TEACHeXCELS Required Readings

TEACHeXCELS
Teaching and Learning Excellence in

School Leadership for Southeast Asia
Required Readings
Table of Contents
Reading 1. Teaching and Learning Philosophy and Strategies 1

UC Regents
Reading 2. Facilitating Learning: Issues on Learner-Centred 7

Teaching
D. Pan
Reading 3. Matching Teaching Style to Learning Style May Not 31

Help Students
David Glenn
Reading 4. Examples of Activities that Promote Higher 39

Order Thinking
Dr. Bob Kizlik
Reading 5. Develop Critical and Creative Thinking Skills: Put 49

on Six Thinking Hats ®
Franny F. McAleer
Reading 6. Understanding By Design 61

Worldwide Schools
Teaching and Learning Philosophy
and Strategies
By UC Regents (2000)
ChemConnections.Org. Retrieved from
http://chemconnections.org/modules/tandl_philosophy.html
TEACHeXCELS Required Readings 1

Teaching and Learning Philosophy and Strategies
1. The nature of the learning process
Students gain knowledge and understanding in a social setting. They interact

with peers and instructors through a process of negotiation. They interact with
the broader intellectual community through thoughtful reading of texts and
journals. Each student starts from an initial base of knowledge and experience.
All students work from this point to build a more meaningful understanding
of the subject matter and to enhance their ability to ask questions and find
answers. They must learn how to deal with new situations with tough problems
and unknown answers.
2. The steps students must take in the learning process
o Articulate initial knowledge
o Add to what is already known to refine and enrich it with the student's
own efforts
o Articulate and correct misconceptions
o Make connections between concepts
o Understand the viewpoints of others
o Realize the limitations of their own ideas
o Create and test new ideas
o Be concerned with mental processes as well as the "answer"
o Reflect on the way their conceptions are changing
o Ask questions (what if..?)
o Develop the ability to be imaginative and creative

3. The ideal learning environment
o Initial activities are accessible to everyone and come from common

experiences
o The environment is both accepting and critical
o Students are made to feel free to propose their own ideas without premature
judgment
o Students learn to support their ideas while interacting with peers and
instructors
o Conversations take place in which all students feel they can contribute
o Ideas are illustrated and student interest engaged through demonstrations

and experiments
o An environment is created that fosters self motivation among the students
o A variety of types of learning activities are used to meet the wide range of
student needs
o Students must develop a sense of accomplishment and satisfaction
4. Responsibilities of teachers
o Help students learn the language of the discipline
o Explain goals and methods
o Validate knowledge brought by each student
o Create interest and generate curiosity
o Encourage students to work hard
o Communicate standards of judgment
o Help students learn how to use language precisely
o Wean students from dependence on instructors
o Act as a resource without directly answering every question
4 TEACHeXCELS Required Readings

o Provide time to puzzle, wonder, and struggle
o Don't judge prematurely
o Provide fair criticism
o Encourage collaboration
o Be an active listener and learner
o Encourage students to work in new situations
o Question students so they realize the process of seeking explanations is

critically important
5. Responsibilities of students
o Make use of initial knowledge
o Think freely
o Engage in an active social process of testing and clarifying their

understanding
o Develop the ability to work effectively and intensely
o Avoid premature judgment of themselves or others
o Ask questions
o Carefully consider the ideas of others
o Learn to think independently and take responsibility for their own actions
o Value others as useful colleagues
o Evaluate their own progress in an objective manner
Source:
UC Regents (2000). Teaching and Learning Philosophy and Strategies.

ChemConnections.Org. Retrieved from http://chemconnections.org/
modules/tandl_philosophy.html

Facilitating Learning:
Issues on Learner-Centred Teaching
By D. Pan (2008)
Center for Development for Teaching and Learning,
National University of Singapore, Singapore. Retrieved from
http://www.cdtl.nus.edu.sg/Handbook/learn/issues.htm

Facilitating Learning: Issues on Learner-Centred Teaching
By D. Pan
1. Enhancing study skills
For students to engage productively in their own learning, they need to be

competent learners with the requisite skills (e.g., skills in thinking, reading,
writing, presentation, note-taking, writing examinations and time management).
Some students, however, need more help than others. So you may wish to
take time and ensure that your students have the skills necessary for effective
learning.
2. Improving instructional design
Design instruction to facilitate learning.
• Capture and sustain attention.
Make use of such stimulus tools such as intensity, contrast, change and
repetition.
• Enhance reception.
Recognise factors affecting reception of information such as students’

interest level, physical comfort, fatigue and anxiety.
• Introduce diversity.
Develop a wider repertoire of teaching approaches and styles, both to

create interest through variety as well as cater to different learning tasks.
For instance, project work and case studies demand higher input from
students.
• Organise information.
A structured presentation provides a conceptual framework that enhances

reception and enables students to fit in their knowledge and ideas. These
principles suggested by Gestalt psychologists may be worth keeping in
mind:

o continuity (stimuli that have continuity will stand out from the
background and be organised together);
o proximity (stimuli that are close together will tend to be grouped

together);
o similarity (similar things tend to be grouped together);
o contrast (stimuli that are different from their surroundings are

organised together and are seen as the figure);
o ‘chunking’ (grouping information makes them more manageable);
o ‘closure’ (perception is conditioned by prior experience).
3. Stimulating critical and independent thinking
It is crucial that students learn to think for themselves.
• Guard against spoon-feeding.
Students must be encouraged and trained to fend for themselves. Instead

of providing them with copious notes, teach library skills and guide them
with a reference list to obtain information for themselves. Handouts have
their uses, but ensure that they are used judiciously and not to perpetuate
spoon-feeding. Consequently, summaries/outlines, diagrams, problems,
questions and reading lists, are pedagogically more defensible than a copy
of the full text of the lecture.
• Do not condone low-level responses.
Make clear to students that they cannot get by with regurgitating factual
information (e.g., by setting challenging tasks; by announcing that an
assignment that merely catalogues facts will get a low grade).

• Demand demonstration of deep understanding.
Use teaching activities that require students to engage in deep-level

processing of what is learnt.
o Raise pertinent questions and present problems rather than provide

all the answers.
o Set assignments that demand investigation, correlation and

application rather than a ‘repackaging’ of lecture notes and
recommended readings.
• Prioritise understanding.
o Spend time helping students to grasp fundamental principles and

concepts.
o Keep the factual load that has to be memorised to a minimum. This

will, of course, vary among disciplines.
o Get students habituated to seeking/giving explanations for answers

that are given by others or made by themselves; this will discourage
‘stock’/rote-learnt answers.
• De-emphasise didactic teaching.
Allocate more time to interactive group work and self-directed learning.
• Review assessment procedures.
Ensure that procedures are consistent with encouraging deep processing

and understanding:
o While multiple-choice questions are effective in checking knowledge

of facts, they are less effective than essay-type questions in testing
for critical thinking and understanding.
o Excessive weightage given to summative assessment may discourage

risk-taking and independent thinking.

4. Promoting active learning
Much significant learning is acquired through doing.
Research suggests that where students are passive observers or receivers, they
may lose as much as 50% of substantive content within a few months. Conversely,
long-term mastery is more likely when learning is active and meaningful.
Active learning implies the involvement of the student in the learning process,
as opposed to the monologic mode.
• Encourage more active and interactive learning.
Students need to participate, not merely receive; they need to understand,

organise and encode information into their long-term memory. They must
learn to relate it to their own experience and knowledge and be able to
use it logically and creatively. Small-group work and project work are
particularly conducive to such activities.
• Practise effective questioning skills.
Properly applied, this can provoke thinking and expression, encourage

discussion and debate, prompt further and more probing investigation of
the subject as well as provide opportunities for students to ask questions to
clarify their understanding.
o Stop for questions or comments when the need arises. Many

teachers tend to wait till the last ten minutes but this is unlikely to
be productive; there is perhaps no greater technique for stifling an
intellectual exchange than to wait until the end of a fifty-minute
period before asking: “Are there any questions?” Also, by then
students are anxious to dash off to their next class.
o Once in a while, pose questions: e.g. “What do you perceive as

the most significant thing/major points made in the last twenty
minutes?”, “What is the question/thought uppermost in your mind
now?”, “What is your view (about some controversial issue)?”, and
ask students to write down their responses. Have some of them
read out their responses in class and collect the rest at the end of the
session. This trains students to listen and process information and
organise their thoughts instead of blindly transcribing the lecture.

• Asking Questions
Why ask questions?
Questions may be used for various instructional purposes, e.g.
o to motivate students,
o to establish focus,
o to check on comprehension,
o to stimulate participation,
o to direct or redirect the discussion.
Skill in asking questions depends on an awareness of the purpose and

direction of the question and, correspondingly, the ability to use a variety
of questions to suit different purposes and to make different demands. It
is clearly useful to have a repertoire of different types of question so that
better decisions may be made about which questioning strategies to adopt
in order to facilitate teaching and learning.

How to Ask Questions
• Plan questions that are purposefully focused rather than general and
vague.
• Phrase the questions clearly.
• Ask one question at a time rather than a cluster of questions which may
leave students uncertain which to respond to.
• Pitch questions according to students’ capability but introduce some

variation in the degree of complexity. Questions that are too simple may be
insulting to students and will not be taken seriously. Questions that are too
difficult might discourage effort, though this might be overcome by asking
students to discuss the questions with others.
• Observe ‘wait time’ after posing a question to allow students to think and
respond.
• Establish the expectation that responses are expected of questions asked.

• If there are no responses, rather than giving the answers immediately, try
the following:
o rephrasing the question
o asking students what/which part of the question they have difficulty

with
o asking a simpler but related question.
• Acknowledge/follow up on students’ responses (e.g. incorporate students’

ideas into your response to the answer).
• Encourage other students in the group to respond to an answer by:
o Inviting comments and elaborations
o Remaining silent and conveying the impression of expecting

responses
o If no comments are offered, paraphrase the initial response to re-

state, remind and perhaps clarify and again invite comments.
• Vary questioning techniques according to students’ abilities (e.g. for

students with lower ability, provide a longer wait-time, more cues and
encouragement).
• Guard against letting a few students monopolise the answering or asking

of questions.
• Questions such as ‘Do you understand?’ or ‘Do you have any questions?’
are not very useful. Instead, ask questions which check for and require
demonstration of understanding.

What are the Main Types of Questions?
Questions need to be framed with a view to their purpose.
Type Purpose/s and Examples

• For restatement or emphasis.
Rhetorical
e.g., “The point about ... seems fairly clear, doesn’t it?”
• To deal with ‘housekeeping’ matters; to manage class
process.
Managerial e.g., “Can each of you make copies of your tutorial
assignment for distribution to the rest of the group?”
“Can we move on now to look at the second text?”
• To test for specific knowledge of facts and to focus
attention. These questions tend to be convergent
thinking and cognitive-memory operations.
e.g., “What are important factors to consider in writing
Closed
advertising copy?”
• A closed question can be recognised easily because it
usually starts with words of phrases like: Do, Is, Can,
Could, Will, Would, Shall, Should.
• To encourage divergent and evaluative thinking
operations (e.g., critical/lateral thinking, evaluation,
alternative viewpoints, discussion, interaction).
e.g., “How important is Eliot’s influence on modern
Open
poetry?”
• Open questions are designed to give information. They
tend to start with words such as: How, Why, When,
Where, What, Who, Which.
Looking more closely at the last two categories—the closed and open questions—a
taxonomy may be offered.

Taxonomy of Questions
Factual recall questions
• Such questions require recall of specific information and may be used to

test mastery of basic information. They are also useful as ice-breakers, their
relative simplicity serving to encourage response.
• At the simplest level, this kind of questions is often associated with such
words as define, memorise, repeat, record, list, recall, name, relate.
e.g., “What is nominalisation?”
• At a less simple level, they involve facts organised into some logical
relationship. They are often associated with words such as restate, discuss,
describe, recognise, explain, express, identify, locate, report, review, tell.
e.g., “In what contexts would you use nominalisation?”
• Questions of ‘who’, ‘what’, ‘when’, ‘where’ tend to ask for retrieval of

information; ‘why’ and ‘how’ questions generally test for higher level skills
but may also be found in closed and convergent questions.
Centring questions
• These help to focus attention and thinking on a particular topic or aspect of

a topic. Carefully chosen, they may also serve to arouse students’ curiosity
and interest and motivate them to engage in discussion or thoughtful
exploration.
e.g., “What is your stand on euthanasia?”
Probing questions
These may be a series of questions which require going beyond the first response.
• Clarifying
e.g., “Could you please elaborate on that point?”

“Could you be more precise about what you mean?”

• Increasing critical awareness
e.g., “What are you assuming?”

“What are your reasons for thinking that it is so?”
“Is that all there is to it?”
“How might someone in the opposite camp respond to your view?”
“What is the question being addressed here?”
What are the essential features and conditions of the ERP?

Given this situation, what do you think will happen as a result of its
introduction?
What facts and generalisation support your prediction?
What other things might happen as a result of this situation?
If the predicted situation occurs, what will happen next?
Based on the information and predictions before us, what are the
probable consequences you now see?
What will lead us from the current situation to the one you
predicted?
• Generating ideas
e.g., “With the standard of English sliding, what can we do about improving
it? Let’s brainstorm for a bit to see what ideas we can generate within
the next few minutes.”
• Refocusing
e.g., “How does this relate to what you (someone else) said earlier?”
“If this is so, what are the implications?”
“Can we examine the argument more closely?”
• Prompting
e.g., T: “What implications are there in the introduction of electronic road

pricing?”
S: “No idea.”
T: “What about considering first the functions of the ERP?”

• Redirecting
e.g., T: “What is A Passage to India about?”

S: “It’s about the relationship between the Indians and English.”
T: “Li Leng, to what extent do you agree with that?”
Divergent questions
• Such questions encourage plurality of thinking and exploration of a number

of alternatives, and they require both concrete and abstract thinking to
arrive at complex responses.
e.g., “What do you think might be the consequences of the publication of

the ranking of schools?”
“In what ways would history have been different if Singapore had not
separated from Malaysia?”
• Affective questions (questions which invite expression of attitudes, values,

feelings of individuals) tend to invite divergent responses.
e.g., “How do you feel about legislating organ donation?”
Analytical/evaluative questions
• These questions require working out of an answer rather than merely

recalling it. They require generalisation related to facts in meaningful
patterns.
• They include questions which involve higher-order skills of application,

analysis, synthesis, problem solving and evaluation.
o Application
This requires the use of a concept or principle in a context different

from that in which it was learnt. It is often associated with words
such as translate, interpret, apply, demonstrate, illustrate, employ.
e.g., “Can you think of an example to fit this definition?”

“How can group dynamics be exploited in the tutorial
situation?”

o Analysis
This requires the determining of whether ideas/objects are similar,

dissimilar, unrelated or contradictory. It is often associated with
words such as distinguish, analyse, differentiate, appraise, calculate,
experiment, test, compare, contrast, criticise, inspect, debate,
question, relate, solve, examine.
e.g., “How does the use of the narrator in Heart of Darkness

compare with that in The Good Soldier?”
“How sound is the proposal to implement national service for
women?”
o Synthesis
This requires putting ideas together in a new way to formulate

hypotheses, plan courses of action, design experiments and so on. It
encourages engagement in imaginative and original thinking, and
may require inductive or deductive reasoning. It is often associated
with words such as compose, plan, propose, design, formulate,
arrange, assemble, construct, create, design, set up, organise.
e.g., “Having considered what these novels have in common, what

might be a possible definition of the modern novel? Why?”
o Problem-solving
This requires the use of previously learned knowledge to solve

a problem. It involves the ability to see relationships between
knowledge and the problem, to diagnose materials, situations,
environments, to separate the problem into component parts, and
to relate parts to one another and to the whole.
e.g., “You have been asked to design an informative advertisement

promoting the services of the Hotel du Lac. In the light of your
insights from the analysis of the sets of advertisements in the
previous assignment, think carefully of the potential clientele
you want to attract, their specific forms of appreciation and their
notions of literacy, which express class-related meanings.”

o Evaluation
This requires judgment, value or choice based upon comparing

ideas or objects to established standards. It is often associated with
words such as judge, appraise, evaluate, rate, compare, value,
revise, score, select, choose, assess, estimate, measure.
e.g., “Given the facts of the case, how would you advise your
client?”
When to Use Questions
• Questions are useful and usable in both large-group and small-group

teaching.
Though it is obviously easier to use them in the latter, it might be argued

that there is perhaps greater need for them in the more formal lecture
situation where:
o questions are helpful in breaking possible monotony, and in

monitoring the ‘pulse’ of the class (whether students are following
and understanding what is being said);
o students are less likely to take the initiative in raising questions.
• Different types of questions have their respective and appropriate uses.
o At the start of a class, a specific, closed question may be less daunting

and thus may encourage responses from students.
o To encourage the shy or less able students, a simple factual recall

question may be more effective. The satisfaction derived from giving
a correct answer can provide positive reinforcement and encourage
them to offer subsequent responses.
o Where the intention is to ascertain mastery of a certain body of

information, closed questions would obviously be appropriate.
o Before starting a topic, open questions can provide indications of

students’ pre-knowledge and views.
o To help decide on approaches, areas to investigate, activities to

explore, open questions are more likely to yield useful responses.

o Open questions can be used to stimulate divergent thinking and
generate a variety of responses. Challenge students to consider
other options or formulate alternative hypotheses.
o Towards the end of a class, open questions might be useful for

directing students to think further on the subject.
How Not to Ask
• Questioning strategies may be varied to suit the circumstance. Generally,

the ask-pause-call approach is more likely to keep everyone attentive, since
anyone may be called upon to respond. If there is a predictable pattern (e.g.
calling only on those in front or back row or starting at one end of the class
and working systematically and predictably through the group), attention
of those not in immediate ‘danger’ of being called upon may stray.
• However, there are occasions when it may be desirable to identify the

intended respondent first, e.g. to give some forewarning so that there is a
higher degree of concentration and perhaps a more considered response.
Also, for shy students, this may allow for some mental preparation and
make it less painful for them to respond.
• Be aware of how questions are asked. It should convey an interest in

finding out about what the learners know and encourage learners to think
further of what they should know. If it is perceived as an inquisition, it will
intimidate and deter risk-taking responses.
What Not to Ask
Clearly, questions vary considerably in range and purpose. Properly applied, they
can provoke thinking, encourage discussion and debate, prompt further probing
and investigation of the subject as well as provide opportunities for students to
ask questions to clarify their understanding. On the other hand, vague, dead-end,
strongly directive questions will stifle intellectual development and do little to
help students cultivate self-confidence.

Questions to avoid include the following:
• The ‘yes-no’ question
e.g. “Does everyone understand what shifts the demand curve and the
supply curve up or down?”
• A better alternative might be: “Let’s review the salient factors that cause
demand and supply curves to shift. What are these?”
• The ‘run-on’ question
e.g. “Do you think Jim is a romantic? What do you understand by the term
‘romantic’? Remember what Stein said about Jim being a romantic and how
that is both good and bad? Why do you think he said that? And what about
Marlowe’s point of view?”
• By the time the questioner pauses for breath at the end of the series of
questions, students would probably have lost track of the original question
and be at a loss as to which question to address.
• The ‘woolly’ question
e.g. “What about the imperialist theme?”

“Well, what about it?”
• The ‘guess-what’s-in-my-mind’/‘programmed response” question
e.g. “How would you go about encouraging participation in tutorials? Do

you think that creating a conducive atmosphere might help? Might the way
questions are asked help? What about the use of buzz-group activities?”
• The question steers the respondent towards an answer that the questioner
wants and hampers independent thinking and the articulation of individual
views.
• The ‘put-down’ question
e.g. “We’ve gone through the first sonnet. Any reasonably intelligent person
should be able to read the rest on his/her own. You shouldn’t have any
difficulty, should you?”

• Predictably, such questions do not encourage any further questions or
responses.
• The personal question
e.g. “I hear you’re getting married soon. How about telling us about it?”
• The line between interest in a student and ‘nosiness’ is somewhat thin and
teachers should guard against the possibility of embarrassing students
through asking questions of a personal nature, especially where there is an
audience. Also, questioning strategies may differ.
What is Your Questioning Behaviour?
• Do you prepare questions in advance?

Forethought ensures that the right questions are used for the intended
ends.
• Do you observe questioning behaviour and class interaction?

Video a class. If the purpose of this is explained to students, and if it is done
periodically and established as a routine, students are more likely to accept
what is admittedly a ‘distraction factor’ in the classroom. You could also
wish to ask a colleague to observe one of your classes and provide you with
feedback.
• How often do you ask complex questions?

Do you frequently ask questions that require students to go beyond what
they already know, and to evaluate and apply this information?
• Do you practise ‘inquiry’ rather than ‘inquisition’?

Inquiry is something teachers and students may do together. Inquisition is
something teachers do to students.
• Do you ask too many questions?

As in many things, quality rather than quantity is preferred. Open questions,
which stimulate more complex responses and invoke higher-order skills,
used with appropriate pauses, are likely to generate longer and more in-
depth student responses.

• Do most of the questions occur at the beginning of a class?
Classes quite often start with questions but unless sustained, the dialogic
mode can very easily lapse into the monologic.
• Are most of the questions answered by the same few people?

There will always be some students who are more vocal than others, and
care should be taken to prevent them from dominating the discussion to
the exclusion of the others in the group. Some strategies include:
o spelling out the ground rules at the outset, for example:
n every person in the group must have had a chance at answering a

question before anyone gets a second opportunity to respond;
n the person sitting next to the person who asked a question responds
to it;
o specifically inviting the less vocal students to respond.
• Do you create a conducive classroom atmosphere?

Non-threatening, trust-building conditions are necessary if students are to
respond to questions, especially the more open type which involves greater
risk-taking on the part of the students. Where students feel threatened or
embarrassed about real or perceived inadequacies, they are not likely to
contribute freely.
• Do you demonstrate respect for your student?
• Do you play down the authoritarian role for yourself?
• Do you treat all students fairly and impartially? Sometimes with a vocal
student in the class, there is a tendency for the discussion to become a
dialogue between this student and the teacher. This is discouraging to
the other students and may even be perceived as favouritism.
• Is the seating arrangement one that encourages group interaction,

e.g., can group members see each other?
• Do you show, by example, that it is acceptable to offer answers other

than ‘cast-iron safe’ responses, and to confess to ignorance?

• What are your personal philosophy of education and your perception of
your role as an educator?
Is it to transmit information? Or is it to teach students to think, investigate
and learn, and ultimately to do these for themselves and by themselves?
Reminders
The amount a teacher says is not necessarily directly proportional to the amount
of learning effected. Students need time to formulate and articulate an answer. It
is important, therefore, to make a conscious effort to provide ‘wait time’, not only
after asking a question but also after an answer has been volunteered, as there may
be more to come.
Teacher asks question

P A U S E (30 seconds)
Response from student
P A U S E (30 seconds)
Response from teacher
Hold it!
Don’t be the first to answer every question, especially those asked by yourself.
Refrain from commenting after a response if there are others answering. Let them
have their say first.
Encourage responses
Invite, verbally or non-verbally (e.g., eye contact), the others in the group to react
to a question or a response made by one of them.
Acknowledge students’ answers
Reassure and encourage students by nodding, praising a good answer, building on

an answer, by referring where relevant in the subsequent discussion to a point or
points made in an answer.

Deal with incorrect or partially incorrect answers constructively
Criticism is discouraging but obviously an incorrect answer cannot be accepted.

The ‘yes...but’ reaction may be used to some extent, especially with partially correct
answers, but some restraint must be exercised in its use, or it may lead students
to think that their answers are inadequate and invariably need to be rectified,
qualified or definitively endorsed by the teacher.
Some possible reactions may be to:
• wait for a few seconds; the student may wish to qualify or modify the
answer, or another student might;
• ask another student to comment on the response given and perhaps provide
peer correction in the process;
• acknowledge the acceptable part of the response—if the answer is

partially incorrect—while prompting the student to rethink or modify the
unacceptable part of the response;
• ask student to explain how the answer was arrived at (if this response is
not only given to unacceptable answers students will not perceive this as a
negative response).
Guard against unwittingly putting down a student
In the unequal teacher-student relationship, students may be more than usually

sensitive to criticism. What is perceived as a put-down may put him/her off trying
again and risking further humiliation.
Restate complex or inaudible questions
Alternatively, ask another member of the group to do so. This not only clarifies but
also turns an individual’s question into ‘group property’.

Deflect
Put a question back to the person who asked it by a counter or prompting question,
e.g., “What do you think?” or “What do you mean by...?” Or turn the question over
to another student: “..., how would you answer that question?”
“I don’t know”
For many of us, however, this is perhaps one of the most difficult responses,
especially when we really do not know. There are certain psychological and
sociological factors—perhaps more so with the Asian inclination to ‘save face’
which contributes to our reluctance to confess to inadequate knowledge. Despite the
difficulty, it is arguably better to admit that you do not know the answer. Students
respect honesty and complaints are unlikely if you indicate your willingness to
find the answer and get it back to them at the next meeting. You could also call
on the help of another member of the group, or the group as a whole might try to
work out the answer.
But even when we do know, feigning ignorance may sometimes be a good move as
it may serve to encourage students to be more involved in and to take responsibility
for their own learning.
To act the fool is sometimes the greatest wisdom.

—Cato
Don’t answer
This is offered NOT as an endorsement of deviousness, evasiveness and

irresponsibility, but as a reminder that answering questions is not always a sacred
obligation and that, in some instances, more may be achieved by not answering
questions, thereby redirecting the questioner to attempt finding the answer for
himself or herself.

5. Encouraging reflective learning
What characterises ‘high grade’ learners is the capacity for thoughtful and
critical reflexivity. Reflective learning goes beyond active and experiential
learning to explore what has been experienced in order to extend understanding
and effect self-transformation. Reflective learning is not only cognitive, but also
metacognitive—addressing not only what and how to, but why and what if
—and it is essential for real mastery and independent, lifelong learning. Some
ways to help students become reflective learners are suggested below:
• Train them to think critically.

Clarify the criteria for performance and help students to cultivate a habit of
mind which:
o tries to make sense of the learning experience (e.g., validity/usefulness

of claims, questions asked/unasked, completeness of data/records);
o questions the assumptions upon which knowledge is predicated;

challenges established definitions;
o makes informed and discriminate choices, thus continuously re-

assessing and adapting their learning; and
o relates validated new learning to his/her existent conceptual framework

and behaviour, with the consequent projections of how the integrated
learning may be applied to future actions.
• Develop their confidence in self-evaluation.

o Value their ideas/views.
o Give practice in making independent judgements.
o Help them describe as objectively as possible their perceptions and

views, avoiding interpretations and judgemental pronouncements.
• Allocate time for reflection.

Ensure that time/opportunity for reflection is factored into any planning
of learning activities (e.g. set aside time for briefing/debriefing, provide
opportunities for clarification, ask students to keep a journal recording
the processes and outcomes of their learning) to habituate students into
associating learning with reflection on learning.

• Train students in the requisite skills.
If students are to become sophisticated learners, they must have the essential
basic skills (e.g., thinking, study, research, writing, presentation, and time
and stress management skills).
• Energise the learning process.

Stimulate thinking and engagement with what is being learnt (e.g.,
ask questions, brainstorm, suggest buzz-group and syndicate-group
activities).
• Listen attentively.
Initially it may be difficult to persuade students that it is more productive
for them to talk through and formulate their ideas rather than be fed with
ready-made ones. But persistence in this is essential if autonomous learning
is the goal.
• Help students recognise barriers to learning.

Lack of self-confidence, for instance, may require efforts at validating the
worth of the individual and/or group. It is important to give positive
reinforcements and be sensitive to non-verbal signs betraying negative
emotions.
• Offer strategies for productive reflection.

Use supportive questioning; introduce learning techniques (e.g., learning
conversations, concept maps, free association methods or repertory grids
to clarify learner’s constructs).
Some possible problems of learner-centred teaching
• It involves much more time and thought.
• It may not be able to cover as much ground (but the printed page and
computers can effectively deliver a good deal of information, with the
advantage of individual pacing).
• Not being the controlling figure may be potentially threatening for the
teacher.
• There may be resistance from students and possibly other sources.

Being prepared for such and other possible problems may forestall discouragement.
The shift from teacher-centred to learner-centred teaching is not an easy one, but
it seems quite clearly a movement in the right direction towards excellence in
teaching.
Source:
Pan, D. (2008). Facilitating Learning: Issues on Learner-Centred Teaching. 5th ed.

Center for Development for Teaching and Learning, National University of
Singapore, Singapore. (Used with permission.) Retrieved from http://www.
cdtl.nus.edu.sg/Handbook/learn/issues.htm

Matching Teaching Style to Learning Style
May Not Help Students
By David Glenn (2009)

The Chronicle of Higher Education. Retrieved from
http://chronicle.com/article/Matching-Teaching-Style-to/49497

Matching Teaching Style to Learning Style
May Not Help Students
By David Glenn
Our brains may not be wired to learn best in a particular style, as many educators
now believe, a new paper argues.
If you've ever sat through a teaching seminar, you've probably heard a lecture
about "learning styles." Perhaps you were told that some students are visual
learners, some are auditory learners, and others are kinesthetic learners. Or maybe
you were given one of the dozens of other learning-style taxonomies that scholars
and consultants have developed.
Almost certainly, you were told that your instruction should match your students'
styles. For example, kinesthetic learners—students who learn best through hands-
on activities—are said to do better in classes that feature plenty of experiments,
while verbal learners are said to do worse.
Now four psychologists argue that you were told wrong. There is no strong scientific
evidence to support the "matching" idea, they contend Psychological Science in the
Public Interest. And there is absolutely no reason for professors to adopt it in the
classroom.
"We were startled to find that there is so much research published on learning styles,
but that so little of the research used experimental designs that had the potential
to provide decisive evidence," says Harold E. Pashler, a professor of psychology at
the University of California at San Diego and the paper's lead author.
"Lots of people are selling tests and programs for customizing education that
completely lack the kind of experimental evidence that you would expect for a
drug," Mr. Pashler says. "Now maybe the FDA model isn't always appropriate for
education—but that's a conversation we need to have."
Advocates of learning styles respond that Mr. Pashler is the one who lacks evidence.
Robert J. Sternberg, dean of arts and sciences at Tufts University and a psychologist
who has done a lot of work on learning styles, says in an e-mail message to The
Chronicle that the researchers did not fully survey the scholarly literature, and
thus "come across looking either biased about or largely ignorant of the field."

Related Content
Mr. Pashler's study does not dispute the existence of learning styles. But it asserts
that no one has ever proved that any particular style of instruction simultaneously
helps students who have one learning style while also harming students who have
a different learning style.
Of the hundreds of research papers that have been published on learning styles, Mr.
Pashler says, almost none have randomly assigned students into one classroom type
or another. Only that kind of experiment, he says, can suggest anything definitive
about causation. And the few studies that have used an adequate research design,
he adds, have mostly failed to support the hypothesis that teaching styles should
match students' learning styles.
More Alike Than Different
Consider an experiment about teaching the structure of complex molecules. The

matching hypothesis might predict that kinesthetic learners would absorb the
concept best by building ball-and-stick models in the lab, while verbal learners
would do better by reading a few pages about the logic of molecular design.
That sounds intuitive. But according to Mr. Pashler and his co-authors, almost
every well-designed study of that type has discovered that one instructional style
actually works best for both groups.
What happens, Mr. Pashler says, is something like this: Experimenters randomly
assign students to a classroom that uses laboratory lessons or to a classroom that
uses texts. At the end of the week, students are tested on their knowledge of
molecular structures.
Among the students who are taught in a hands-on laboratory setting, it turns out
that the kinesthetic learners enjoy their lessons much more than their verbal peers
do. They also perform better on the test at the end of the week. Let's say that the
kinesthetic students average a 95 on the test, while the verbal students' average is
80.
That might seem like strong evidence for the learning-styles hypothesis. Not so
fast, Mr. Pashler says.

Look at the second classroom, where students learn about molecules by reading
texts. Here, the verbal students enjoy the lessons much more than their kinesthetic
peers do. But on the test, both the verbal and kinesthetic students average around
70. The verbal students are actually better off learning this concept in a laboratory,
even though they enjoy it less.
In almost every actual well-designed study, Mr. Pashler and his colleagues write
in their paper, "Learning Styles: Concepts and Evidence," the pattern is similar: For
a given lesson, one instructional technique turns out to be optimal for all groups
of students, even though students with certain learning styles may not love that
technique.
Matching Style With Content
What this means for instructors, Mr. Pashler says, is that they should not waste
any time or energy trying to determine the composition of learning styles in their
classrooms. (Are 50 percent of my students visual learners? Are 20 percent of them
kinesthetic learners?)
Instead, teachers should worry about matching their instruction to the content they
are teaching. Some concepts are best taught through hands-on work, some are best
taught through lectures, and some are best taught through group discussions.
If the matching hypothesis is not well supported, then why do so many learning-
styles studies show positive effects? Hundreds of studies that do not meet Mr.
Pashler's stringent criteria for experimental design suggest—at least loosely—that
students do better when instructors are trained in learning-styles theory.
One possibility is that the mere act of learning about learning styles prompts teachers
to pay more attention to the kinds of instruction they are delivering. An instructor
who attends a learning-styles seminar might start to offer a broader mixture of
lectures, discussions, and laboratory work—and that variety of instruction might
turn out to be better for all students, irrespective of any "matching."
"Even though the learning-style idea might not work," says Richard E. Mayer, a
professor of psychology at the University of California at Santa Barbara, "it might
encourage teachers to think about how their students learn and what would be the
best instructional methods for a particular lesson."

In other words, learning-styles seminars might be effective, but not for the reasons
that their designers believe.
Mr. Mayer helped lead a study six years ago that failed to find any relationship
between instructional styles and the performance of "verbalizer" and "visualizer"
students. He believes that Mr. Pashler and his colleagues have done strong work
in debunking the matching hypothesis.
Bibliography Is Faulted
But not everyone is impressed by the new paper. Mr. Sternberg of Tufts (and a
former longtime professor of psychology at Yale University), says in his e-mail
message that while he holds Mr. Pashler and his colleagues in high esteem, he
believes they did a poor job here.
Several of the most-cited researchers on learning styles, Mr. Sternberg points out,
do not appear in the paper's bibliography. "The authors draw negative conclusions
about a field they fail adequately to review," Mr. Sternberg says.
Mr. Sternberg and several colleagues have worked intensively on models of learning
styles for more than a decade. In 1999, he and three co-authors published a paper
in the European Journal of Psychological Assessment that found that students who
were strongly oriented toward "analytical," "creative," or "practical" intelligence
did better if they were taught by instructors who matched their strength. (In their
paper, Mr. Pashler and his colleagues cite Mr. Sternberg's 1999 study as the only
well-designed experiment to have found such a pattern—though they add that
the study "has peculiar features that make us view it as providing only tenuous
evidence.")
Susan M. Rundle, a learning-styles consultant who is working with instructors at

Alabama A&M University, also says that the research base is much stronger than
Mr. Pashler and his colleagues believe. And she adds that the paper's focus on the
"matching hypothesis" is somewhat beside the point.
"In my work in higher education, I've found that it's difficult to get professors
to match their instruction to their students," says Ms. Rundle, who is president
of Performance Concepts International, which promotes a learning-styles model

developed by Kenneth J. Dunn, a professor of education at City University of New
York's Queens College, and the late Rita Dunn, who taught for many years at St.
John's University, in Queens.
"What we do try to get professors to do," Ms. Rundle says, "and where we've been
successful, is to become aware of their own learning style and how that affects the
way they teach. What are some things that they can do in the classroom other than
just lecturing?"
The Trouble With Tracking
The grandfather of this territory is David A. Kolb, a professor of organizational

behavior at Case Western Reserve University, who began to study learning styles
in the late 1960s. In an interview, Mr. Kolb agrees with Mr. Sternberg that Mr.
Pashler's review of the literature seems too thin.
But Mr. Kolb also says that the paper's bottom line is probably correct: There is
no strong evidence that teachers should tailor their instruction to their students'
particular learning styles. (Mr. Kolb has argued for many years that college students
are better off if they choose a major that fits their learning style. But his advice
to teachers is that they should lead their classes through a full "learning cycle,"
without regard to their students' particular styles.)
"Matching is not a particularly good idea," Mr. Kolb says. "The paper correctly
mentions the practical and ethical problems of sorting people into groups and
labelling them. Tracking in education has a bad history."
Mr. Pashler, for his part, says that he and his colleagues are still open to the idea
that some kinds of matching are actually effective. "Most of what we're pointing to
in this paper is an absence of evidence," he says. "Here's what you have to show—
and they aren't showing it. But there may yet be better studies in the future."
Mr. Pashler's co-authors are Mark McDaniel, a professor of psychology at

Washington University in St. Louis; Doug Rohrer, an associate professor of
psychology at the University of South Florida; and Robert A. Bjork, a professor of
psychology at the University of California at Los Angeles.

Source:
Glenn, David (2009). Matching Teaching Style to Learning Style May Not Help
Students. The Chronicle of Higher Education. Retrieved from http://chronicle.
com/article/Matching-Teaching-Style-to/49497/ (Used with permission.)

Examples of Activities that
Promote Higher Order Thinking
By Dr. Bob Kizlik (2009)

Retrieved from http://www.adprima.com/examples.htm.

Examples of Activities that Promote Higher Order Thinking
By Dr. Bob Kizlik
Examples of Activities: English Language Arts
Apply a Rule. In response to the question, "Is cttn an English word?" the student
would reply, "No, because it has no vowels. All English words must have at least
one vowel."
Classify. The student could be asked to classify the words of given sentences into
categories of parts of speech. He could be asked to literary forms according to style
(novel, drama, poetry, etc.).
Compose. The student could be asked to compose a limerick.
Construct. From the description provided in the text, the student could be asked
to construct a model of the frontier settlement described in Singing Wheels, fourth
level reader.
Define. The student could be given a number of words and be asked to figure out
ways that similar words could be grouped. His response might include statements
such as, "The words that tell about color could be put into one group. Those that tell
about the feelings of people could be put into another group. Those that don't ell
about anything could be put in another group. NOTE: Defining is not memorizing
and writing definitions written by someone else - it is creating definitions.
Demonstrate. The student could be asked to demonstrate with a percussion

instrument, the rhythm (meter) of a poem by Edgar Allen Poe.
Describe. The student could be asked to describe the procedures of a formal

debate.
Diagram. The student could be asked to diagram the stage settings for Man and
Superman by G.B. Shaw.
Distinguish. Given a list of pairs of nouns and pronouns, the student could be
asked to distinguish between the two.

Estimate. The student could be asked to estimate, within twenty-five pages, the
page number where any given word would be found in a 475 page dictionary.
Identify. The student could be asked to identify all the consonants in the alphabet.
He could be asked to identify a sonnet from among several examples of poetry.
Interpret. The student could be asked to interpret any passage of literature that is
given to him.
Locate. The student could be asked to locate, in time, the English Romantic
Period.
Name. The student could be asked to name the parts of speech. He could be asked
to name five authors of the Early American Period. He could be asked to name
three literary works of Americans who are also Black.
Order. Given a series of scrambled paragraphs, the student could be asked to order
them to conform with short essay style.
State a Rule. The student could be asked to state a rule covering the use of "ei", "ie"
combinations in the spelling of words.
Translate. Given a passage from a Shakespeare play, the student could be asked to
translate it into modern American English.
Examples of Activities: Science
Apply a Rule: The student could be asked to explain why a shotgun "kicks" when
fired. His response would include a statement to the effect that for every action
there is an equal and opposite reaction (Newton's Law of Motion), and that the
"kick" of the shotgun is equal to the force propelling the shot toward its target. The
faster the shot travels and the greater the weight of the shot, the greater the "kick"
of the gun.
Classify: Given several examples of each, the student could be asked to classify
materials according to their physical properties as gas, liquid, or solid.

Construct: The student could be asked to construct a model of a carbon atom.
Define: Given several types of plant leaves, the student could be asked to define at
least three categories for classifying them. NOTE: Defining is not memorizing and
writing definitions created by someone else -- it is creating definitions.
Demonstrate: Given a model of the earth, sun, and moon so devised that it may be
manipulated to show the orbits of the earth and moon, the student could be asked
to demonstrate the cause of various phases of the moon as viewed from earth.
Describe: The student could be asked to describe the conditions essential for a
balanced aquarium that includes four goldfish.
Diagram: The student could be asked to diagram the life cycle of a grasshopper.
Distinguish: Given a list of paired element names, the student could be asked to
distinguish between the metallic and non-metallic element in each pair.
Estimate: The student could be asked to estimate the amount of heat given off by
one liter of air compressed to one-half its original volume.
Evaluate: Given several types of materials, the student could be asked to evaluate
them to determine which is the best conductor of electricity.
Identify: Given several types of materials, the student could be asked to identify
those which would be attracted to a magnet.
Interpret: The student could be asked to interpret a weather map taken from a
newspaper.
Locate: The student could be asked to locate the position of chlorine on the periodic
table. NOTE: To locate is to describe location. It is not identification of location.
Measure: Given a container graduated in cubic centimeters, the student could be

asked to measure a specific amount of liquid.
Name: The student could be asked to name the parts of an electromagnet.

Order: The student could be asked to order a number of animal life forms according
to their normal length of life.
Predict: From a description of the climate and soils of an area, the student could be
asked to predict the plant ecology of the area.
Solve: The student could be asked to solve the following: How many grams of
H2O will be formed by the complete combustion of one liter of hydrogen at 70
degrees C?
State a Rule: The student could be asked to state a rule that tell what form the
offspring of mammals will be, i.e. they will be very similar to their parent
organisms.
Translate: The student could be asked to translate 93,000,000 into standard scientific
notation.
Examples of Activities: Mathematics
Apply a Rule: Given a pair of equations such as 2 + 4 + 7 = 13, and 7 + 2 + 4 = ___,

the student could be asked to apply a rule that would give him the solution to
the second equation of the pair without adding the factors. His response should
include a statement to the effect that the same numbers are to be added in each
equation, but in different order (analysis) and that the order of addition makes no
difference in the solution of the equations. Therefore, the sum of both equations is
the same.
Classify: Given a series of numbers drawn at random from 1 - 1000, the student
could be asked to classify them into categories of even divisibility by 2, 3, 4, and
so on.
Construct: Given a straight edge, compass, and paper, the student could be asked
to construct an equilateral triangle.
Define: Given an assortment of various kinds of coins, the student could be asked
to define some categories into which the coins could be classified. His response
would include definitions such as, "All of the pennies, all of the nickels, all of the
dimes, etc., could be put in separate piles. Or all the coins containing silver could
be put in one pile and those that don't into another pile."

Demonstrate: Given a sufficient number of concrete objects and an equation such
as 3 x 4 = 12, the student could be asked to use the objects to demonstrate that
multiplication is repeated addition. His response would include placement of
twelve objects in three groups of four each, or four groups of three each. He may
also be asked to describe how the demonstrations show repeated addition.
Describe: The student could be asked to describe a method of determining a number

of groups of five objects in a collection of 45 objects. The response would include a
statement that groups of five members would be counted out and then the number
of groups could be counted. The student may also be asked to demonstrate the
process he described.
Diagram: The student could be asked to graph the equation y = 2x2 - x + 3.
Distinguish: Given pairs of numbers, one number of each pair a prime number,
the student could be asked to identify the prime number in each pair.
Estimate: Given multiplication examples with three-digit numerals in both the

multiplier and multiplicand, the student estimates the products to the nearest
thousand.
Identify: The student could be asked to point to the numeral ninety-four on a

numeration chart.
Interpret: Given a bar graph showing the per unit cost of food products when
purchased in various size packages, the student interprets it by stating the lowest
and highest per unit cost and by describing the relationship between increased
package size and per unit cost of the product.
Locate: The student could be asked to locate a particular desk in his classroom by
stating the row it is in and the ordinal position from the front of the room. "John's
desk is the fourth one from the front, in the second row, from the east wall."
Name: What is the name of this collection of objects? Answer: "A set." What is the
name of this type of equation? Answer: "A quadratic equation."
Order: Given a number of objects of different lengths, the student orders them
from lesser to greater length.

Predict: The student could be asked to predict the next term in an increasing
arithmetic series such as 2, 5, 9, 14 ____.
Solve: The student could be asked to solve the following: 2 + 3 = ____. In this
example, the type of operation is clearly indicated. Or, he could be asked to solve
the following: "Jimmy, John, Bill, and Sam each had three marbles. John gave Bill
two of his marbles. How many marbles did Jimmy and Sam have together then?"
In this example, the operation to be performed is not specified, and extraneous
factors are introduced.
State a Rule: In response to the question: "Why is the sum of two numbers no
different if the order of adding them is reversed?" The student answers: "Because
of the commutative principle," or "Because the order makes no difference in
addition."
Examples of Activities: Social Studies
Apply a Rule: Given population data that illustrates the principle that the standard
of living decreases if population increases without corresponding increase in
production, the student could be asked to analyze the data to tell and tell how he
is able to determine what effects changing population will have upon the standard
of living.
Classify: Given photographs of various people and definitions of racial classes,

the student could be asked to classify the photographs according to the races of the
people portrayed.
Construct: Given appropriate materials, the student could be asked to construct a

model of a city water system.
Define: Given a filmed or taped situation in which several forms of communication

are portrayed, the student could be asked to define several categories of
communication. His response could include definitions for verbal, non-verbal,
pictorial, visual, auditory, or any of several other classes or categories of
communication.
Demonstrate: The student could be asked to demonstrate the use of calipers to

determine the measurements for obtaining cephalic indices. Or he could be asked
to demonstrate use of a compass to determine direction.

Describe: The student could be asked to describe the culture of a particular Indian
tribe. Diagram: The student could be asked to diagram the steps involved in the
passage of a bill though the legislature.
Distinguish: Given the names of ancient Greek and Roman gods paired according
to function, the student could be asked to distinguish between them.
Estimate: Given the day of the year and the latitude, the student could be asked to
estimate the length of daylight at a particular place.
Identify: Given the name of one of the U.S. presidents, and photographs of several,
the student could be asked to identify the picture of the one which was named.
Interpret: Given a bar graph that shows production of steel in the U.S. during the
last fifty years, the student could be asked to interpret the graph. His response could
include references to times of production increases or decreases, total amount of
decreases or increases, and differences in production between the years.
Locate: The student could be asked to locate, in time, the first battle of the American
Revolution.
Measure: Given a string and a globe with a scale of miles, the student could be
asked to measure the scaled distance between any two given points.
Name: The student could be asked to name the factors that contribute to natural
population increases.
Order: Given the names of the declared wars in which the U.S. has engaged, the
student could be asked to order them according to the time of occurrence.
Predict: The student could be asked to predict the type of economy that could be
supported in described geographic regions.
Solve: Given tables of prices and costs, the student could be asked to solve problems
related to the law of diminishing returns.
State a Rule: In response to the question: "What controlled the inheritance of

family property in the European Middle Ages?" the student would respond with a
statement that indicated that property was inherited by the eldest son.

Source:
Kizlik, Bob (2009). Examples of Activities that Promote Higher Order Thinking. Retrieved
from http://www.adprima.com/examples.htm. Used with permission from
Dr. R.J. Kizlik – ADPRIMA.COM)

Develop Critical and Creative Thinking Skills:
Put on Six Thinking Hats ®
By Franny F. McAleer (2006)

Pennsylvania Educational Leadership. Retrieved from
http://www.learnerslink.com/journal_article.htm

Develop Critical and Creative Thinking Skills:
Put on Six Thinking Hats®
By Franny F. McAleer
“PUT ON YOUR THINKING HAT!” conveys the idea that thinking improves
when a THINKING HAT is worn. While Dr. Benjamin Bloom’s Taxonomy has
been the mainstay in higher level thinking, Dr. Edward deBono reinvented the
traditional cap in Six Thinking Hats®. He combines the hat metaphor with six
colors to create a powerful thinking strategy. Psychology Today commented on Six
Hats® claiming, “We owe DeBono a debt for constantly reminding us that thinking
is a skill and can be improved.” When we put on our thinking hats, we have not
one, but six.
Thinking is the foundation for listening, speaking, reading and writing. Teachers
have developed classrooms that are alive with critical and creative thinking
depicted by the image of Six Hats®.
SIX THINKING HATS®
Six Thinking Hats® is an internationally recognized tool to teach thinking in all

content areas. SIX HATS® enables us to SEE OUR THINKING, focus, change, and
improve it. Each colored hat represents a different mode of thinking. When teachers
and administrators analyze questioning strategies in the classroom, many recognize
that few require wait time. Six Hats® questions demand wait time and present
opportunities for wonder and thought. A community of dynamic, sophisticated
thinkers emerges as the HATS integrate content, transforming classrooms as they
did in this school.
“The teachers and students were captivated and involved

with the Six Hats®. The students were eager and focused,
something the students and teachers will remember and
use throughout their educational years.”
Teresa Davis, Coordinator of Gifted Services, Peoria Unified

School District, Phoenix, AZ

The impact of Six Hats® and stories from teachers and educational leaders who
use them will be the focus of this journal article.
THE THINKING BEHIND THE SIX HATS® WITH CONNECTIONS TO

BLOOM’S TAXONOMY
The Six Hats® are described in this section and provide a basis for learning and
applying them to your curriculum. As you read the descriptors, think of questions
and student tasks connecting your content with the HATS processes. To add
depth the HATS are applied on four dimensions, the (1) text (2) student’s life (3)
community and (4) world.
The WHITE HAT®

FACTS, INFORMATION, DATA, RESEARCH NEEDED.
(Bloom’s KNOWLEDGE)
What are the facts about … What do you need or want to know
about …
The RED HAT®

FEELINGS, HUNCHES, EMOTIONS, INTUITION. (Bloom’s
EVALUATION)
What are your feelings about ___? What prejudices exist? What
is your gut feeling about... What does your intuition tell you?
The BLACK HAT ®

CAUTION, RISKS, JUDGMENT. (Bloom’s ANALYSIS and
EVALUATION)
What should you be cautious of … What are the consequences
of… What words of wisdom might come from this? What were
the difficulties of... What did you dislike about... What are the
risks of …
The YELLOW HAT®

BENEFITS, GOOD, VALUE, STRENGTHS. (Bloom’s
ANALYSIS and EVALUATION)
What are the benefits of … What is good about … What is the
value of... What did you like about…

The GREEN HAT®
CREATIVITY, NEW IDEAS, BRAINSTORMING,
PREDICTING. (Bloom’s SYNTHESIS)
What if ...? Can you create other ways? How would you solve
the problem? What other possibilities are there for ... ?
The BLUE HAT®

THINKING ABOUT THINKING, METACOGNITION,
SUMMARIZING.
(Bloom’s COMPREHENSION AND APPLICATION)
Explain how you got your answer. Tell the order of events in your reading.
Paraphrase. Conclusions. Summarize. What is the big idea, main idea? You will be
learning ____________ .
SIX HATS® - BENEFITS, CAUTIONS
Benefits--
1. The colors and hats provide a visual image that is easy to learn, remember
and use.
2. Thinking is visible, focused, in depth, and at higher levels of critical and

creative thinking.
3. The strategy is can be used on a simple, concrete level or abstract,

sophisticated level.
4. Listening, speaking, reading and writing improve with a strategy for

focus.
5. Interdisciplinary connections integrate the curriculum.
6. Problem solving, decision making, leadership and independence are

developed.
7. Students ask quality questions.
8. Student led discussions and projects are focused and in depth.

9. Self-evaluation is systematic.
10. Students develop confidence.
11. Cooperative groups and teamwork are effective and organized.
Caution --
The Six Hats® is one approach to teaching thinking, and teachers should be
cautious of excluding others.
READING AND METACOGNITION
A reader's awareness of the thought processes used in reading is metacognition.

The blue hat ensures that the reader is making sense of the text. In his keynote to
the Western Pennsylvania Association for Curriculum and Supervision in April,
2000, Dr. Roger C. Farr, Senior Author of Harcourt Language emphasized the
importance of metacognition in improving reading comprehension. He challenged
teachers to ask students to read a paragraph or two, cover the text, and paraphrase.
This blue hat task is simple and produces results.
LITERACY AND SIX HATS®
The process of becoming literate reflects both family and school values. It is rooted
in schema theory. Children use what they already know to give meaning to new
experiences by activating prior knowledge and making connections to construct
meaning. Once a schema for questioning or thinking is learned, readers are able
to elaborate on the material read. This process engages the reader in a cognitive
activity involving critical and creative thinking, judgment, evaluation, prediction,
metacognition, ….
Six Hats® provides a literacy tool that helps everyone become independent,
lifelong learners. In all stages of literacy development children use Six Hats®
when comprehending and composing. The Commission on Adolescent Literacy,
1999, emphasized the differences between the needs of beginning and adolescent
readers. It presented the importance of thinking in adolescent literacy. Adolescents

require advanced literacy levels and need to learn to use higher level thinking.
They need to learn strategies to help them question themselves about what they
read. Explicit instruction moves the reader from literal understandings to higher
order thinking that promotes reading comprehension.
READING COMPREHENSION
The Six Hats® improves reading comprehension and provides readers with a tool
to interact with the author, to have promote a conversation between the reader and
the author. Cognitive and metacognitive strategies promote the conversation, so
the reader can question the author.
Nolte and Singer’s “phase-in, phase-out” strategy shifts the responsibility for
asking questions from the teacher to the students. Teachers show students how
to generate questions for a story (Vacca, 290). Six Hats® supports this shift of
questioning responsibility.
Increased comprehension and responsiveness is reported by two teachers.
PENNSYLVANIA ACADEMIC STANDARD TYPES OF WRITING
The Pennsylvania Academic writing standards and Six Hats® were the motivation
for a research project conducted by Jacque Goodburn, a seventh grade English
teacher in Burgettstown Area School District in Pennsylvania. She enjoyed using
the Six Hats® but wanted to determine the effect on the writing achievement
of her students. Her research project included three heterogeneous classes, 60
students, 10 of whom are learning support. The control group was comprised
of three heterogeneous classes,
10
63 students, 10 of whom are
9
learning support. The prompts
8
were PSSA writing assessment
7
released prompts, informational,
6
narrative, and persuasive.
5
Microsoft Word Tools was used
4
to determine the writing quality
3
using an objective tool – Flesch-
2 6 HATS
Kincaid Readability. Although NON 6 HATS
1
0
1 2 3

readability formulas cannot capture all aspects of quality writing, they can be
used to evaluate the length of sentences and the number of syllables in the words
used. This data in combination with teacher observation has given us an objective
baseline for the research.
For the informational and the narrative prompts, the students using the Six Hats®
were writing an average of a half-year ahead of the control group students. For the
persuasive prompt the students using the Six Hats® were writing almost a year
ahead of the control group. Jacque concluded that the benefits are:
Benefits for the teacher
1. Writing process discussions and workshops are consistent.

2. Grading is objective.
3. Students organize their ideas and see what they are thinking before
writing.
4. Students see what is missing and correct their omissions independently.
5. The teacher is an effective facilitator.
Benefits to students
1. Students understand what is a well-developed piece.

2. Students revise drafts with less teacher intervention.
3. Students prewrite and see where detail is needed.
4. Students value this life long learning and communication tool.
Benefits to both
1. The writing process is focused.

2. It is specific and less confrontational.
3. Constructive criticism focuses on the Hats rather than addressing the
writer.

EDUCATIONAL LEADERS AND SIX HATS®
Educational leaders find the Six Hats® valuable in two ways: (1) a meeting
facilitation tool and (2) a teacher observation strategy.
As a meeting facilitation tool, the mental wearing and switching hats teams
can separate thinking into six modes for analyzing matters objectively and
comprehensively. When teams separate emotion from fact, the benefits from the
possible problems, the critical from creative thinking, the results include shorter
meetings, thorough assessment of alternatives before making decisions, better
communication and easier problem resolution. Hidden agendas are uncovered,
and objectives are achieved without fragmented thinking and argument. All sides
of an issue are addressed. The team works together to think clearly, objectively,
systematically and creatively!
As a teacher observation strategy, educational leaders SEE the questions and

student responses and is able to assess the depth and diversity of them. The
importance of questioning and discussion is supported by its inclusion in Charlotte
Danielson’s four domains of professional practice. As the instructional process is
observed, an administrator is able to effectively analyze the thinking into the six
categories. Conferences between the teacher and observer are clear, objective, and
systematic with the focus on developing in depth critical and creative thinking.
The administrator shows which thinking processes the teacher used during the
lesson and offers constructive suggestions and a plan for increasing use of those
not in the lesson.
One administrator elaborated on this by creating a system to use the Six Hats® as
an observation strategy and a peer coaching tool. The teachers learned and used
the Hats in their classrooms. The principal developed a question/response chart to
determine the diversity of the discussion questions. She set up a peer observation
schedule so that the teachers could observe each other teaching. Initially the
teachers found that the vast majority of their questions were White Hat. With this
knowledge teachers modified their questions.

In Burgettstown Area School District, Deborah Jackson, adds the following benefits
from the point of view of the superintendent of schools. The Six Hats®:
1. Empower teachers to utilize best practices in their classrooms

2. Encourage teachers to utilize proven instructional methods that are research-
based
3. Encourage teachers to “take a risk” to learn something new and apply it to
their teaching
4. Encourage imagination and the power of what ifs….
Many administrators agree with the prevalence of White Hat, knowledge level
questions. However, this changes and diverse, critical and creative questions
flourish when applying Six Hats®. When we see our thinking, administrators and
teachers become more effective teaching and working together.
“While leading a class discussion, I could tell the direction

the class was headed by listening to their responses. A few
key HATS questions could switch the students’ thoughts in
a different direction. The Six Hats® has been a valuable tool
during my student teaching experience. My cooperating
teacher commented on how my questioning skills have
improved.”
Andrea Mamrose, Indiana University of Pennsylvania,

Presentation of “A Quick Look at the Six Hats®”, First Annual
Scholars Conference, 2006
MULTICULTURAL DIVERSITY HATS TRAINING CREATES

A SAFER SCHOOL
As a conflict resolution tool, Six Hats® has been helping to create a safer school
climate in Berwick High School. A multicultural diversity group uses Six Hats®
as their leadership and problem solving tool in handling conflict and change.
Scenarios related to diversity challenge the students and the Hats. Role playing
with problems being analyzed and resolved connects problem solving to their
lives.

The Six Hats® helps multiculturally diverse students SEE how they react in difficult
situations. The concreteness of the Hats helps them identify their reactions to
situations, analyze them, and create real life change, the primary goal of a diversity
groups. Conflict resolution and a more positive school climate result from student
problem solving with Six Hats®.
TEACH, LEARN, LEAD
In summary, Six Hats® is a tool that promotes quality thinking and communication
for students, teachers, and educational leaders. As the HATS activate the brain with
color, they create a delightful and meaningful experience for those who teach, learn
and lead using them. Testimonials from around the globe applaud the Six Hats®
for their power to focus thinking and communication, provide a self-monitoring
strategy, enhance reading comprehension, offer a process for problem solving and
decision making, and foster independence, leadership, and teamwork.
References
1. Adolescent Literacy, a Position Statement for the Commission on Adolescent

Literacy of the International Reading Association, International Reading
Association, Newark, DE. 1999.
2. DeBono, Edward. Six Thinking Hats®. First Back Bay: MICA Management
Resources, 1999.
3. Farr, Roger C. (Senior Author, Harcourt Language, Harcourt Inc.) ”Keynote

to Western Pennsylvania Association for Curriculum and Supervision”,
April, 2000.
4. DeBono, Edward. Serious Creativity. Des Moines, Iowa: Advanced Practical

Thinking Training, 1992, p. 31
5. Vacca, Jo Anne, Richard T. Vacca, Mary K. Gove, Linda C. Burkey, Lisa A.

Lenhart, and Christine A. McKeon. Reading and Learning to Read, Sixth
Edition, Boston: Pearson, 2006.
Source:
McAleer, F. F. (2006). Develop Critical and Creative Thinking Skills: Put on Six
Thinking Hats®. Pennsylvania Educational Leadership. Retrieved from http://
www.learnerslink.com/journal_article.htm. (Used with permission.)

Understanding By Design
By Worldwide Schools (2010)

“Appendix A: Understanding by Design Framework” in Insights From the Field:
Understanding Geography, Culture and Service. Retrieved from
http://www.peacecorps.gov/wws/publications/insights/pdf/
InsightsFramework.pdf.

Understanding by Design
By Worldwide Schools
We’ve created this curriculum guide using the curriculum design framework,
Understanding by Design (Wiggins and McTighe 1998), developed with the support
of the Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD).
The Understanding by Design (UbD) approach is intended to deepen student
understanding of important concepts and skills in such a way that this knowledge
will endure over time. In contrast to the traditional way of designing curriculum
(identifying objectives, planning lessons, and assessing results), the Understanding
by Design framework uses a “backward design process” that identifies assessments
before planning learning experiences and lessons. We’ve summarized the process
of “backward design”:
1. Identify desired results: What is worthy of student understanding?
2. Determine acceptable evidence: How will students demonstrate their

understanding?
3. Plan learning experiences, lessons, and instruction: What will we have

students experience and do in order to achieve the desired results?
Here is a visual organizer for the UbD curriculum design framework:
Stage 1: Identify Desired Results

• What understandings are desired?
• What essential questions will guide this unit and focus teaching/learning?
• What key knowledge and skills will students acquire as a result of this
unit?
Stage 2: Determine Acceptable Evidence

• Through what authentic performance task(s) will students demonstrate
understanding, knowledge, and skill?
• Through what prompts/academic problems, or test/quiz items will

students demonstrate understanding, as well as more discrete knowledge
and skill?

• Through what observations, work samples, etc., will students demonstrate
understanding, knowledge, and skill?
• How will students reflect upon and self-assess their learning?
Stage 3: Plan Learning Experiences and Instruction

• What sequence of teaching and learning experiences will equip students to
develop and demonstrate the desired understandings?
• How will the design
W = Help the students know where the unit is going?
H = Hook the students and hold their interest?
E = Equip the students, explore the issues, and experience key ideas?
R = Provide built in opportunities to rethink and revise their understandings

and work?
E = Allow students to evaluate their work?
Each unit in this study guide contains a culminating performance task to assess
the degree to which students have achieved the desired results of that particular
unit. The culminating performance task is also designed to provide students the
opportunity to apply what they have learned in the unit in a real–world context.
The Understanding by Design Handbook (McTighe and Wiggins, 1999, page 140)
provides useful guidelines for designing a performance assessment task. An
authentic performance task has the following characteristics:
• It is realistic. It simulates the way a person’s knowledge and abilities are

tested in the real world.
• It requires judgment and innovation. A student has to use knowledge and

skills wisely and effectively to solve a real world problem.
• It replicates or simulates the contexts in which adults are tested in the

workplace, the community, or the home.
• It assesses the student’s ability to efficiently and effectively use a variety of

knowledge and skills to negotiate a complex task.

The Understanding by Design Handbook uses an acronym (“GRASPS”) to help
teachers design performance task scenarios. The meaning of GRASPS:
G What is the goal of the task? What is it designed to assess?
R What real world role will the student assume as he/she is performing the
task?
A Who is the audience for the task?
S What is the situation that provides the context for the task?
P What is the product or performance that is required by the task?
S By what standards will the product or performance be judged?
Each unit in this study guide has a culminating performance task designed
using the GRASPS acronym. McTighe and Wiggins (1999) suggest that teachers
and curriculum designers identify the culminating performance task for the unit
before they begin to develop a unit’s learning activities. In this way, the goal of
all learning activities is clear: to help all students develop the knowledge and
skills to successfully complete the culminating performance task. This approach to
curriculum design is often referred to as “beginning with the end in mind.”
The UbD model strongly suggests that in performance based instruction, we

let students know before they begin work on a performance task what criteria
will be used to assess the quality of a stu¬dent’s performance on that task.Thus,
expectations are known to all, and there are no surprises. For these reasons, a
rubric or performance checklist accompanies the culminating performance task at
the end of each of the three curriculum units in this guide.
Source:
Worldwise Schools (2010). “Appendix A: Understanding by Design Framework”

in Insights From the Field: Understanding Geography, Culture and Service.
Retrieved from http://www.peacecorps.gov/wws/publications/insights/
pdf/InsightsFramework.pdf.

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TEACHeXCELS

Teaching and Learning Excellence in

Reading 1. Teaching and Learning Philosophy and Strategies 1

Reading 2. Facilitating Learning: Issues on Learner-Centred 7

Reading 3. Matching Teaching Style to Learning Style May Not 31

Reading 4. Examples of Activities that Promote Higher 39

Reading 5. Develop Critical and Creative Thinking Skills: Put 49

Reading 6. Understanding By Design 61

TEACHeXCELS Required Readings 1

1. The nature of the learning process

Students gain knowledge and understanding in a social setting. They interact

2. The steps students must take in the learning process

o Articulate initial knowledge

o Articulate and correct misconceptions

o Make connections between concepts

o Understand the viewpoints of others

o Realize the limitations of their own ideas

o Create and test new ideas

o Be concerned with mental processes as well as the "answer"

o Reflect on the way their conceptions are changing

o Ask questions (what if..?)

o Develop the ability to be imaginative and creative

TEACHeXCELS Required Readings 3

o Initial activities are accessible to everyone and come from common

o The environment is both accepting and critical

o Ideas are illustrated and student interest engaged through demonstrations

o An environment is created that fosters self motivation among the students

o Students must develop a sense of accomplishment and satisfaction

o Help students learn the language of the discipline

o Explain goals and methods

o Validate knowledge brought by each student

o Create interest and generate curiosity

o Encourage students to work hard

o Communicate standards of judgment

o Help students learn how to use language precisely

o Wean students from dependence on instructors

o Act as a resource without directly answering every question

4 TEACHeXCELS Required Readings

o Don't judge prematurely

o Provide fair criticism

o Be an active listener and learner

o Encourage students to work in new situations

o Question students so they realize the process of seeking explanations is

o Make use of initial knowledge

o Engage in an active social process of testing and clarifying their

o Develop the ability to work effectively and intensely

o Avoid premature judgment of themselves or others

o Carefully consider the ideas of others

o Value others as useful colleagues

o Evaluate their own progress in an objective manner

UC Regents (2000). Teaching and Learning Philosophy and Strategies.

TEACHeXCELS Required Readings 5

TEACHeXCELS Required Readings 7

1. Enhancing study skills

For students to engage productively in their own learning, they need to be

2. Improving instructional design

Design instruction to facilitate learning.

• Capture and sustain attention.

Recognise factors affecting reception of information such as students’