SOLUTION-FINAL

You learned that solutions are homogeneous mixtures of two or more

substances physically mixed together in a uniform way.

You also learned that there are various types of solutions, including solid,
liquid, and gas solution.

In this section, we will concern ourselves with the types of solutions that
are in the liquid phase that is, solids, gases, or liquids dissolved within a liquid.

A solution is made up of two parts:

1. The solute is the substance that gets dissolved into the solution.

2. The solvent is the substance that does the dissolving.

Common example of a solution is salt water. If you mix up a glass of salt water,
the salt would be the solute, and the water would be the solvent.

Because of its ability to dissolve in another substance is called Solubility.

When a substance does not dissolve in another substance, it is called insoluble.

Non-polar substances are often insoluble in polar substances.

When both substances are liquids, and the liquids fail to mix, they might be
called immiscible. Whereas liquids that do not mix well are called miscible.

In chemistry laboratory activities that you carry out, you will probably be
required to make several solutions, using water as a solvent.

When we talk about the solubility of a solute in water, we normally speak in

terms of the number of grams of a particular solute that will normally dissolve in
a specific amount of water at a particular temperature.

Table salt, for example, has a solubility of about 40 grams of NaCl per 100 grams
of water, at 90 degrees centigrade.

An unsaturated solution is one that is holding less solute than it normally can, at
that temperature.

A saturated solution is one that cannot dissolve any more of the given solute
under the current conditions.

A supersaturated solution is one that is holding more dissolved solute than it

should be able to under the current conditions.

A soluble ionic solid in aqueous solution is called an electrolytes because such a

solution conducts electricity.

In aqueous (water) solution, the ions of an ionic compound dissociate and are
free to move about to conduct electricity.
A non-electrolyte may also dissolve, but the solute remains in molecular form
and will not conduct electricity.

HYDRATES AND WATER OF HYDRATION

Certain compounds actually contain water within the structure of their crystal
lattices. Those compounds are called hydrates. The water they contain is
known as the water of hydration.

Example: copper sulfate pentahydrates ( CuS0 5H O)

The dot between CuSO and 5H O means that water is actually a part of
the hydrate molecule, and the formula weight of the hydrate must include the
water.

Another hydrates is magnesium heptahydrate, more commonly known as Epson

salt.

MgSO 7H O

When heated sufficiently, a hydrate will release all its water molecules.

Some chemical substances have the ability to absorb moisture from the
atmosphere such substances are said to be hygroscopic.

Some anhydrous salts absorb enough water to dissolve themselves in their own
water of hydration. They are called deliquescent.

It is possible to determine the percentage that the water contributes to the total
weight of a hydrate. Just divide the weight of the water molecules by the entire
formula weight of the hydrate and multiply the result by 100. For copper sulfate
pentahydrate,divide the weight of 5 mol of water by the formula weight of the
entire hydrate and multiply by 100.

Weight of 5 H 0 x 100 percentage of weight

Formula weight of CuS0 5H0 contributed by water

Another hydrate is magnesium sulfate heptahydrate,more commonly known as

Epsom salts. Determine the formula weight in grams of this hydrates:

The percentage by weight of water in Epsom salts is:b utedbutr4de

PROPORTIONS IN SOLUTIONS:
It is useful to know precisely how dilute or concentrated a solution is.

A solution with a relatively large amount of solute in a given amount of solvent is

considered to be a concentrated solution. Concentrated is not a very precise
term. It simply means that a relatively large proportion of the solution is made
up of solute.
A solution with a relatively small amount of solute in a given amount of solvent is
considered to be a dilute solution. Dilute solution means that a relatively small
proportion of the solution is made up of solute. Would a saturated solution of
sodium chloride be considered concentrated or dilute.

There are several methods of showing the proportions of solute to the solvent.
One method of showing precise proportions is to give percent by weight.
Example: a 10 percent solution of NaCl in water indicates that 10 percent
of the solution weight is attributed to NaCl and 90 percent 0f the solution weight
is attributed to the solvent.
In 100 grams of solution that is 10 percent NaCl by weight there are how
many grams of NaCl ? and how many grams of water?

Determine the percent by weight of a solution of NaCl if there are 30 grams

of NaCl dissolved in water to yield a total solution weight of 200 grams.
Remember, in this case, the “part” is the solute weight and the “whole” is the
total weight of the solution.
part
percent x 100%
whole

Twenty five grams of NaOH (solute) are added to 175 grams of water (solvent).
What is the % NaOH in the solution?

In 100 grams of an aqueous solution that is 15% weight NaCl by weight, there
are how many grams of NaCl? And how many grams of water?

Concentrated HCl is actually an aqueous solution. Concentrated HCl is 37.9%

By weight HCl. How many grams of concentrated 37.9% HCl solution does it take
To yield 10 grams of HCl (solute)?

Let’s try another one. What weight of dilute nitric acid solution contains 20
grams of HNO ? The solution is 19% HN0 by weight. The total weight of the
solution is (in grams)

It is also possible to determine the volume of the solution if both the weight and
the density of the solution are known.
weight
density
volume

Weight is usually expressed in grams and volume in milliters.

If a solution has a density of 1.5 grams per milliliter, how much volume would 3
grams of the solution occupy?

It was determined that a weight of a solution of 105.3 grams contained 20

grams of HNO in a 19% aqueous HN0 solution. The total solution weighs 105.3
grams.
The density of 19% HN0 solution is 1.11 grams per milliliter. The volume
occupied by 105.3 grams at 1.11 grams per milliliter is ( in mL).
CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTIONS:
In experimental work, solutions are used for such a variety of purposes
that it shouldn’t be surprising that no single concentration expression could serve
All needs. For the stoichiometry of reactions in solution, Molar concentration or
Molarity ( M), provides by far the best set of units ( mol/Liter). Molarity,however,
Varies with temperature because a solution’s volume ( but not its moles of
solute) varies somewhat with temperature. Most solutions expand when heated
and contract when cooled. Thus to describe and compare physical properties of
solutions, we need temperature-insensitive expressions for concentration.

TEMPERATURE-INSENSITIVE CONCENTRATION EXPRESSIONS:

Mole Fractions and Mole Percents: Some physical properties of solutions

depend on the relative numbers of molecules of all components. One way to
describe this is by stating their mole fractions. The mole fraction of any
component in a mixture is the ratio of the number of its moles to the total
number of moles of all component present. Expressed mathematically, the mole
fraction,Xa, of substance A in a mixture of substances A,B,C,…….Z is defined as
follows.
Mole fraction of component A in a mixture:
n of A
Xa
n of A + n of B + n of C ….

In equation n of A, n of B, n of C are the numbers of moles of each component,

A,B,C,…….. Z respectively. The sum of all mole fractions for a mixture must
always equal to one ( 1). A mole fraction multiplied by 100 is called the Mole
percent of the component..( mole %).

Example: What are the mole fractions and mole percents of each
component in a solution that consists of 1.00 mol C H OH (ethyl alcohol), 0.500
mol of CH OH (methyl alcohol), and 6.00 mol of water?

Example: What are the mole fractions and mole percents of the
components in an antifreeze solution made by mixing 500 g of methyl alcohol
with 500 g water?

Example: What are the mol fractions and mol percents of the solute and
solvent in a solution made by dissolving 43.88 g of NaCl in 1000 g of water?

Example: What are the mole fractions and mole percents of nitrogen and
oxygen in air when their partial pressures are 160 torr for oxygen and 600 torr
for nitrogen? Assume no other gases are present.

MOLAL CONCENTRATION:
The number of moles of solute per kilogram of solvent is called the molal
concentration or the molality of a solution. Or the molality of a solution is a
measure of the number of moles of solute dissolved in each kilogram of solvent.
The formula for molality: number of moles of solute
Molality (m)
Kilograms of solvent
The fact that the words molality and molarity are so similar, and the respective
formulas and symbols are also similar, can lead to confusion. The main
difference is that Molarity is based on the volume of the wholoe solution,
whereas Molality is based on the mass of just the solvent. Molality is measured
in moles per kilogram, but it is given the derived unit “m” which stands for
“molal”
Example: What would be the molality of a solution made from 6.0 moles of
NaOH dissolved in 2.0 Kg of water?

Example: Determine the molality of a solution made with 120.0 g of CaCl

and 1.5 Kg of water.

Example: How many grams of strontium chloride (SrCl ) must you add to
2.50 Kg of water to produce a solution with a molality of 0.500 m?

Example: Determine the molality of a solution involving 116.8 grams of

NaCl dissolved in 500 grams of water.

Example: Determine the molality of a solution involving 22.5 grams of

glucose dissolved in 500 grams 0f water?

Example: How many grams of solute are necessary to produce a 2.50 m

solution of CaCl dissolved in 500 grams of water ?

OTHER CONCENTRATION:

Volume –Volume Percent: Is similar to weight percent, but is often preferred

when working with solutions where all component are liquids, like antifreeze
solution in water. A percent by volume, v/v%, gives the number of volumes of
one liquid that was used to make up 100 units of volume of the solution. Thus
to prepare a 40% (v/v) antifreeze solution,one would mix, say , 4 L of antifreeze
with enough water to make a final volume equal to 10 L. Liquor alcohol is
usually given a “ proof” rating,where the proof is twice the volume percent
alcohol. Thus 80 proof alcohol is 40% (v/v) in ethyl alcohol.

Parts per Million ( PPM): When solution is very dilute, like those of air
pollutants in air, their concentration are sometimes given in parts per million, or
ppm. This means the number of parts in one million parts of the whole. The
same unit must be used for “parts” like 1 g in ten to the power 6 grams. If the
concentration of ozone in air reaches 1 ppm it refers to 1 g of ozone in 1x10
gram of air.( this level is regarded as so hazardous to health that human
activities should be curtailed so that as little as possible of the air is brought into
the lungs.) For a sense of how small 1ppm is,it’s like one penny in $10,000 or 1
minute in 2 years.

Parts Per Billion (PPB): For extremely dilute solutions,parts per billion is
sometimes used to express the concentration. It’s similar to parts paer million;
1part per billion or ppb, means one part per 10 parts. Any unit can be
employed for “parts” provided it’s the same unit in both uses. One part per
billion is like 1 drop of water in a pool measuring 11 by 20 feet. It’s roughly 2
drops of water in the largest tank car you’ve ever seen (about 33,000 gallons),or
1 minute in 2000 years. Some water pollutants are dangerous even at ppb
levels. It can be shown that
ppm = weight fraction x 10

ppb = weight fraction x 10

MOLARITY:
Is probably the most common measurement for the concentration of a
solution. Molarity is a measure of the number of moles of solute dissolved in
every liter of solution. The formula for molarity is:
Moles of solute
Molarity (M) = -------------------
Liters of solution

Molarity is a temperature dependent concentration:

Molarity is measured in moles/liter, but we use the symbol “M” for short,
referring to the unit as “molar”.

Example: A certain supply of concentrated hydrochloric acid is 36.0% HCl.

The density of the solutionis 1.19 g/mL. Calculate the molar concentration of HCl
in this solution.

Example: Hydrobromic acid can be purchased as 40.0% HBr. The density

of this solution is 1.38 g/mL. What is the molar concentration of HBr in this
solution?

Example: Determine the molarity of a 2.5 L solution made with 200.0 g of

calcium chloride (CaCl )

Example: How many grams of NaCl would be required to produce a 3.0 M

solution with a volume of 500.0 cubic centimeter?

Example: The formula weight for NaCl is 58.4 grams. If 87.8 grams of NaCl
solute is dissolved in enough water to make 3 liters of solution, what molarity
would the resulting NaCl solution have?

Example: The formula weilght of NaCl is 58.4 grams per mol. How many
grams of NaCl are needed to make 2 liters of a 0.3 M NaCl solution?

COLLIGATIVE PROPERTIES OF SOLUTIONS :

The physical properties of a solution are somewhat different from the

properties of the pure solvent. The amount and kind of solute in the solution
affects such properties as boiling point, freezing point, and vapor pressure.
These properties that vary according to the ratio of the weights of the solute and
solvent are known as colligative properties.

In general, as solute is added the resulting solution will have a lower

freezing point, lower vapor pressure, and higher boiling point than the pure
solvent.

When dealing with solutions for chemical reactions such as neutralization,

it is practical to use molarity (m) as the standard for the concentration of the
solute in the solution. Molarity indicates moles of solute within each liter of
solution. When working with colligative properties, however, it is more useful to
deal with a different standard of the concentration of solute in the solution. This
standard is molality. Molality, abbreviated by the small letter m, indicates the
moles of solute in each kilogram of solvent. When dealing with physical
properties such as the boiling point elevation of a solution, it is more practical to
use moles of solute per (liter of solution, kilogram of solvent).

A solution made of two or more liquids has a vapor pressure that is determined
by the mole fractions of the liquids that make up the solution. This general
statement leads to Raoult’s Law. Raoult’s Law is expressed mathematically as:

P = X P
P is the vapor pressure contributed by liquid A in the solution. X is the mole
fraction of liquid A in the solution. P is the vapor pressure of the liquid A in its
pure form.
Example: A solution is made up of toluene and benzene. Toluene is
present in a mole fraction of 0.6 and has a vapor pressure of 70 torr in the pure
form. We want to find the vapor pressure contributed by toluene in the solution.
P toluene = X toluene P toluene

BOILING POINT ELEVATION:

The vapor pressure of a solvent (such as water) is reduced when a solute

with no vapor pressure of its own is added to the solvent. Remember that the
boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which the vapor pressure equals
the confining pressure. If a nonvolatile solute (one with no vapor pressure of its

own) is added to a solvent, the boiling point of the solvent is raised because the
vapor pressure is reduced. The more solute added, the more the vapor pressure
is reduced, and the more the boiling point is increased.

Adding 1 mol of a nonvolatile solute that is also a nonelectrolyte to 1 kg of

water raises the boiling point by 0.51 C. If the boiling point of pure water is
100.00 C, then adding 1 mol of nonvolatile and nonelectrolytic solute to 1 kg of
water raises the boiling point of the solution to the new temperature of 100.51 C
(100.00 C + 0.51 C).

The presence of 1 mol of any nonvolatile nonelectrolyte such as sugar added

to 1 kg of water raises the boiling point of the water by 0.51 C. This 0.51 C is
known as the molal boiling point constant for water.

A sugar-water solution that is 1 m boils at 100.51 C at standard

pressure. A sugar-water solution of 1 m raises the boiling point of water by 0.51
C. A sugar-water solutionof 2 m raises the boiling point by twice the molal
boiling constant (2 x 0.51 = 1.02 C). A sugar-water solution of 3 m raises the
boiling point by 3 times as much , or 1.53 (3 x 0.51 C).

The molal boiling point constant is usually abbreviated as Kb. The Kb for water
is 0.51 C/m. (the Kb varies for other solvents.) A useful formula for predicting
the boiling point of solution is:
 Tb = Kb x m
The increase in the boiling point ( Tb) equals the molal boiling point constant
(Kb) multiplied by the molality ( m) of the solution. For example, if the molality
of a sugar-water solution is 3 m, then the increase in boiling ( Tb) equals 0.51 C
multiplied by 3, or 1.53 C. Calculate the increase in the boiling point if a sugar-
water solution has a molality of 5 m.

FREEZING POINT DEPRESSION:

A nonvolatile solute not only raises the boiling point of the solution, but it
also lowers the freezing point of the solution. Each mole of any nonvolatile
nonelectrolyte,such as sugar, 1 kg of water will lower the freezing point by 1,86
C. Since the normal freezing point of water is 0 C, the new freezing point of a
solution of 1 mol of sugar added to 1 kg of water will be -1.86.

The molal freezing point constant for water is -1.86 C/m. The molal freezing
point constant is abbreviated as Kf and varies for different solvents as does Kb.
The following formula for determining the freezing point decrease is:
Tf =Kf x m

Determine the value of If (the amount of decrease in the freezing point) of a

3m sugar-water solution. Tf = -1.86 C x 3 = -5.58 C.