Kinetics

Kinetics: the branch of chemistry that is concerned with chemical reactions

Collision theory: in order for a reaction to occur, reactant particles must collide. Collisions between particles can
produce a reaction if both the spatial orientation and energy of the colliding particles are conductive to a reaction
Factors affecting the rate of reaction:
1. Nature of reactants: covalently bonded substances are slower to react than ionic substances due to the greater
number of bonds that must be broken before a reaction can occur. Breaking more bonds requires that the
particles have more energy when they collide.
2. Concentration: If concentration of one reactant will increase, the rate of reaction will increase because there
would be more collisions going on.
3. Surface Area: When more surface area of a substance is exposed, there are more chances for reactant particles
to collide.
4. Pressure: Has no or little affect on solids or liquids, effects gases. Increase in pressure increases the
concentration of gaseous particles.
5. Catalysts: They are substances that increase the rate of reaction by providing a different and easier pathway for
a reaction. Catalysts take part in a reaction, but they are unchanged when the reaction is complete.
Heterogeneous catalysts- exist in a different physical state than the other reactants
Homogeneous reactants- exists in the same physical state
6. Temperature: the greater temperature, the faster particles move. At higher temperature, not only will there be
more collisions, but the reactants would have more energy. Makes particles move faster.

Potential Energy Diagrams

A diagram called a potential energy diagram illustrates the potential energy change that occurs during a chemical
reaction. The vertical axis represents a change in potential energy. The horizon is called the reaction coordinate, which
represents the progress of the reaction. As the reactant particles approach each other, kinetic energy is converted to
potential energy. If particles collide in the proper orientation, an activated complex is formed. The activated complex is a
temporary, intermediate product that may either break apart and reform the reactants or rearrange the atoms and form
new products. Activation energy: the amount of energy needed to form the activated complex from the reactants. The
difference between the potential energy of the reactants and the products is called the heat of reaction and is
represented by ΔH.
As the reaction proceeds toward the product side, two outcomes are possible:
1. As the activated complex changes to become the product, it will lose energy. If the product has more potential
energy than the reactants, the reaction will be endothermic. Because more energy was absorbed to form the
activated complex than released to form the product, there was a net gain of energy. Because there has been a
gain in energy, the heat of reaction has a (+) ΔH.
2. If the product is lower on the vertical axis than the reactants, all of the energy that was absorbed to form the
activated complex is recovered, plus the difference between the potential energy of the reactants and the
products. This represents a loss of potential energy compared to the reactants, indicating a release of energy
and an exothermic reaction. In this case the heat of reaction has a (-) ΔH.
Endothermic: energy is absorbed
Exothermic: energy is released
ΔH: difference between energy of the reactants and the products.

Equilibrium
Equilibrium: when forward and reverse reactions occur at the same time. It is the state of balance between two opposite
processes.
Physical Equilibrium: change of the phase. Rate of freezing and melting is the same. Rate of evaporation and
condensation is the same.
Solution Equilibrium: Solids in liquids in equilibrium exist in a saturated solution. When the water is fully saturated and
you add more solid, the solid will dissolve at the same rate as it recrystallizes. Equilibrium may also be attained in a
closed system between gas dissolved in a liquid and the undissolved gas. In a soda can, there is equilibrium between CO 2
dissolved and the gaseous state.
In the solid, this equilibrium may be disturbed when temperature rises, because the solid become more soluble
In the gas, as temperature increases, the rate of gas escaping the liquid increases

Chemical Equilibrium: As the amount of the reactant decreases, the amount of product increases.

Le Chatelier’s Principle: explains how a system at equilibrium responds to relieve any stress on the system. Change in
temperature, concentration, or pressure is stress.

Law of chemical equilibrium- states that at a given temperature, a chemical system might react a state in
which a particular ratio of reactant and a product concentrations has a constant value

Equilibrium constant Keq- is the numerical value of the ratio of product concentration to reactant
concentration, with each concentration raised to the power equal to its coefficient in the balanced equation.

Reaction Spontaneity
Spontaneous process: any physical or chemical change that once begun, occurs with no outside intervention
Rust on iron is exothermic and nonspontaneous.
Entropy is a measure of the number of possible ways that the energy of a system can be distributed, and this is related
to the freedom of the system’s particles to move and number of ways they can be arranged.
The number of possible arrangements available to a system increases under the following conditions: when
volume increases, when energy increases, when the number of particles increases, or when the particles’ freedom of
movement increases.

Second law of thermodynamics: states that spontaneous process always proceed in such a way that the entropy of the
universe increases.