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REAL ANALYTIC FUNCTIONS

By George Mpantes mathematics teacher http://www.mpantes/

Today real analytic functions in an open interval D of R, are called

those that accept a derivative of any order, and are identified with their
expansion in Taylor series in the region of each point of their domain.
The polynomials, , logx the trigonometric functions sine and cosine,
are examples of analytic functions in R.

A function f(x) which has a power series

representation (6.6) converging in some open interval |x − a| < R (for
some R > 0) is called in that interval.
Equivalently, a function is real-analytic on an open interval |x − a| < R if
and only if its Taylor Series converges to the function in the same
interval. This is the first metamorphosis of elementary functions!

There is a very rich and beautiful theory of real-analytic functions.

It is a theory which has a remarkably simple extension to functions of a
complex variable z ∈ C = {x + iy : x, y ∈ R}, i = √ −1. This may seem a
complication, but a theory is often simplified by it’s generalization in a
broader unification, after which the real-analytic results follow from the
complex theory.

the function y=sinx ……8.1

Taking it’s Taylor expansion we have

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x3 x5 x7
yx    .......... ..8..2
3! 5! 7!

Yet we can’t equate the right sides of (1) and (2) before we study
the convergence of the series. For some x the second members could
give different results! Today we conclude (ratio test) that the Taylor
series in (2) converges for all x ЄR, that is the domain of the function.
Now the two expressions (1) and (2) are equivalent in all respects and by
this we mean that if in 1 and 2 we give the same current value to x ,
exactly the same value is obtained for y in the two cases. The function
y=sinx is so an analytic function. It is always a continuous function in the
interval of congruence, with all its derivatives continuous. Taylor
considered it for granted for all the functions. But all functions known to
the mathematicians of the 18 century happened to be analytic. Thanks to
this coincidence, the analytical function became a mathematical tool
capable highlights the corollaries of mechanical motions for point
masses and rigid bodies and solve the differential equations describing
the laws of these phenomena . So the successful resolution of many
problems in physics and celestial mechanics, which would not happen
without the Taylor series, are due to the fact that the functions involved
in these areas were analytic . The c o r r e c t r e s u l t s w e r e i n c i
d e n t a l because the convergence conditions were applied to the
problem, unnoticed by the scholars. That is, without a particular study of
their convergence, they were converging.

On the other hand, it is really a fact that the progress of physical

theories is dependent of the mathematical development of the day. But
while the rigor is essential for mathematics is often preferable not to
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require in early stages. An early insistence on rigor could strangle

discovery. History shows that the details can wait ... .. "what serves our
admiration for the work of the builder if we can not appreciate the design
of the architect? »

The analytical function described relations (there are many such in

the world of engineering) which are not directly expressed with
elementary expressions but with successive approximations, with both
practical results (however accurate ) getting some terms of the series,
also theoretical results by resorting to limit. In this sense the work of
Brook Taylor is one of the most important works of Mathematics.
Analytical functions are a very small subset of functions, which
can be defined by other types of series or other types of mathematical
expressions.
In following chapters we will see new problems, which have paved
the way for the theory of complex functions which assure precise
conditions for the convergence of the Taylor series.

What kind of problems did the analytical functions of the 17th

century?

At first they solved many , e.g.

for I use the power series centered at zero for

the function cosx== 1 – x / 2! + x / 4! –x / 6! + ......... we are close to 0
where convergence is rapid so using only two terms and setting x = π /
180, is cos1 = 1-0,00015 = 0.99985.
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We can also approximate the , for

example

cosx-2x = 0,

again using two or three terms of the previous series.

which is not calculated with elementary functions.

Now the sinx/x is analytic (with a convergence field all R *),

We use it’s power series centered at 0 and integrating the result we

have

∫ c+x-x /3.3!+ …((-1) x /(2n+1)(2n+1)!+……

with a convergence field all R *, where we made use of analogous

results of analysis referring to derivation or integration term to a term of
a series of forces. Another example ∫ this can not be
computed by the classical technique of integration. Taylor series allow to
write down this indefinite integral.

As =1-x +x /2 –x /3=∑ x /n! is analytic

The integral has the form of Taylor series

∫ ∑

In these results we use the Abel’s theorem (next chapter) that for
analytic functions, differentiation and integration of power series can be
performed term by term and is hence particularly easy, and the radius of
convergence of the resulting series is the same as the initial.
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The simple pendulum

The classic example is the modeling of the simple pendulum.

The angular motion of a typical undamped simple pendulum can be

described by the differential equation

Here ( ) denotes the angle (in radian measure) at time t between the
pendulum and the resting position of the pendulum.

Let's suppose the pendulum starts at time =0 in its resting position

, (0)=0, with a certain initial angular velocity, say ΄(0)= . We want
to describe the angular motion ( ) of the pendulum over time. This
differential equation doesn’t have a nice solution, but we can write in
terms of functions we know. However, we know that sinx can be written

by Taylor series for sine looks like this: sinx = x – x / 3! + x / 5! - ...

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For small x these values decrease very quickly, and so to a good

approximation we can ignore all terms but the first, and write sin x ≈ x in
which case our differential equation becomes

x΄΄(t)+ x(t)=0

which should be recognizable as the equation that defines simple

harmonic motion. The solution of this equation is

(√ ) √

In relativity
the relativistic kinetic energy K of a particle with rest mass m
travelling at velocity u is given by K = (γ−1)m c , where γ the Lorentz
factor γ = 1/ √ 1−u /c . Using the Taylor expansion of γ

γ=1+ +…..

this shows that for u c this reduces to the non-relativistic form K

= mu /2.

The traditional division between the two is that Applied Mathematics has
a very clear connection to physical real-world problems. Pure maths, on
the other hand, is separate from the physical world. It solves problems,
finds facts and answers questions that don’t depend on the world around
us, but on the rules of mathematics itself.

For applied mathematics the goal is typically to advance

mathematics for the sake of some practical purpose, while in pure
mathematics is advanced for the sake of advancing mathematics without a
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concern for its practical applications, even if practical applications do

exist or not.

The activity of applied mathematics is thus intimately connected

with research in pure mathematics. That is the mathematical model (pure
mathematics) of some real-world phenomena, and the application of it to
derive testable consequences in the common practice.

In our theme, the model is the theory of analytic functions with the
concept of and the application is to approximate a function by
using a finite number of terms of its Taylor series with the testable
consequence: this of the

The limit is in the world of mathematics that is into our mind, we

can not use it in the real world as it does not exist in this world. How can
we count the infinity? But physics is counting. Physical observables are
operationally defined by counting processes, the observable in physics are
only theoretically represented by limits, but these limits guide the
approximate sums. In the equation of pendulum, why we had sinx ≈x or
could sinx ≈ x – x /3! ? This was proposed by the Taylor series of the
model.
George Mpantes
Serres Greece