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Decoding The Enigma Called Light
Decoding The Enigma Called Light
NANOTI
COVER STORY
On 20 December 2013, the United Nations (UN) General Assembly proclaimed 2015 as
the International Year of Light and Light-based Technologies. It is a global initiative to
highlight the importance of light and optical technologies for people and society.
SCIENCE
SC
SCIENCE REPORTER
EN REPORTER, MAY 20155 14
COVER STORY
This theory assumes light to consist of
OPTICS KNOWLEDGE SPIRAL particles that travel in straight lines and
produce the sensation of vision upon
falling on the eye. Newton’s theory failed
because it could not explain anything
beyond reflection and some aspects
Frontier Frontier of refraction of light. Newton’s theory
areas of optics applications of predicted that light should travel faster
optics in denser media which was found to be
Advanced against the experimental observation of
applications of Laser optics, Focault in 1850 who found the speed of
quantum optics Fibre optics light in water to be lesser than its speed
in air.
Quantum optics Advanced applications
of wave optics
Light as Rays
Optics since the time of the Greeks up
Applications of wave optics
Wave optics to the end of the 18th century was based
mainly on the assumption that light
Geometrical optics and consists of rays that obey the geometrical
applications laws of reflection and refraction and
thus came to be known as ray optics or
geometrical optics. It dealt mainly with
Optics in Nature Evolution of optics the effect of instruments such as prisms,
lenses and mirrors on the paths traced
by light rays. Theory and applications of
What is light?
geometrical optics thus constituted the
depth and breadth of the optics knowledge
spiral till this time. The breadth kept
expanding with aims of improving the
In the medieval period, Ibn al- followed by the use of primitive lamps fidelity of images produced by the optical
Haytham or Alhazan (965-1039), an made from natural sources like rocks and instruments.
Arabian scientist, developed the theory shells by prehistoric humans. Fireflies The first microscope was developed
of optics and published a seven-volume have also been used for illumination in around 1595 by the Dutch eyeglass
treatise, ‘Kitab al-Manazir’ (Book of Optics) the West Indian Islands and Japan. The makers, Hans Lippershey, Hans Janssen
that dealt with refraction and dispersion invention of the candle dates back to and his son, Zacharias. The earliest
of light, the nature of vision, shadows, about 400 A.D. known telescopes were developed in
rainbows and eclipses. Leonardo da Vinci Another application of light relates 1608 in Netherlands by Hans Lippershey,
(1452-1519) also investigated the nature to controlling light using glass. This Zacharias Janssen and Jacob Metius.
of light and studied reflection, refraction unites the knowledge of light with the Galileo (beginning of 17th century)
and anatomy of the human eye. knowledge of glass. The oldest types and Kepler (1610) made pioneering
In 1554, Franciscus Maurolycus wrote of glass are based on silica, the primary contributions to the refinement of a
the book, ‘Light on the Subject of Light’. In constituent of sand. As mirrors and telescope. The bifocals were developed by
1621, Willebrod Snell, a Dutch physicist, lenses, glass can divert light and magnify Benjamin Franklin, an American scientist,
derived a relation between the angle of images. Assyrian lenses, dated as early in 1784. The pioneering research of
incidence and the angle of refraction for a as 700 BC, are the earliest known lenses Leeuwenhoek, a Dutch microscopist who
ray of light moving from one medium to made from quartz. The confluence of developed the theory of aberration-free
another. In 1637, Rene Descartes, a French these two worlds led to development lenses by about 1830, led to improvement
scientist, published ‘Les Meteores’ in which of several instruments such as camera in magnification of lenses. By the end of
he offered an explanation of the rainbow (Mozi, a Chinese philosopher, 400 BC and the 19th century microscopes with large
by using geometric construction and the Alhazan), magnifying glass, eyeglasses, magnifying power were available.
law of refraction. He also discovered the concave and convex lenses [Roger Bacon Camera was improved through the
fundamental law of reflection that the (1214-1294)]. pioneering work of Joseph-Nicephore
angle of incidence is equal to the angle of In the 18th century several physicists, Niepce and Louis Jacques Mande
reflection. including Newton, studied light. In Daguerre of France (1820-30). The word
This early understanding of light had Newton’s time (1642-1727) almost all the ‘photography’ was coined by Sir John
corresponding applications in different scientists enquired into the nature of light. Herschel in 1839 and in 1847 Claude
times. The simplest application of light Newton himself devoted considerable Niepce invented the photographic glass
is lighting. Fire constituted early man’s time to the study of light and proposed plate. In 1888, Eastman coined the word
first use of artificial lighting in the form the corpuscular theory of light in his ‘Kodak’ and started marketing a hand-
of flaming torch and campfire. It was famous book, Optiks, published in 1704. held camera, using his new film. In 1861,
Knowledge of geometrical
optics helped in improving
the fidelity of images
produced by the optical
Christiaan Huygens James Maxwell Thomas Young Augustin-Jean Fresnel instruments
the Scottish physicist, James Maxwell that light is not only a wave but that it is theory for his valuable contribution to
demonstrated the first color photographs. a transverse, electromagnetic wave (wave this field.
The development of zoom lens and of oscillating electric and magnetic fields) In 1802, Young proposed the
telephoto lens helped to refine the design which can travel through vacuum. superposition principle, which forms
and performance of the camera. Using the equations of the conceptual basis for explanation of
By the 20th century a variety of electromagnetism Maxwell obtained the properties of light such as interference,
cameras for specific purposes such as theoretical value of speed of light that was diffraction and polarisation. Superposition
aerial photography, document copying, in close agreement with the experimental of light waves leads to many beautiful
movie, TV and video were developed. value measured by Fizeau. Coincidence patterns of different light intensities.
In addition to these many other optical of these two numbers is considered to be a Optics based on the assumption of light
instruments such as tracking instruments, major milestone in the history of physics. as waves came to be known as wave optics.
gunsights, periscopes and rangefinders Maxwell exclaimed after his discovery: It deals with phenomena involving light
have been developed for different uses. “Let there be electricity and magnetism, interacting with dimensions of the order of
Today geometrical optics has been and there is light!” its wavelength. Theory and applications of
relegated to background due to further Thomas Young, an English physician wave optics mainly constituted the depth
developments in our understanding who researched on the human eye and and breadth of the optics knowledge spiral
of light. However, its importance as a Augustin Fresnel, an engineer of bridges in the 19th century. Theory concerned
tool in solving practical problems is still and roads for the French government, with the study of the patterns formed
unabated. provided strong experimental proofs due to interference, diffraction and
in support of the wave theory by polarisation and applications were based
Light as Waves demonstrating interference of light on the use of this knowledge. Thus the
In 1678, a Dutch physicist, Christian waves. Young demonstrated it using light sciences of interferometry, diffractometry
Huygens, suggested the wave theory of coming out of two pinholes in 1801 and and polarimetry enriched the depth,
light, which assumes light to be a wave, Fresnel did it using a biprism in 1814. and applications of interferometric,
similar to a water wave or a sound wave. Young reported the first experimental diffractometric and polarimetric
This theory was highly successful due determination of the wavelength of techniques (using instruments such as
to its close agreement with experiments. light that agrees well with that obtained interferometers, diffractometers and
The Wave Theory was substantiated in using today’s sophisticated instruments. polarimeters) augmented the breadth of
1873 by James Maxwell who propounded He is called the founder of wave the spiral.
Interference Interference studies are useful in several applications such as reducing or enhancing the
Interference means redistribution of light intensity reflection of light from glass using films called anti-reflection/high reflection films, testing how
due to superposition of two or more light waves. flat or spherical a particular glass surface is and determination of properties like refractive
Interference pattern thus consists of bright and index and elastic constant of different media. Interferometric techniques also find applications
dark fringes. In a typical interferometric setup the in measurement of the diameters of stars, study of the hyperfine structure of spectral lines,
light beam is first divided and then reunited with study of transparent or reflecting specimens using interference microscopes and detection of
some path difference to form such a pattern. The minute variations in the surface finish of videotapes, photographic films, computer discs and ball
fringe pattern so formed thus contains information bearings. Sophisticated techniques like ‘computer analysed optical interferometry’ have been
about the source of light and geometry of the film in developed that can detect variations in the surface texture of the order of few A° (A° means
which interference takes place. angstrom, the unit of wavelength equivalent to 100 millionth part of a centimeter).
Diffraction A grating diffracts different wavelengths along different directions – a property useful for
Diffraction means bending of light round sharp determination of unknown wavelength and as a wavelength separator or a monochromator.
obstacles. The diffraction pattern produced Diffraction of light by gratings motivated studies of diffraction of x-rays by crystals that led to the
by an obstacle contains information about the development of x-ray crystallography, a technique that has been used to map many complex
characteristics of the light used and of the diffracting structures in the last century. Diffraction studies are also useful for measurement of stellar data
obstacle. Grating (an arrangement formed by ruling and elastic properties of liquids. One of the interesting outcomes of diffraction studies was
a large number of lines on a small glass plate so a deeper insight into the concept of resolution. It provided a clue that resolving power of an
that the separation between adjacent lines is of the instrument can be enhanced by reducing the wavelength of the probing waves – a clue that gave
order of wavelength of light) became popular for a lot of impetus to the progress in the field of microscopy. It can be said that had diffraction not
diffraction studies. been discovered and subsequently researched into we would not have known about anything
smaller than the wavelength of light!
Polarisers are used in applications such as aeroplane windows, automobile headlights, visors,
Polarisation
camera filters, laser windows, anti-glare sunglasses and stereoscopic (three-dimensional)
Polarized light is a special type of light – one in viewing. Polariscope, which uses two polarisers in tandem, is used in viewing of colourless
which the electric field is confined to a single plane objects. Polarisation studies have revealed structures ranging from a galaxy (~ 1020 meters)
as compared to ordinary light, which has field in
to a nucleus (~10-14 meter). That the Saturn rings are made of ice crystals is borne out by
all possible random orientations. That the state of
polarisation studies. Photoelasticity, a field of paramount importance in civil and mechanical
polarisation of the light coming from a particular
engineering, is used to check and optimise the designs of structures by simulating the stress
object is decided by the nature of that object is the
distribution in transparent plastic models of these structures under application of a load.
basis of the spectroscopic investigation of matter
Photoelastic techniques enable engineers to ‘see’ stress in components such as gears, turbine
based on polarisation. Research into how a desired
blades, windshields, etc. An instrument called polarimeter is used in industries for measuring
polarisation can be achieved artificially led to the
the concentration of optically active substances. For example, saccharimeters are used in
discovery of a large number of phenomena that
sugar industries for determination of sugar concentrations and urinalysis tubes are used in
include optical activity (rotation of the plane of
pathology laboratories for detecting the sugar concentration in urine specimens. One of the most
polarisation) and photoelastic effect.
remarkable applications of optical activity is in the liquid crystal display (LCD). LCD devices find
wide applications in electronic and computer industry and in medical diagnostics.
Marconi Labs, was ingeniously used by which has enabled bright and energy- muscles control the thickness of the lens
Oleg Losev (1927), James Biard (1961) and saving white light sources”. thus adjusting its focal length. The retina
Nick Holonyak (1962) in the invention In large scientific research facilities contains rods and cones – photoreceptors
of LED, a new source of lighting for the such as synchrotrons and free electron that are stimulated by light. They generate
modern world. lasers the particle accelerators create light nerve impulses that travel along the optic
of an enormous intensity that can be used nerves to the visual cortex of the brain
An LED is a semiconductor device
to undertake systematic investigations where the image is perceived.
(basically a p-n junction diode operated
in a forward bias mode) which emits light of the atomic and molecular detail of the One of the most mysterious aspects
when current is passed through it. LEDs world around us. Today there are more of light that captured the imagination of
are being increasingly used as lighting than 60 such advanced machines around many geniuses is its speed. It changed the
sources in such diverse applications the world that are being used for scientific fate of many theories. Newton’s theory
as general lighting, display lighting, research. failed due to speed, Maxwell’s theory
aviation lighting, stage lighting and triumphed due to speed and Einstein’s
medical lighting due to advantages of Light as a Mystery theory is totally based on speed!
smaller size, lower energy consumption, Though our faculties for perception of In 1905, Einstein based his special
longer lifetime, more robustness and light are highly evolved we can see only a theory of relativity on the postulate that
faster switching. very narrow range of the electromagnetic the speed of light is invariant, i.e., it is
On October 7, 2014, Japanese spectrum from 4000 A° to 7000 A°. Our the same for everyone irrespective of
scientists, Isamu Akasaki, Hiroshi Amano eyes function like a sophisticated camera. one’s state of motion and nothing in the
and Shuji Nakamura were awarded the The iris controls the amount of light universe travels faster than the speed
Nobel Prize in physics for “the invention entering the eye. Cornea and lens refract of light. In 1915, he showed using his
of efficient blue light-emitting diodes light rays to focus on the retina. Ciliary general theory of relativity how light was
at the center of the very structure of space
From left: Isamu Akasaki, Hiroshi and time.
Amano and Shuji Nakamura In 1983, the speed was precisely
determined as 299792458 m/s by
They invented blue light-
virtue of redefining the metre by the
emitting diodes which
International System of Units (SI) as the
enabled bright and energy-
distance travelled by light in vacuum in
saving white light sources
1/299,792,458 of a second. Thus, light
travels about 9 lakh, 10 thousand times
Bioluminescent fungus Chemiluminescent Luminol
Some common electric lamps and firefly and haemoglobin Electroluminescent LEDs