Chapter 7:

SCHOOL COUNSELLING AND ETHICS

MODULE LEARNING OUTCOMES

When you have completed this module you will be able to:

Trace the history of school counselling in Malaysia

Give reasons why school counselling is important
Describe some of the issues school counsellors have to deal with
Elaborate on the approaches of school counselling
Differentiate between morals and ethics
Discuss the five moral principles
Explain the steps involve in ethical decision making
Elaborate on the dimension of confidentiality
List the characteristics of a general code of ethical practice

CHAPTER OVERVIEW
7.0 INTRODUCTION
7.0 Introduction
Over 5 million students are 7.1 History of School Counselling
registered in primary and secondary in in Malaysia
Malaysia. These students are diverse in both 7.2 Why are School Counselling
their backgrounds and abilities. Some are Services Important?
developmentally ready and eager to be in 7.3 Issues in School Counselling
school. Others are disadvantaged because of Programmes
physical, mental, cultural and 7.4 Approaches in School
socioeconomic factors. There are also Counselling
students in school carrying the burden of 7.5 Ethics, Morality and Law
traumas, such as various forms of abuse, 7.6 Some General Ethical Guidelines
through no fault of their own. for Counsellors
Schools counsellors have an 7.7 Moral Principles
important role in addressing these concerns Autonomy
and problems of students. Basically, the Nonmaleficence
focus of most school counselling Beneficence
programmes is addressing issues related to Justice
academic performance, issues related to Fidelity
career choice, as well as personal and social Ethical Decision Making
issues which have an impact on the lives of Dimensions of Confidentiality
students.
Summary
Key Terms

1
 7.1 HISTORY OF SCHOOL COUNSELLING IN MALAYSIA

“The development of counselling services in Malaysia is closely related to the

history of guidance and counselling in the schools” (Suradi and Rafidah, 2005, p.243).
There are records to show that guidance services were introduced by the English during
colonial Malaysia in 1939 with the publication of a booklet titled Panduan Kerjaya di
Tanah Melayu bagi Ibu Bapa, Guru-Guru dan Murid-Murid. In 1963, Dewan Bahasa &
Pustaka published a book titled Perkhidmatan Panduan di Sekolah. In the same year the
Ministry of Education Malaysia, set up Bahagian Bimbingan dan Kaunselling (The
Guidance and Counselling Section) which was established under the Educational
Planning and Research Division (EPRD).
In 1968, the Ministry of Education Malaysia issued a circular (KP5209/30/13)
which directed all State Education Departments to instruct principals in secondary
schools to appoint guidance teachers to make available guidance and counselling services
for students in schools. In 1993, the Ministry of Education introduced a guidebook titled
Panduan Perlaksanaan Perkhidamatan dan Kaunselling di Sekolah-Sekolah Menengah
(Guide Towards the Implementation of Guidance and Counselling Services in Seconday
Schools). The guidebook proposed the following four goals for guidance and counselling
services in schools (see Figure 7.1).

Enrichment services for the overall

development of students

Guidance & Counselling Introduce preventive measures

Services in Malaysian
Secondary Schools
Provide remedial services

Provide crisis counselling services

Figure 7.1 Goals of Guidance & Counselling Services in Malaysian Schools

[source: Kementerian Pendidikan Malaysia. 1993. Panduan Perlaksanaan

Perkhidamatan dan Kaunselling di Sekolah-Sekolah Menengah]

Schools were required to make available enrichment services for the overall
development of students. Opportunities and facilities have to be made available in line
with the capabilities and potential of students. Preventive measures have to be introduced,

2
especially with regards discipline problems, inappropriate behaviour, drug abuse and so
forth. Also, efforts should be made to make available remedial services especially with
regards to helping students with academic problems and career choice. It was also
proposed that schools provide crisis counselling for those students needing such services.
In 1996, the Ministry of Education Malaysia issued a circular (KP SB-HEP
8543/60/91) requesting primary and secondary school heads appoint full-time counsellors
in their schools to better plan and coordinate guidance and counselling services in schools
(Suradi & Rafidah, 2005). The goal is to achieve a ration of one counsellor for every 500
students.

SELF-CHECK 7.1
a) Trace the history of guidance and counselling in Malaysian
schools.
b) What other events have influenced the development of
counselling in Malaysian schools?

7.2 WHY ARE SCHOOL COUNSELLING SERVICES IMPORTANT?

The purpose of having guidance and counselling services in schools is to help

students understand themselves and the world around them. It is the process of helping
students maximise their abilities, capabilities and talents (Suradi Salim, 1996). This is
based on the premise that there are individuals in our schools who are unable to realise
their potentials and the responsibility of realising their potentials lies within the
individual themselves. The guidance and counselling services aim to help and not to
direct the individual or make decisions for the individual.
The daily lives of people involve making decisions that affect themselves and
others in society. Individuals who fail to make the right decisions and are unable to adapt
accordingly are more likely to encounter problems. For example, a student who chooses
to spend time playing video-games rather than practice solving assigned mathematics
problems is more likely to find it difficult to cope with the subject. School counselling
services in primary, secondary and tertiary level institutions aim to help individuals make
choices and adapt to the environment. The following are the reasons for having a
comprehensive counselling programme in schools (see Figure 7.2):

3
 Holistic
development

Making decisions
Career choice

Motivating
students

Figure 7.2 Reasons for School Counselling Services

Holistic Development of Students

Most education systems seek to develop students holistically. The Malaysian philosophy
of education attempts to develop a well-balanced individual intellectually, physically,
emotional and spiritually. However, in reality excellence academic performance is given
top priority. Overemphasis on examinations has led to the neglect of other areas of
student performance such as sports, leadership, social skills, music, creative writing,
appreciation of the fine arts, performing arts and so forth. These are areas if properly
developed lead to the development of a well-balanced individual.

Making Decisions
Many facets of a student’s life in school has been predetermined and presented in a
didactic manner. There is little that is left requiring students to make decisions on their
own. Hence, their decision making skills are rarely developed and when faced with issues
relating to behaviour, emotions and thinking, students are ill-equipped to make the right
decision. For example, some students would rather spend at the shopping mall during
schools hours rather than be in school. Counselling programmes in schools can play an
important role helping students make decisions.

Motivating Students
Motivating students to learn and take an interest in school activities is a difficult task. Not
all students are motivated to learn or interested in school activities. The problem of
motivating students becomes even more critical when dealing with academically weak

4
students. It like the chicken and the egg! Which comes first? Low academic performance
 Low motivation  Low academic performance. How do we break the cycle? Perhaps,
this may be the most important task of the counsellor. Enhancing student motivation may
perhaps prevent other types of inappropriate behaviour.

Career Choice
The original focus of most counselling programmes in schools was helping students with
career choice. With the complexity of the workplace, types of jobs and careers has
become more varied. Many of the jobs available today were not even invented a decade
ago. Similarly, students have to be prepared for jobs that have not been invented while
they are in school. Counsellors have to be well-informed as to what is available and what
will be available and to match job types with aptitudes and abilities of students. More
sophisticated career guidance methods have to be developed to make available
information that is useful in helping students make career choices. Students have to
oriented towards believing that there are other equally exciting jobs that being a ‘doctor,
lawyer, engineer or accountant.

7.3 ISSUES IN SCHOOL COUNSELLING PROGRAMMES

As society becomes more complex and complicated, schools have similarly become
more complex with large student numbers. Student population in many secondary
schools may range between 1500 to 2000 students. Imagine the different personalities
and socio-emotional backgrounds of students attending school each day. With these
large student numbers it is unlikely that the individual needs of each and every
student will be attended to. The likelihood of students being alienated and ignored is
very high. What are the issues any school counselling programme is likely to address?

Personal Issues

Educational Issues

Vocational Issues

Figure 7.3 Issues School Counselling Programmes Emphasise

A comprehensive counselling programme in school will provide guidance and

counselling services in three main areas addressing personal issues, educational issues
and vocational issues (see Figure 7.3).

5
  Personal issues include problems and concerns related to personality,
physical and emotional development, interpersonal relationships and related
issues.
 Educational issues focus on learning problems (such as motivation to learn,
unable to cope with studies, unable to read and write adequately), selection of
courses (especially in higher education), time management, adapting to school
(students from different primary school attending joining a secondary school),
language difficulties (difficulties with the English language) and other related
issues.
 Vocational issues focus on career choice, preparation for a particular career,
placement and adaptation with world of work. These services would be most
needed by students who are at the end of their schooling; though choice of a
 career can begin at an earlier stage of a student’s life.

Ibrahim Ahmad (2002) list the following as some of the common negative
behaviours of students in Malaysian schools:
 Not interested in learning
 Playing truant (loitering in shopping complexes, video arcades, internet
cafes, snooker centres)
 Vandalisme
 Stealing school property
 Owning, viewing and distributing pornographic material (pictures and
CDs)
 Rude behaviour
 Smoking
 Drug abuse
 Extortion
 Gangsterism (belonging or claiming to belong to gangs outside school,
using services of gangsters)
 Violation of school rules (such as dress code, length of hair)

LEARNING
LEARNING ACTIVITY
ACTIVITY 7.1 7.1
a)
a) How
How serious
serious are
are the
the cases
cases of
of negative
negative behaviour
behaviour in
in your
your school
school or
or
college?
college?
b)
b) How
How hashas management
management dealtdealt with
with these
these negative
negative behaviours?
behaviours?
Do
Do you think schools are doing enough to reduce the occurrence
you think schools are doing enough to reduce the occurrence of
of such
such
negative
negative behaviour?
behaviour?
7.4 APPROACHES IN SCHOOL COUNSELLING

6
A) COUNSELLING FOR ACADEMIC SUCCESS
One of the major roles of school counsellors is to help student achieve academic success.
There are two major ways that school counsellors can intervene to help students succeed
academically. First, school counsellors can intervene to help students create a school
climate that promotes academic success. Second, direct counselling interventions can be
used with individual students or groups of students for whom academics are a challenge.

(1) Creating a Climate of Learning

Purkey and Schmidt (1996) identified several characteristics of inviting
school environments, but only one was specific to students. They found that
students are more likely to want to perform well academically in a school where
they are recognised for their accomplishments and encouraged to fulfil their
potential. Schools counsellor can be part of developing this climate by conducting
awards programmes and recognising student achievement. This is a popular
practice in many Malaysian schools.
It is easy to encourage and reward students who are motivated to succeed.
But the school experience is not always perceived as positive by all students.
Some students detest the structure and demands of
school curricula and find it difficult to conform to
the school environment and the expectations of
others. School counsellors should focus on students
who struggle academically and who are simply
trying to get through the day at school. Direct
counselling interventions are needed to support
whatever goals are important to the students, and
successes, no matter how small, should be
celebrated. Creating a climate for academic progress
includes engaging students in their own learning.
School counsellors can be instrumental in
identifying the factors that facilitate learning for all
students.

(2) Counselling Interventions

a) Assessing the Present Problem: School counsellor should be aware that issues
that present as academic may, in fact, be symptomatic of other issues. The
purpose of the school counsellor’s initial intervention should be to determine the
source of the academic problem.
 Is the issue solely academic?
 Is the problem more psychological, social or emotional?
 Is the source of the issue outside the school environment?
The answers to these questions will influence how the school counsellor procceds
with intervention.
b) Setting Goals: When students have educational and career goals, they are
more likely to be successful academically (Brown, 1999). Therefore, school
counsellors must focus on helping students establish goals. This is not always

7
 easy, as some students have difficulty determining what they want in life. Goals
may need to be short-term and very concrete, such as, “My goal is to do all my
mathematics homework”. Goals must be concise, precise and most of all,
meaningful. The counsellor could ask. “How would doing all your homework
help you”. The student might respond, “Well, it might be the difference between a
D and an F, and I need a pass in mathematics”. This is a meaningful subgoal.
When setting goals for student academic success, it is critical that
the student is committed to the goals. School counsellors must determine
whose goals are being addressed in counselling sessions. There may be a
tendency to set goals based on teacher or parent opinion rather than
student needs. It is the student’s commitment to the academic goals
established that will ultimately determine the student’s success.

c) Selecting Appropriate Intervention Strategies: When a student struggles

academically, it is important that intervention begins as soon as the difficulty is
identified. If the struggle goes untreated for too long, a student’s self-concept and
social interactions may be

LEARNING
LEARNING ACTIVITY
ACTIVITY 7.2 7.2
B) a) C
a) What
What are
are some
some approaches
approaches inin counselling
counselling for
for academic
academic
success? O
success?
To U
To what
what extent
extent do
do you
you agree
agree with
with the
the proposed
proposed approaches?
approaches?
Do NS
Do you
you think
think schools
schools are
are doing
doing enough
enough to to help
help academically
academically weak
weak
students? E
students?
L
LI
NG FOR CAREER DEVELOPMENT
The school counsellor’s role in the career development of students is one of the
foundations of the school counsellor’ job. Since vocational counselling was the central
focus of counselling services in schools in early school counselling history, it is only
natural that career counselling is still a primary responsibility of school counsellors.
Earlier, career counselling focused solely on helping students discover what jobs or
careers they wished to pursue, and them helping them decide what paths they might take
to achieve those goals. More recently, emphasis is on the student exploring himself and
herself and determining themselves their career path.
Students explore themselves, especially with regards to their likes and interests
and how they are related to different job or careers. Also important is for students to be
aware of what is available in the job market. This is usually done through career talks
from various occupations, taking field trips to a variety of work places. In the primary
schools, counsellors could organise activities which require them to interview people
from various occupations. Often, this creates important dialogue between students and
adults, such as parents, neighbours and community leaders, about the many opportunities
and challenges in the working world. This awareness will help them move through the
phases of career development.

8
 In the secondary school, emphasis should be on how various occupations play a
role in the economy and how work influences the way we live. The organisation of
Career Day or Week is encouraged where students will be able to learn about different
career options. Interactive software programmes, questionnaires and test instruments can
e administered to students in attempting to obtain a profiles of their personalities,
interests, abilities and values. Based on the input received, students will be able to obtain
a profile or information regarding potential occupational matches. Students can explore
specific occupations by accessing information about how much education is needed, the
salary range, and the outlook for job opportunities.
Students typically enjoy this activity because they
are not only learning about themselves, but also
beginning to think about their futures. Student
counsellors an initiate dialogue that helps students
explore the results of the programmes and how well
they believe the results match their self-perceptions.
To help students in preparing for their
careers, they could maintain a portfolio that could
begin the early secondary school. The portfolio is a
collection of activities students have done during
their time in secondary school The portfolio might
contain the following:
1. Listing and description of schools activities
(sports and club actitivies)
2. grades an test scores
3. work and/or volunteer experience
4. courses attended
5. hobbies or interests outside of school

9
 6. projected future plan (i.e. university, college, technical or vocational, work)

The portfolio is to be updated as the student passes through the secondary school. By the
time, the students reaches Form 5, there should be enough information to help the student
either in the college/university application process or the job application process. Much
of the school counsellor’ role in secondary school career development is consultative and
supportive. If a student has a question or concern about careers, the school counsellor can
explore options with the student and help the student to come te o an acceptable
conclusion. What am I going to do after secondary school? This can be an overwhelming
question for some students, and the school counsellor’s role to assist in any way possible
to alleviate the anxiety and worry that often comes with making major life decisions.

LEARNING
LEARNING ACTIVITY
ACTIVITY 7.3 7.3
a)
a) What is the role of the
What is the role of the school
school counsellor
counsellor in
in career
career
development?
development?
b)
b) How
How isis career
career development
development done
done in
in your
your school?
school?
c)
c) How
How do
do you
you think
think career
career development
development inin schools
schools can
can be
be
improved?
improved?

C) COUNSELLING FOR PERSONAL AND SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

In an ideal world, we would be able to protect children from life events that cause
them stress and pain. The reality is that student’s lives are affected by significant events
that are usually expected. School counsellors might identify extreme changes in student
behaviour or attitudes as a result of significant events or change in the student’s life.
Students frequently seek out school counsellors because of upsetting or stressful life
events. School counsellors must help students
address the thoughts, feelings, and behaviours that
result form the stressful events in their lives.
For example, with the increasing number
of divorces, many students will face a changing
family situation. School counsellors may need to
provide services for students facing the problem
of one parent moving out, going to court, living in
two places, parents remarrying or having step-
parents or step-siblings. Most children hope that
their parents might get back together. Emotions
range from depression to anger to confusion
because of the divorce. Sometimes, children feel
responsible and express their emotions through destructive behaviour such as violence or
fighting. Students sometimes believe that if their behaviours are extreme enough, their
parents will focus on them rather than the divorce.

10
 In addition to divorce, there are other significant grief/loss experiences that
children and adolescents may experience. Students may experience death of a relative or
friend, moving to a new school, friends moving away or parental change in or loss of job.
Most students will experience some loss events, and school counsellors should be
prepared to help them work through the related issues. Other personal and social issues
which school may deal with are anger, jealousy, lack of motivation, friendship issues,
gang involvement, relationship issues, self-concept, drug use and abuse, peer pressure to
name a few. One aspect of being an effective counsellor is identifying and understanding
the issues students’ face. The following are general guidelines counsellors may use when
counselling students:
 Listen to the story: Students need to be heard, and maybe they need to
hear themselves. Often, they just need someone who will objectively listen
without interference
 Help students identify their concerns: There may be multiple issues to
be addressed. What seems to be the most pressing? Which is interfering
most with the student’s life?
 Meet the student where the student is. If a student is not ready to talk or
not ready to work on a problem, do not force it. Counselling services are
to be offered, not imposed.
 Help the student set goals: If the student is ready, talk about the goals the
student has for dealing with the problem. What would be different as a
result of these goals? What would the student need to do differently to
reach these goals?
 Consider challenges long the way: Discuss the possible consequences of
the students’ decisions. What if something does not go as planned? Are
there alternatives?
 Be available, and check in with the student: Often, after something is
resolved, the student may not come back to the counsellor. It is important
for the counsellor to find the student and check in to see how things are
going.

It is inaccurate to assume that there is no relationship between a student’s personal

life and academic behaviour. We cannot assume that students leave their problems at the
school door and become completely focussed on the academic tasks at hand. The school
counsellor can be abridge bridge between personal and social concerns and academic
progress. Viewing a student’s personal, social, emotional, or academic development as if
it exists in a vacuum or in isolation is a narrow vision that will ultimately neglect the full
potential of the student.
School counsellors must take a holistic approach. The unique training that school
counsellors receive enables them to discover how each developmental area is intertwined
with the others, understand how each issue interacts or interferes with development in
other areas, and help students problem solve and work through important issues that will
ultimately affect their overall functioning.

11
 LEARNING
LEARNING ACTIVITY
ACTIVITY 7.4 7.4
a)
a) What
What is is the
the role
role ofof the
the school
school counsellor
counsellor in
in counselling
counselling the
the
personal and social problems of
personal and social problems of students?students?
b)
b) What
What are
are the
the common
common personal
personal and
and social
social problems
problems faced
faced
by students in your
by students in your school?school?
Do
Do you
you think
think the
the problems
problems of of students
students are
are addressed
addressed
adequately?
adequately?

7.5 ETHICS, MORALITY AND LAW

It should be noted that counselling involves a person revealing his or her intimate
and private thoughts and feelings to another person or group members. Hence, the issue
of ethics is of utmost importance. On the other hand counselling is not a value-free or
neutral activity but rather is a profession that involves orienting an individual or groups
of individuals towards achievement of something good (Cottone & Tarvydas; Bergin,
1995). In this chapter we will discuss the issues related to the ethics of counselling as
well as some legal aspects of counselling.
Ethics is generally defined as a philosophical discipline that is concerned with
human conduct and moral decision making. Ethics are normative in nature and focus on
principles and standards that govern relationships between individuals, such as those
between counsellor and clients (Gladding, 2000). For any profession, ethics are usually
presented in written form. Most professions have their own code of ethics and the
counselling profession is no exception. For example, it is unethical for a counsellor to
have intimate sexual relations with his or her client. The term is often used rather loosely
to be similar to morality.
Morality, involves judgement or evaluation of action. It is associated with words
such as good, bad, right, wrong, ought and should (Grant, 1992). So, it is morally wrong
to have intimate relations with one’s client. The issue of morality comes from within the
person based on his or her religion and value system. So, morality need not be presented
in written form (except stated in most religious scriptures), but is determined by the
individual himself or herself.
Law is the precise description of governing standards that are established to
ensure legal and moral justice (Gladding, 2000). Law is created by the government and it
does not dictate what is ethical or moral in a given situation but what is legal. Sometimes
what is unethical or morally wrong in a given situation is legal. For example, the
distribution of condoms to drug addicts and HIV positive people is legal but is considered
morally wrong by some people.
In counselling it is common to encounter conflicts between the legal and the
ethical/moral issue. For example, a counsellor who refuses to give confidential
information about a client even thought ordered by the court is ethically right but is

12
legally wrong (if the law provides for it). Another example is the counsellor who
practices counselling techniques not covered by the law but is prohibited by the code of
practice. Here, it may be legal (because there is no provision in the law) but unethical and
morally wrong. The following are some examples of unethical behaviour in counselling:
 Violation of confidentiality
 Claiming expertise one does not have
 Imposing one’s values on a client
 Sexual activity with a client
 Negligent practice
o Using techniques that may harm the client
o Not giving due attention to client’s needs
o Not serious about attending to client’s needs

LEARNING
LEARNING ACTIVITY
ACTIVITY 7.5 7.5
a)
a) What
What isis the
the difference
difference between
between ethics,
ethics, morality
morality and
and law?
law?
b)
b) Give examples of situations in daily life where ‘it is legal
Give examples of situations in daily life where ‘it is legal but
but
ethical’
ethical’

7.6 SOME GENERAL ETHICAL GUIDELINES FOR COUNSELLORS

To address ethical situations, most countries have developed ethical guidelines to

regulate the counselling profession. In most cases, the institution responsible for drawing
up these guidelines is the national counselling association. They are responsible for
drawing up a set of codes and standard of practice that has been agreed upon by all
parties involved in the counselling profession. For example, the British Association for
Counselling (BAC) ensures that counsellors practice their profession according to ethical
standards of practice developed by the association. In the United States, ethical guidelines
have been published by the American Association for Counselling and Development
(AACD). In Malaysia, the Malaysian Counselling Association (Persatuan Kuanseling
Malaysia or PERKAMA) which was founded in 1980 was responsible introduced its own
code of ethics. In 1998, the Counsellors’ Act (580) was introduced which outlines
procedures for the licensing and certification of new counsellors. The Malaysian
Counsellors Advisory Council (or Lembaga Kaunselor) functions as a registrar and an
accreditation body for the licensure and certification (Suradi and Rafidah, 2005).
If one was to examine these different ethical guidelines, there are some general
principles common to the guidelines for the different countries. However, it should be
realised that although these guidelines are undoubtedly helpful, they are open to
interpretation. It is important to note that these ethical codes have been developed not
only to protect clients against abuse or malpractice, but also to protect the counselling
profession. Listed below are some general guidelines governing the practice of
counselling:

13
The Counselling Relationship
 Non-discrimination: Counsellors respect diversity and must not discriminate
against clients because of age, colour, culture, disability, ethnic group, gender,
race, religion, sexual orientation, marital status, or socioeconomic status.
 Disclosure to Clients: Counsellors must adequately inform clients, preferably in
writing, regarding the counselling process and counselling relationship at or
before the time it begins and throughout the relationship.
 Sexual Intimacies With Clients: Counsellors must not engage in any type of
sexual intimacies with clients and must not engage in sexual intimacies with
clients.
 Protecting Clients During Group Counselling: Counsellors must take steps to
protect clients from physical or psychological trauma resulting from interactions
during group work.
 Termination: Counsellors must assist in making appropriate arrangements for the
continuation of treatment of clients, when necessary, following the proper
procedures of termination.

Confidentiality
 Confidentiality Requirement: Counsellors must keep information related to
counselling services confidential unless disclosure is in the best interest of clients,
is required for the welfare of others, or is required by law. When disclosure is
required, only information that is essential is revealed and the client is informed
of such disclosure.
 Confidentiality in Group Work: Counsellors must clearly inform group members
that confidentiality cannot be guaranteed in group work.
 Confidentiality of Records: Counsellors must maintain appropriate confidentiality
in creating, storing, accessing, transferring, and disposing of counselling records.
 Disclosure or Transfer of Records: Counsellors must obtain client consent to
disclose or transfer records to third parties.

Professional Responsibility
 Boundaries of Competence: Counsellors must practice only within the boundaries
of their competence.
 Continuing Education: Counsellors must engage in continuing education to
maintain their professional competence.
 Impairment of Professionals: Counsellors must refrain from offering professional
services when their personal problems or conflicts may cause harm to a client or
others.

Assessment and Interpretation

 Use of Assessment Instruments: Counsellors must perform only testing and
assessment services for which they are competent. Counsellors must not allow the
use of psychological assessment techniques by unqualified persons under their
supervision. Counsellors must use assessment instruments in the manner for
which they were intended.

14
  Assessment Explanations to Clients:
 Counsellors must provide explanations to clients prior to
assessment about the nature and purposes of assessment and the
specific uses of results.
 Counsellor must ensure that accurate and appropriate
interpretations accompany any release of testing and assessment
information.
 Counsellors must not base their assessment or intervention
decisions or recommendations on data or test results that are
obsolete or outdated for the current purpose.

Research and Publication

 Precautions to Avoid Injury in Research: Counsellors must avoid causing
physical, social, or psychological harm or injury to subjects in research.
 Confidentiality of Research Information: Counsellors must keep confidential
information obtained about research participants. Counsellors must not distort or
misrepresent research data, nor fabricate or intentionally bias research results.

Resolving Ethical Issues

 Ethical Behaviour Expected: Counsellors must take appropriate action when they
possess reasonable doubts of other counsellors not acting in an ethical manner.
 Cooperation With Ethics Committees: Counsellors must cooperate with
investigations, proceedings, and requirements of the ethics committees of the
association in their country or boards having jurisdiction over those charged with
a violation.

[source: adaptation of the ACA Code of Ethics and Standards of Practice. 2005
http://www.counseling.org/Files/FD.ashx?guid=cf94c260-c96a-4c63-9f52-309547d60d0]

LEARNING
LEARNING ACTIVITY
ACTIVITY 7.7 7.7
aa .Do
.Do you think the list of
you think the list of ethical
ethical guidelines
guidelines for
for the
the counselling
counselling
profession
profession are
are adequate?
adequate?
b.
b. What
What other
other guidelines
guidelines would
would you
you suggest?
suggest?

7.7 MORAL PRINCIPLES

The ethical guidelines discussed earlier are based on five moral principles,
namely; autonomy, justice, beneficence, nonmaleficence, and fidelity. (Kitchener 1984).
Though you may not have come across some of these words, they are useful for a
counsellor to apply these five moral principles when addressing issues that are not clear
cut (see Figure 7.2)

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 AUTONOMY NONMALEFICENCE

MORAL PRINCIPLES

BENEFICENCE JUSTICE FIDELITY

Figure 7.2 Five Moral Principles by Kitchner (1984)

1. AUTONOMY is the principle that addresses the concept of independence. The

essence of this principle is allowing an individual the freedom of choice and action. It
addresses the responsibility of the counselor to encourage clients, when appropriate,
to make their own decisions and to act on their own values. There are two important
considerations in encouraging clients to be autonomous.
 First, helping the client to understand how their decisions and their values
may or may not be received within the context of the society in which they
live, and how they may impinge on the rights of others.
 The second consideration is related to the client's ability to make sound and
rational decisions. Persons not capable of making competent choices (such as
children, and some individuals with mental handicaps), should not be allowed
to act on decisions that could harm themselves or others.

2. NONMALEFICENCE is the concept of not causing harm to others. Often explained

as "above all do no harm", this principle is considered by some to be the most critical
of all the principles (Rosenbaum, 1982). This principle reflects both the idea of not
inflicting intentional harm, and not engaging in actions that risk harming others

3. BENEFICENCE reflects the counselor's responsibility to contribute to the welfare

of the client. Simply stated it means to do good, to be proactive and also to prevent
harm when possible (Forester-Miller & Rubenstein, 1992).

4. JUSTICE does not mean treating all individuals the same. Kitchener (1984) points
out that the formal meaning of justice is "treating equals equally and unequals
unequally but in proportion to their relevant differences" (p.49). If an individual is to
be treated differently, the counselor needs to be able to offer a rationale that explains
the necessity and appropriateness of treating this individual differently.

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5. FIDELITY involves the notions of loyalty, faithfulness, and honoring commitments.
Clients must be able to trust the counselor and have faith in the counselling
relationship if growth is to occur.

When exploring an ethical dilemma, you need to examine the situation and see how each
of the above principles may relate to that particular case. At times this alone will clarify
the issues enough that the means for resolving the dilemma will become obvious to you.
In more complicated cases it is helpful to be able to work through the steps of an ethical
decision making model, and to assess which of these moral principles may be in conflict.

SELF-CHECK 7.2
a) What do you understand by autonomy, nonmaleficence,
beneficence, justice and fidelity?
7.8
b) How ETHICAL DECISION
are these principle MAKING
useful in deciding about making an
ethical decision in counselling?

Introduction
At some point in the practice of counselling, the counsellor will be faced with the
situation where he or she will have to apply the code of ethics of the profession. There are
not ready-made answers and professional organisations may not be much of a help.
Professional organisations only provide broad guidelines for responsible practice and not
solutions for specific cases. So, the counsellor will be left with the task of making a
decision involving some ethical issue. Determining the appropriate course to take when
faced with a difficult ethical dilemma can be a challenge. In the United States, the
American Counselling Association (ACA) in meeting this challenge has developed A
Practitioner's Guide to Ethical Decision Making. The intent of this document is to offer
professional counsellors a framework for sound ethical decision making. The guiding
principles proposed are useful to any counsellor (even in Malaysia) involved in ethical
decision making, a model that professionals can utilise as they address ethical questions
in their work.

Ethical Decision Making Model

The model proposed incorporate the works of Van Hoose and Paradise (1979), Kitchener
(1984), Stadler (1986), Haas and Malouf (1989), Forester-Miller and Rubenstein (1992),
and Sileo and Kopala (1993) into a practical, sequential, seven step, ethical decision
making model.

.
Case:
A student who has been in counselling for about a semester is arrested for
stealing a motorbike. The juvenile court has requested that the counsellor
appear in court to tell the court about the student. Are you obliged to tell
the court what your client has confided in you? What can you tell or cannot
tell the court? This may be an ethical dilemma.

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1. Identify the Problem
Gather as much information as you can that will illuminate the situation. In doing so, it is
important to be as specific and objective as possible. Writing ideas on paper may help
gain clarity. Outline the facts, separating out assumptions, hypotheses, or suspicions.
There are several questions the counsellor can ask himself or herself: Is it an ethical,
legal, professional, or clinical problem? Is it a combination of more than one of these? If
it is a legal question, seek legal advice. Evaluate the rights, responsibilities and welfare of
all those involved in the situation.

2. Look up the Code of Ethics

After you have clarified the problem, refer to the Code of
Ethics to see if the issue is addressed there. Is there an
applicable standard that you can use that will lead to a
resolution of the problem? If the problem is more complex
and a resolution does not seem apparent, then you probably
have a true ethical dilemma and need to proceed with further
steps in the ethical decision making process.

3. Determine the Nature and Dimensions of the Dilemma

There are several avenues to follow in order to ensure that you have examined the
problem in all its various dimensions. Consider the moral principles of autonomy,
nonmaleficence, beneficence, justice, and fidelity [which we have discussed earlier].
Decide which principles apply to the specific situation, and determine which principle
takes priority for you in this case. In theory, each principle is of equal value, which means
that it is your challenge to determine the priorities when two or more of them are in
conflict.
 Review the relevant professional literature to ensure that you are using the most
current professional thinking in reaching a decision.
 Consult with experienced professional colleagues. As they review with you the
information you have gathered, they may see other issues that are relevant or
provide a perspective you have not considered. They may also be able to identify
aspects of the dilemma that you are not viewing objectively.
 Consult your national professional association (e.g. PERKAMA) to see if they
can provide help with the dilemma.

4. Generate potential courses of action

Brainstorm as many possible courses of action as possible. Be creative and consider all
options. If possible, enlist the assistance of at least one colleague to help you generate
options.

5. Consider the potential consequences of all options and determine a course of action
Considering the information you have gathered and the priorities you have set, evaluate
each option and assess the potential consequences for all the parties involved. Ponder the
implications of each course of action for the client, for others who will be affected, and

18
for yourself as a counsellor. Eliminate the options that clearly do not give the desired
results or cause even more problematic consequences. Review the remaining options to
determine which option or combination of options best fits the situation and addresses the
priorities you have identified.

6. Evaluate the Selected Course of Action

Review the selected course of action to see if it presents any new ethical considerations.
Stadler (1986) suggests applying three simple tests to the selected course of action to
ensure that it is appropriate.
 In applying the test of justice, assess your own sense of fairness by determining
whether you would treat others the same in this situation.
 For the test of publicity, ask yourself whether you would want your behaviour
reported in the press.
 The test of universality asks you to assess whether you could recommend the
same course of action to another counsellor in the same situation.
If you can answer in the affirmative to each of the questions suggested by Stadler (thus
passing the tests of justice, publicity, and universality) and you
are satisfied that you have selected an appropriate course of
action, then you are ready to move on to implementation.

7. Implement the Course of Action

Taking the appropriate action in an ethical dilemma is often
difficult. The final step involves strengthening your ego to allow
you to carry out your plan. After implementing your course of
action, it is good practice to follow up on the situation to assess
whether your actions had the anticipated effect and
consequences.
It is important to realise that different professionals may
implement different courses of action in the same situation. There is rarely one right
answer to a complex ethical dilemma. However, if you follow a systematic model, you
can be assured that you will be able to give a professional explanation for the course of
action you chose. Van Hoose and Paradise (1979) suggest that a counselor "is probably
acting in an ethically responsible way concerning a client if
(1) he or she has maintained personal and professional honesty, coupled with
(2) the best interests of the client,
(3) without malice or personal gain, and
(4) can justify his or her actions as the best judgment of what should be done
based upon the current state of the profession" (p.58). Following this model will help to
ensure that all four of these conditions have been met.

7.9 DIMENSIONS OF CONFIDENTIALITY

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 Confidentiality is central to the counselling process. No counselling session can
take place unless clients trust in the privacy of the relationship with the counsellor.
Counsellors have an ethical responsibility to discuss the nature and purpose of
confidentiality with their clients early in the counselling process. Clients have a right to
know that their counsellor may be discussing certain details of the relationship with
school authorities or colleagues.
Although most counsellors agree on the essential value of confidentiality, they
realise that it cannot be considered an absolute. There are times when confidential
information must be divulged, and there are many instances in which whether to keep or
to break confidentiality becomes a cloudy issue. In general, confidentiality must be broke
when it becomes clear that clients might do serious harm to either themselves or others
(Corey, 2005). For example, there is legal requirement to break confidentiality in cases
involving child abuse. The counsellor after hearing a student tells about the fact she is
being sexually abused in the home, may have to break confidentiality to protect the client
from further harm. The following are circumstances in which counsellors may break
confidentiality:
 When the counsellor believes that a client (a student) is the victim of incest,
rape, child abuse or some other crime
 When the counsellor determines that the client needs hospitalisation
 When the information is made an issue in a court action
 When clients request that their records be realised to themselves or a third party.

In general, however, it is a counsellor’s primary obligation to protect client information

as a vital part of the counselling relationship. When assuring clients that what they reveal
in sessions will generally be kept confidential, counsellors should also tell them of any
limitations on confidentiality. This practice does not necessarily inhibit successful
counselling.

SUMMARY

 Schools were required to make available enrichment services for the overall
development of students.
 Opportunities and facilities have to be made available in line with the
capabilities and potential of students.
 Preventive measures have to be introduced, especially with regards discipline
problems, inappropriate behaviour, drug abuse and so forth.
 Remedial services, with regards to helping students with academic problems
and career choice should be made available.
 The purpose of having guidance and counselling services in schools is to help
students understand themselves and the world around them.
 One of the major roles of school counsellors is to help student achieve
academic success.
 School counsellors can intervene to help students create a school climate that
promotes academic success.

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9.4

a) What is
the role of
 Direct counselling interventions can be used with individual students or
groups of students for whom academics are a challenge.
 Ethics are normative in nature and focus on principles and standards that
govern relationships between individuals.
 Morality, involves judgement or evaluation of action. It is associated with
words such as good, bad, right, wrong, ought and should.
 Law is the precise description of governing standards that are established to
ensure legal and moral justice.
 Most countries have developed ethical guidelines to regulate the counselling
profession.
 At some point in the practice of counselling, the counsellor will be faced with
the situation where he or she will have to apply the code of ethics of the
profession.
 Ethical Decision Making Model: It offers professional counsellors a
framework for sound ethical decision making.
 Confidentiality is central to the counselling process.

KEY TERMS
School counselling Vocational issues
Academic success Educational issues
Preventive measures Interventions for academic success
Remedial services Climate for learning
Holistic development Counselling for personal development
Decision making Counselling for career development
Ethics selling Code of ethics for counsellors
Morality Moral principles
Law / Legal Ethical decision making
Autonomy Dimension of confidentiality
Nonmaleficence Justice
Fidelity PERKAMA

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