furnace then the symmetry is restored.
Hydrogen atoms have rotational symmetry ie if you rotate your co-ordinates the hydrogen atom isn’t
changed. Or if rotate hydrogen atom the hyrdrogen atom can’t tell it has been rotated. Assuming
nothing present to make direction distinguishable.

Squeezing something generally changes its properties and so is generally not a symmetry.

Let’s try and quantify:

Generic state that we do an operation on: V |Ψ1 >

Assume V is unitary because if I have a symmetry and I have 2 states that are different from each
other and I apply the symmetry operation to each I expect them to stay different. Unitary operators
maintain the difference. V † V = I

We aren’t using U as we are saving that for special case of time evolution.

Suppose a wave function or a state vector that evolves with time:

U |Ψ1 > = |Ψ2 > (1)

Now imagine a state transformed by a symmetry operation (eg a rotation or translation)

V |Ψ1 > =|Ψ1 ’> (2)

V |Ψ2 > =|Ψ2 ’> (3)

If there really is a symmetry then |Ψ1 ’> will evolve to the rotated version of |Ψ2 > ie |Ψ2 ’>

U |Ψ1 ’> = |Ψ2 ’> (4)

U V |Ψ1 > = V |Ψ2 > from (4), (2) and (3)

U V |Ψ1 > = VU |Ψ1 > from (1)
U V |Ψ1 > - VU |Ψ1 >=0
(U V - VU) |Ψ1 >=0
[U,V]=0

So, for a symmetry operation, the operation must commute with the time evolution operator.

To find symmetries need to look for operators that commute with the time-evolution operator.

To first order of approximation for a small time evolution ϵ:

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V(I - iϵH) =(I - iϵH)V -> VH=HV [V,H]=0

ie the symmetry operators need to commute with the Hamiltonian.

A symmetry operation is a unitary operation on the space of states which commutes with the Hamilto-
nian.
Symmetry: [H,V]=0 this is the time derivative

In Classical Mechanics see Noether’s Theorem.

1:22:30 Discrete Symmetry

1. Reflection Left to Right or Right to Leftt is a discrete operation; it’s one direction or the other there
is nothing in between.

2. Interchange a pair of similar particles. eg exchange two electrons. The particles are of exactly
the same kind so can’t tell they have been exchanged.

1:24:20 Continuous Symmetry

Rotational symmetry; can rotate it a little bit. Has a continuity to it that the flip of a coin does not.

Can build up a rotation from lots of little infinitessimal rotations.

Similarly Translations can be thought of as compounded out of lots of little translations.

Continuous symmetries can be built out of lots of small movements:

Can think of as V = I - iϵG where G is a generator and is Hermitian, ϵ is very small

Time translation is a continuous thing made up of accumulting small changes so we can use the
same technique as we used earlier in the lecture for any continuous symmetry.

The same argument that told us H is Hermitian tells us that G is Hermitian in V = I - iϵG

Also: [H,I - iϵG] = 0 Note: everything commutes with the Identity I, iϵ factors out so [H,G] = 0

Remember: in earlier course we found that items that commute with Hamiltonian are conserved

Consider a translation of a wave.

Shift to right is minus ( put plus originally corrected to minus later in online lecture)

Vψ(x) -> ψ(x - ϵ)

Vψ(x) -> ψ(x - ϵ)

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∂ψ
ψ(x - ϵ) = ψ(x) - ϵ
∂x

∂
V=I -ϵ
∂x

∂ i ∂
Remember P = - i ℏ or P=
∂x ℏ ∂x

∂ i P
Since V = I - iϵG this gives iG = = P or G =
∂x ℏ ℏ

Px
So Generator of x translation is or without Planck’s constant P x
ℏ

Is the momentum along the x axis conserved? Depends on the Hamiltonian.

Hamiltonian for a free particle is:

1 px2
H = mvx2 =
2 2m

Does H commute with px ?

px2
[ , px ] = 0 as every function commutes with itself
2m

So momentum is conserved and we have a translation symmetry.

Conclusion: p is both the generator of translations and a conserved quantity.

What if there are more directions in space? Then there are also symmetries along y and z.

Each of px , py and pz commutes with the Hamiltonian.

px2 py2 pz2

H= + +
2m 2m 2m

py is the generator of translations along the y axis.

pz is the generator of translations along the z axis.

That was an example of the connection between symmetries and conservation laws.

Next Lecture: Rotations and Group Theory and collections of Symmetries that don’t commute with
each other.

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