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Thursday Boonstra
Thursday Boonstra
Beamforming
Tutorial Lecture
1
Contents
Notation
Interferometry and imaging
Narrow band assumption
Discrete source data model
Subspace analysis
Beamforming
Spatial filtering
References
elestial
sphere
SKADS Marie Curie Workshop - Digital Signal Processing and Beamforming 6
R
Recall: V (ri; rj ) = IB
(s)e 2 |
1 st (r
i rj ) d
elestial
sphere
The covariance matrix R is a measure of the visibility,
( )
including (a.o.) antenna gains A s and electronic gains G:
Z
R(ri ; rj ) = Gi Gj Ai (s)Aj (s)IB
(s)e 2|
1 st bij d
elestial
sphere
SKADS Marie Curie Workshop - Digital Signal Processing and Beamforming 8
u (m)
y (m)
0 S N 0 S N
−20
−50
−40
−100
−60
−150
−80
E W
−100 −200
−100 −50 0 50 100 −200 −150 −100 −50 0 50 100 150 200
x (m) v (m)
0 locations:
antenna 1 PSF, or beam shape,
x1 y1 z1
R=B C spatial sample points
A of coherencies (uv-
zenith position.
imaging by beam-
xp yp zp points)
antenna signals: R Efxx g H = forming or FT
P Efkw H xk2 g = =
( )=[ ( )
x t xt t ; ; xp t t ( )℄ p p matrix H w Rw
SKADS Marie Curie Workshop - Digital Signal Processing and Beamforming 9
antenna beam
synthesized beam
then y (t) = m(t)e2|
t , where m(t) is the complex envelope
(baseband signal) of the real-valued band-pass signal
z (t) = Refy (t)g.
Second narrow band condition: propagation delay
differences, ij = i j , along elements i and j of the
antenna/telescope array are inverse bandwidth.
(2ij ) 1
Then it can be shown that time delays across array can be
approximated by phase shifts of the baseband signal.
SKADS Marie Curie Workshop - Digital Signal Processing and Beamforming 12
() = M( )e2|td
2
mt
1
Z
2
1
( ) = M( )e 2| e2|t d
2
mt
1
2
If (2ij ) 1 then, e 2 1, and m(t) (t )
, hence:
m (t) m(t)e 2|
QED
SKADS Marie Curie Workshop - Digital Signal Processing and Beamforming 13
x3(t)
....
x1(t)
xp(t)
x2(t)
()
Given i.i.d. noise vector n t with Efn t ( )n(t)H g = n2 I (I is the
() =
identity matrix), and Efs t 2 g 2 :
R = EfRb g = 2 aaH + n2 I
SKADS Marie Curie Workshop - Digital Signal Processing and Beamforming 15
R = ABAH + n2 I
SKADS Marie Curie Workshop - Digital Signal Processing and Beamforming 16
eigenvalue [dB]
eigenvalue [dB]
94 92
92
m
0
m
95 0 91
92 90
90
−0.5 90 88 −0.5
90 89
86 88
−1 88 −1
85 −1 −0.5 0 0.5 1 84 −1 −0.5 0 0.5 1 87
0 20 40 60 l 0 20 40 60 l
eigenvalue number eigenvalue number
PN
Relation between multiple transmitters and eigenvalue
b 1
distribution of covariance matrix R N n=1 xn xH n . Data (not =
normalized/whitened) are obtained from LOFAR ITS test
station. One horizon transmitter (RFI) (left), and three
transmitters (right)(1) .
Note: for astronomical sources similar relation holds.
(1) A.J. Boonstra and S. van der Tol, 2004.
SKADS Marie Curie Workshop - Digital Signal Processing and Beamforming 19
10 An alternative, computa-
8 tionally less expensive, is
to use jjRjj2F (sum of ab-
λ1 ... λ8
4
solute squares of the ele-
2
ments) (2)
0
0.6 0.61 0.62 0.63 0.64 0.65
time (s)
(1) Edelman 1988. (2) Leshem and van der Veen, 2001.
SKADS Marie Curie Workshop - Digital Signal Processing and Beamforming 20
1
g(x,y)=c
y
f x; y subject to the con- 0.6
( ) =0
0.4
straint g x; y
f(x,y)=k2
. 0.2
f(x,y)=k
1
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
x
X
K
L(x; i; ; K ) = f (x) + k g (x)
k=1
P = min
w Efj y j2 g = min(wH Rw)
w
with constraint of unit gain in look-direction s, wH a = 1 where
a = e 2|Rsf
1
a = e 2|Rs 1
a a
b nUb Hn , with Ub n the noise subspace. This leads
with ? = U
(as with the MVDR) to an improved sidelobe suppression and
smaller beamwidth as compared to the conventional
beamformer. Drawback: these are data dependent and
computation scales with p3 , as compared to p for the
conventional beamformer.
SKADS Marie Curie Workshop - Digital Signal Processing and Beamforming 27
Conventional beamforming (left) vs MUSIC beamforming (right), using LOFAR ITS data. The
sky map is dominated by a transmitter at the horizon, note the difference in sidelobe level and
the difference in beamwidth. The plusses indicate the location of astronomical 3C sources.
Conventional beamforming (left) vs MUSIC beamforming (right), using LOFAR ITS data. The
sky map is dominated by a transmitter at the horizon, note the difference in sidelobe level and
the difference in beamwidth. The plusses indicate the location of astronomical 3C sources.
P = I a(aH a) 1aH
This can easily be extended to multiple (q) interferes:
P = I A(AH A) 1AH
where, as before,
A = [a1; aq ℄
The filter can be applied to covariance (correlation) data, but
also is a beamformer by multiplying it with the beamformer
weights.
T.K. Moon, and W.C. Srirling, Mathematical Methods amd Algorithms for Signal
Processing, Prentice Hall, NJ, 2000.
A.J. Boonstra, "RFI Mitigation in Radio Astronomy", PhD thesis, Delft University of
Technology, June 14, 2005.
SKADS Marie Curie Workshop - Digital Signal Processing and Beamforming 35