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CIRP-Virtual Machine Tool
CIRP-Virtual Machine Tool
CIRP-Virtual Machine Tool
Abstract
This paper presents current state of Virtual Machine Tool Technology and related ongoing research chal-
lenges. The structural analysis of machine tools using Finite Element models and their experimental cali-
bration techniques are presented. The kinematic analysis and optimisation of machine tool elements are
discussed with sample examples. The interaction between the control of the feed drives, cutting condi-
tions and machine tool structure is presented. Multi-body dynamic models of the machine, which allow
integrated simulation of machine kinematics, structural dynamics and control techniques, are discussed.
The interaction between the machine tool, controller and cutting process disturbances are discussed with
sample examples. The simulation of machining operation and its impact on the dynamics of the machine
tool and CNC are elaborated. The paper presents both the summary of current and past research, as well
as research challenges in order to realise a fully digitised model of the machine tool.
Keywords:
Simulation, Machine Tools, Virtual Prototype
V2
V1
VIRTUAL
PROTOTYPING
VERIFICATION
START OF PRODUCTION
PHYSICAL
PHYSICAL SETTING-UP
CONCEPT DESIGN TESTING
PROTOTYPE
PROTOTYPE OPERATION
V2
V1
Figure 1: Comparison of the traditional design process and the design process with virtual prototypes.
If the possibility of comprehensive simulations during the in recent years [114]. Advanced software and hardware
entire design process is not available the optimisation of systems allow design engineers to evaluate and optimise
physical prototypes is often based on trial and error based critical product characteristics with virtual prototypes be-
on the past design experience, which leads to a costly fore the first physical prototype is built. A wide range of
and lengthy development process. software tools is available for the different design-stages
In the virtual prototype approach, engineers are able to of a machine tool [114], [124] as shown in Figure 3.
realistically simulate the kinematic, static and dynamic
behaviour of the whole machine tool system including the Calculation of Finite-Element-Analysis Coupled flexible
Components and Optimisation Multi-Body-Simulation
Multi-Body-Simulation
cutting operations. Thus it is possible to quickly analyse z y
multiple design variations until achieving an optimised x ∆
Control Loop
prototype which satisfies the machining requirements in F Drive (1)
∆
the best possible manner. The virtual design engineering F(t) Control Loop
FE-Beam-Model of the Spindle Fx F Drive (2)
is enabled by the use of high performance computer ∆
Control Loop
technology and software engineering tools. M Drive (3)
1. Eigenfrequency f=331 Hz
The virtual prototypes are not only helpful for the design
process but also for the virtual initial start-up of the ma- 3D-CAD Design and Matching of Simulation
Design
chine tool or the simulation of the machining operations Kinematics Optimisation Re
and Measuring
a 2
on the digital model of the machine tool. t 1 Simulation
Compliance [um/N]
1
ep
lis
2 Measuring
atio
Con
This paper presents the design, analysis, optimisation
n
and operation of machine tools in a virtual environment. acceleration
y-axis [mm]
The paper is organised as follows: The concept of virtual
machine tool design and testing is presented in Section 2.
Phase
Finite Element, kinematics, structural analysis and optimi- x-axis [mm] Frequency [Hz]
sation of the machine tool elements are explained. The
simulation model of the CNC system is presented in Sec- Figure 3: Integrated development of modern machine
tion 3. Trajectory generation, axis control laws and tool tools with virtual prototypes.
path simulation with collision detection are discussed. The
simulation of machining operations is given in Section 4.
The predictions of cutting loads as well as the stress- Computer aided design and kinematics studies
temperature simulation in the chip and tool wedge are
explained. Section 5 covers the integration of process and During the concept stage, simplified simulation models
machine tool simulation, which is the ultimate goal in can be used to estimate the influence of general design
realising a complete digital model of the machine tool parameters on the machine performance. The kinematic
during machining of a part. The present research chal- configuration or the geometry and widths of guideways
lenges which has to be solved for the full realisation of can be given as examples for general design parameters.
virtual machine tool system are discussed in Section 6. Especially the machine tools with parallel kinematics the
The paper is concluded by assessing the effectiveness kinematic behaviour needs to be simulated and optimised
and future trends in “Virtual Machine Tool and Machining during the early design stage. The machine tools with
Systems”. complex kinematic configuration are much more sensitive
to slight variations of geometric parameters than tradi-
tional cartesian machine tools, and thus offer huge poten-
2 THE VIRTUAL MACHINE TOOL tial for optimisation. The 3D-CAD-Model of the machine
Modern machine tools are very complex mechatronical tool is exported to a kinematic analysis software environ-
systems. The capability and efficiency of a machine tool ment. The optimisation of the kinematic behaviour and the
are mainly determined by its kinematics, structural dy- simulation with rigid multi-body simulation during the early
namics, computer numerical control system and the ma- design stages are illustrated in Sections 2.2 and 2.3.
chining process as shown in Figure 2.
Finite-Element-Analysis
Product
Mechanics Process The Finite-Element-Analysis (FEA) is used to calculate
Requirements on
requirements Machine Tools static stiffness or dynamic characteristics of the machine
Fx high static and
tool, e.g. natural-frequencies and mode shapes. Powerful
dynamic stiffness optimisation methods, which are based on the Finite-
high dynamic Element-Method, are used effectively to find optimum
properties of design variants under given restrictions, e.g. the minimi-
Control Loop
the feed drives sation of masses of moving machine components or the
high accuracy maximisation of the static stiffness. The Finite-Element-
low path Analysis as well as the application of structural optimisa-
deflections tion methods are discussed in Sections 2.4 and 2.5 .
Configuration
Optimierte Konfiguration
Configuration
movements and forces from joint- to task-space [106].
Start Konfiguration
START
These transmission characteristics are influenced by the Generation of
Optimised
kinematic topology of the mechanism and its geometric Startpopulation 0,4 0,4
Start
configuration. Thus, the following two steps are most Crossover
0 0
important during design [66]. Mutation
Storage of
κmax = 2.75 -0,4 κmax = 1.8
Evaluation pareto-optimal -0,4 0,8 0 0,8 0
σmin = 0.51 σmin = 0.75
• Determination of the appropriate kinematic topology Solutions
0,3
0.3 σmax = 1.45 0,3
0.3 σmax = 1.37
Selection Clustering
•
0.2 0.2
y-axis [m]
yes 00 00
y-axis
Postprocessing STOP -0.1 -0.1
The second step is most important since the performance -0.2 -0.2
0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 -0.1 -0.2 -0.3 -0.4 -0.5
x-axis0 -0,5
0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0 -0.1 -0.2 -0.3 -0.4 -0.5
0,5 x-axis0 -0,5 0,5
machine tool with parallel kinematics. A poor topology
[m] [m]
x-axis [m] x-axis [m]
which is optimally designed may perform better than a Figure 4: Optimisation of the kinematic performance.
mechanism with appropriate topology but poor design
[66], [106].
It can be observed, that the development of design tools
The choice of the right dimensions for the design parame- for machine tools is still ongoing research. While tools for
ters with respect to a given application is a difficult task: the performance analysis are widely established, the
estimation of an optimal layout for a given application has
• There are many performance values which have to to be automated to establish conceptual capabilities in
be taken into account and which are often antagonis- terms of modularity and reconfigurability.
tic to the design parameters, i.e. kinematic stiffness
vs. workspace. 2.3 Simulation of rigid multi-body models
• There is a nonlinear relation between design parame- During the early design stages the kinematic behaviour of
ters and performance. the machine tool can be simulated with the multi-body
simulation (MBS) as a rough estimation [113], [123] using
• Many performance values are of the type "best case -
rigid bodies. This kind of simulation enables the design
worst case" over an up to six-dimensional work-
engineer to make a first, quick prediction of the kinematic
space.
behaviour and estimations of the influence of parameter
variations in the model, as, for example, the length of an
Since the performance characteristics vary within a work-
actuator in machine tools with parallel kinematics [123].
space of complex shape a simple and unique perform-
Each individual element within the multi-body model con-
ance comparison of either parallel with serial kinematics
sists of rigid bodies. In this context rigid bodies are parts
or different parallel mechanisms becomes most difficult.
that have mass and inertia properties but cannot deform.
To achieve an optimal kinematic configuration in a short
These rigid bodies can be imported from 3D-CAD-Models
time, the designer has to be supported by suitable analy-
through interfaces using standard formats such as IGES,
sis- and optimisation tools.
STEP, DXF/DWG and Parasolid or can even be gener-
A classical way of finding the required design parameters ated within the multi-body environment. Constraints de-
is to define a cost function, consisting of the weighted fine how the parts are attached and how they move rela-
sum of the performance values as a function of the design tive to each other. Multi-body simulation tools usually
parameters. A numerical procedure is then used to find provide a library of constraints including for example [64]:
the design parameters which minimise the cost-function
with respect to an initial estimate. This strategy is limited • Idealised joints that have a physical counterpart,
by the definitions of the weight factors, e.g. in terms of such as a revolute (hinge) or translational (sliding
priority [66]. In addition, finding the global optimum cannot dovetail) joint.
be guaranteed due to the complexity of the optimisation
problem. • Joint primitives that place a restriction on relative
motion, such as forced parallel movement of two
To avoid these limitations, different approaches have parts.
been proposed. The parameter space approach esti-
mates all satisfying solutions within a multidimensional • Motion generators that drive the model through a
design-space for each performance requirement [65]. The prescribed distance, velocity or acceleration profile
intersections of these individual solutions contain the sets as a function of time.
of design parameters which will meet all requirements.
• Associative constraints that define how pairs of con- In this example the multi-body model is used to simulate
straints move, such as couplers or gears. the dependency between reachable acceleration and
necessary jerk setting for positioning operations of the
• Two-dimensional curve constraints that define how a
kinematics [112].
point or curve moves along another curve.
In the dynamic analysis, the position of all bodies of the
Furthermore, forces that act on the model can be defined. mechanism is determined as a result of time-dependent
These forces will affect part motion and reaction forces on forces applied from outside. Generally, kinematic con-
constraints. Multi-body simulation tools provide libraries of straints are replaced by flexible connectors like 3-
forces that usually include: dimensional spring-damper-elements. With the help of
this analysis the simulation of expected load histories of
• Flexible connectors, such as spring-dampers and machine components can be estimated for the dimension-
bushings, which provide pre-defined, compliant force ing [20], [90], [76], [108].
relationships. During the analysis of inverse dynamics, the motion pat-
• Special force elements that provide pre-defined tern of one or more bodies is specified and the drive and
forces that are commonly encountered. the internal forces of the joints and flexible connectors are
calculated. This kind of simulation is especially useful for
• Applied forces that allow the writing of algorithms to the dimensioning of the drive systems during the early
represent a wide variety of different force relation- design stages.
ships.
The static calculation is traced back to a dynamic calcula-
• Contact forces that specify how bodies react if they tion where the MBS-system determines the state of equi-
come in contact with each other while the model is in librium [64], [90].
motion. The multi-body simulation provides an easy way to ana-
lyse the kinematic behaviour over the complete work-
The analysis options in the established multi-body simula- space of a machine tool as well as to determine load
tion systems consists of the following types [90]: histories of components or joints [64], [90], [123]. In addi-
tion, it helps to choose proper elements or detect weak
• Assembly analysis spots of a machine tool in the early design stages. How-
• Kinematic analysis ever, the flexibility and strain of single machine parts
cannot be considered with the pure multi-body simulation
• Dynamic analysis
using rigid body models [113], [64].
• Inverse dynamic analysis
2.4 Finite Element Analysis of machine tools
• Static analysis
After the concept of the machine tool and the dimensions
In the assembly analysis, the MBS-software tries to as- of the kinematics have been defined the structural behav-
semble the mechanism in the modelled configuration. iour has to be analysed and optimised [64], [113], [124].
This means that the underlying non-linear equation sys- The structural behaviour under static, dynamic and ther-
tem is solved. If necessary, minor variations of the initial mal loads is evaluated to derive an optimal machine de-
positions owing to the numerical precision of the input sign with respect to minimum structure mass and highest
data are applied. This analysis step is carried out before machining precision.
each simulation. The Finite-Element-Analysis (FEA) is an established tool
During a kinematic simulation, the position of all bodies of to evaluate the properties mentioned above. It is applica-
the mechanism is analysed depending on the time. Dur- ble for single components such as columns or spindle
ing such a simulation the movements of one or more housings as well as for complete machine tools.
bodies are described by a law of motion. This kind of The most common types of the Finite-Element-Analysis
analysis is used to simulate the reachable kinematic per- for structural problems are illustrated in Figure 6. Apart
formance, e.g. the acceleration capability of the design from these analysis types the Finite-Element-Analysis is
over the complete workspace. also applicable for other physical problems, e.g. in hy-
The model of a machine tool with parallel kinematics and draulic, electromagnetic and casting simulations.
some results of such a kinematic simulation are shown in
the following Figure 5. Analysen
Analysis typesder Finite-Elemente-Methode
of the Finite-Element-Analysis
Lineare
Linear Statik
Static Nichtlineare
Non-linear Statik
Static Dynamik
Dynamic Thermik
Thermal
Rigid Multi-Body
Multi-Body Model of a Machine Tool’s kinematics linear load- material
F
linear normal analysis of steady
Screw Joint Revolute Joint deformation- mode analysis state temperature
behaviour response-analysis fields T(t) = const.
F ∆
contact F analysis in time
analysis of transient
domain
temperature fields
F(t)
∆ T(t) ≠ const.
Motion Translational Joint ∆ t
snap F radiation,
s [mm]
through convection
buckling crash analysis
F Q(t)
∆ r
v Q(t)
t [sec] following load
Results of a Positioning Operation
reachable path velocity [m/s] necessary path jerk [m/s³] ∆ non-linear thermal
2.0
558
material behaviour
87 1.8
6 212
max. acceleration [m/s²]
25 25
42
669.68
20 1.
2 09
20 Figure 6: Analysis types of the Finite-Element-Analysis.
4
15 15
10 10
0.
17
For structural problems the types of analysis can be di-
5 63
4
5 64.6128
vided into three groups as depicted below: namely the
0.05 0.1 0.15
stroke [m]
0.2 0.25 0.3 0.05 0.1 0.15
stroke [m]
0.2 0.25 0.3 linear and non-linear static analysis, the dynamic analysis
and the thermal analysis [30].
Figure 5: Multi-body Simulation of a rigid body model.
A static analysis calculates the effects of steady load the geometric model is split into surface patches (parti-
conditions on a structure, while ignoring inertia and damp- tions). By this, a complex structure is fractionalised into
ing effects caused by time-varying loads. A static analysis simple base geometry elements that allow easy meshing.
can, however, include steady inertia loads (such as grav-
ity and rotational velocity), and time-varying loads that Defeaturing of the 3D-CAD-Model
can be approximated as static equivalent loads. and setup of the FEA-Model
Calculation & Optimisation of the
⎛k x ⎞
Static analysis is used to determine the displacements, static behaviour ⎜ ⎟
k Spring = ⎜ k y ⎟
stresses, strains, and forces in structures or components Calculation & Optimisation of the
dynamic behaviour ⎜k ⎟
⎝ z⎠ c
ati
caused by loads that do not induce significant inertia and St Fx
damping effects. Steady load and response conditions
are assumed in static analysis; i.e., the loads and the
structure’s response are assumed to vary slowly with
time.
A static analysis can be either linear or non-linear. The CADÎFEM
Force [%]
50
[116]:
0
0.00 0.50
Time [s]
1.00
• high static and dynamic stiffness to ensure high ac-
curacy of the finished workpieces
Figure 9: Workflow of the coupled hybrid multi-body simu- • high dynamic properties of the feed drives to realise
lation with topology optimisation. highly dynamic positioning operations and move-
ments to decrease the processing time of each work-
The third step is the setup of the HMBS model and the piece
definition of imposed motions and load cases [44], [70], • low path deflection during the chip removal
[123]. The resulting forces of the MBS simulations are
exported, as are component deformations and stresses. These ambitious demands on machine tools can only be
This loop (steps 2-5) is repeated until the topology optimi- fulfilled employing small moving masses with sufficient
sation finishes with a design proposal (step 6) which fulfils static and dynamic stiffness of the structural components
the desired objectives. as well as high adjustable controller parameters of the
drives [22], [116]. This leads to interactions between
2.5.2 Parameter Optimisation structural dynamics and feed drive controls. Natural fre-
Parameter optimisation tools are used to find optimum quencies of the feed drives are coupled with lower natural
sets of structural parameters by using the Finite-Element- frequencies of the machine structure. To avoid instabili-
Analysis [13], [89], [113]. These optimisation tools are ties the control parameters have to be reduced, whereby
used after the rough dimensions of the components are the bandwidth of the feed axes decreases. This leads to a
defined. Different parameters of the draft designs can be limitation of the productivity of the machine tool.
optimised under different constraints such as: Despite these known interactions the dimensioning of the
feed drives and the design of the structural components
• wall thickness values of shell elements for models of of the machine tool nowadays still take place decoupled
structural components from each other.
• cross-sections of beam elements for models of Different approaches are known to simulate these interac-
frameworks tions during the early design stage of the machine tool
• fibre orientation angles of shell elements for models [33], [48], [80], [81], [116], [131].
of light-weight design Figure 11 illustrates the most common approaches for the
coupled simulation of structural dynamics and control
The parameter optimisation is a useful tool for the design loops used today.
engineer to meet the demands of light weight design
Replacing Models
especially for moving parts of highly dynamic machine Finite Element Analysis (FEA) Digital Block-Simulation (DBS)
tools. The results of such an optimisation of a High- mred kred PT2
s
- -
Performance-Cutting (HPC) machine tool are presented Cred
- -
reduced model
in Figure 10.
mred, kred, cred
of the drives
FEA
of the mechanic
reduced model
optimisation column
1 vertical table - bottom
140 Start design
2 vertical table - top 5 s
Optimised design - - - -
3 pallet carrier 4 120
3
4 pallete
percent [%]
100 DBS
2
5 column 6
80
6 head Sprint Z3 Coupled rigid Multi-Body Simulation (MBS) Coupled flexible Multi-Body Simulation
7 fixation 60 MBS MBS
40
20 interface interface
position, velocity
7
position, velocity
1
0 interface interface
over-all mass 1. eigenfrequency
y x
forces
forces
z optimisation table
180
Start design
Optimisation of a Milling Machine 160 Optimised design -
s
- - - -
s
- - -
140
optimisation of the design
percent [%]
120
DBS DBS
comparison of different design-versions 100
80 Co-Simulation
consequently realisation of light 60
weight design 40 Figure 11: Methods of coupled simulation of structural
parameter optimisation of the wall thickness 20
error. [mm]
Xist
2
Displacements 0.01
Forces
Forces Model of the
Displacements control loops TCP
Velocities 0
Velocities
-0.01
Design in 3D-CAD-Systems -> Import into MBS-Software (MSC.ADAMS) controller 0 0.1 time [s] 0.3 0.4
adaptable level of detail measuring
coupled model of the control loops (Matlab/Simulink) of the drives system error X at TCP [mm]
desired feed rates with PC-NC model 10 required acceleration [m/s²] required position [m]
0.08
0.01
0
0.04
and control loop models of a PKM machine tool. -0.01
-10
0 0.1 0.3 0.4
0 0 0.1 0.3 0.4
0 0.1 time [s] 0.3 0.4
time [s] time [s]
The multi-body model of the machine tool is imported with source: Gildemeister / Siemens Linear Motor Systems GmbH & Co. KG
M
k D + + + k D
into account the behaviour of the control loops of the MOUNTING DEVICES
F
drives [48], [80], [115]. The models of the single compo-
nents of the machine tool can represent the static as well k D {F} = [k ]⋅ {u} + [D] ⋅ {u& } + {Fv }
as the dynamic behaviour and are coupled by flexible F
connectors. In reality, guiding systems and bearings ap-
pear as joints between the components. These joints are Figure 15: Model configuration for the flexible MBS.
approximated by spring-damper-elements in the flexible
multi-body model. For example, for each guide shoe be-
tween two structural components one spring-damper Ball-screw-drives
element with stiffness and damping values in the X, Y and These drives are used to realise translational movement
Z-direction is defined. of machine axes. Different components are used in such
To consider the influence of the individual drives of the a drive system. The bearings and the ball screw-nut are
machine tool on the dynamic behaviour, the flexible multi- modelled with 3D-spring-damper-elements with stiffness
body model is coupled with a model of the control loops and damping parameters in all directions. The screw is
via an interface [14], [115], [126]. modelled using flexible beam elements, which are able to
rotate about the pitch attitude. The rotation of the screw,
Different research activities in the field of coupled flexible which is caused by the model of the servodrive in the
multi-body simulation have been done by Reinhart et al. control model, is transformed into a translational move-
[14], [80], Weck et al. [108], [109], [110], [115], [116], ment by the use of a nut. Thus it is possible to simulate
[126], Großmann et al. [47], [49], Denkena et al. [33], [34] the dynamic behaviour of such systems [113], [115],
[100] and Turna . [116].
The model set-up as well as the different types of simula-
tions are discussed in the next sections. 2.6.3.2 Generation of flexible multi-bodies
To consider the flexibility of the machine components
2.6.3.1 Model configuration during the multi-body simulation, data from natural vibra-
Each structural component of the machine tool is mod- tion and deformation calculations of the individual compo-
elled as a so-called flexible body [31], [115], [116]. The nents, the so-called Superelement Creation, are inte-
different elements which are used to connect the struc- grated in the multi-body model through an interface of the
tural components, such as guiding systems, mounting multi-body simulation program to popular Finite-Element-
devices or ball-screw-drives, are modelled as a combina- Programs [14], [76], [115] [116].
tion of flexible connectors and joints depending on the Superelement Creation uses a Finite-Element-Model to
specific configuration [14]. define a component of a complex structure, and a con-
The individual flexible components of the multi-body nection degree of freedom set (DOF) to specify the inter-
model are connected by these flexible connectors de- face nodes, or attachment points, of the component to
pending on the direction of the internal force of the com- other components of the structural system and points
ponent (1D-element or 3D-element). The different model where forces are applied. The software calculates fixed
techniques of the different connectors in multi-body mod- normal modes and static constraint modes to approximate
els are pictured in Figure 15. the general behaviour of the component at those “inter-
Some typical modelling techniques of popular machine face node degrees of freedom”.
components are specified below. The fixed normal modes contain the dynamic response of
the superelement when all “connection degrees of free-
Mounting devices dom” are fixed. The static constraint modes contain the
In most technical applications the machine tool is static response assumed by the component when one
mounted with special mounting devices onto the founda- degree of freedom of one interface point is given a unit
tion. The stiffness and the damping in three directions deflection while fixing all other “interface degrees of free-
dom”. The solver performs Superelement Creation much 2.6.3.4 Results of the coupled flexible multi-body simula-
like normal modes analysis using the Lanczos method, tion
then uses the Craig-Bampton method to generate the
superelement [31]. For the simulation of flexibility frequency response func-
tions of the coupled flexible multi-body model, an excita-
The different modes of a super-element creation are tion signal must additionally be defined. For this purpose,
illustrated in Figure 16. so-called INPUTS and OUTPUTS have to be generated.
Boundary-conditions Constraint modes In the INPUT, a value is controlled from the outside for
(Craig-Bampton) each time step during the calculation. Through the
OUTPUT that can be applied as a force in the X-, Y- and
Z-direction at any location of the multi-body model, the
outer signal is directed into the structure [14], [47], [108],
z y
x
Unit translation
of the hinge in
Unit translation
of the guideway [110], [115], [126].
x-direction in x-direction
mechanical transfer elements occur, the consideration of Figure 18: Simulated frequency response function
the control loops is necessary for the approximation of the
drive system stiffness [108], [110], [126]. The drive control
loops generated in the CACE environment can communi- Especially for machine tools with small workspace dimen-
cate with the complete machine model in the multi-body sions, the potential of the installed drive power can only
system. be used efficiently at high jerk settings. To optimise the
dynamic behaviour of machine tools the coupled flexible
Figure 17 depicts the general structure of this coupling for
multi-body simulation can be used to analyse the maxi-
the coupled flexible multi-body simulation of machine
mum jerk settings of the feed drives. Therefore an input-
tools.
signal for the control loops of the drives can be generated
control loop of the direct drive (x-y)
by a virtual controller.
control loop of the direct drive (x-y)
KF
iA
RA,Tel u Ki ,Tni
A isoll
s
Kp,Tnp KL
ssoll 1 The simulation of such a positioning operation is illus-
force excitation TCP Fa
KE
- xist -
current controller
- -
trated in Figure 19.
x ist
Force
velocity controller
0 jerk acceleration Positioning operation of the
x ist position controller
Z-unit (5mm)
0 1,0
Time
control loop of the ball screw drive (z)
[m/s³]
[m/s²]
- - - -
KE current controller
0
nist velocity controller
z 0 Time 0 Time
y zist control loop
loop
Input control
0 Time 1,0 position controller
velocity position
x z-axis
z-axis
F (t)
F (t)
[m]
linear drive
direct1
Figure 17: Coupling of flexible multi-boidy models and ∆=0 drive 1
control loops. control loop
control loop
00 00
drive 2
linear direct
Time Time ∆= 0 drive 2
Bode diagram
displacement r=730 m/s³ FRF Gxx
compliance
r=650 m/s³ Gyy
[µm/N]
r=550 m/s³
Gzz
r=450 m/s³
Displacement [mm]
desired path
Compliance [um/N]
T3 = f 3
Amplifier Amplifier locus 0.001
0,1
coherencephase [°]
180
imaginary
[µm/N]
0
A/D converter -180
1
-0,1
-0,1 real 0,1 0
FFT analyser [µm/N] 0 200 frequency [Hz] 800
Time [sec]
tools or components and the validation of existing simula- kax dax + krot drot
tion models can help to find better initial values for future
simulations. Measured Simulated
The measurement of the dynamic properties of machine Frequency-
Frequency-
Response-
Response-
Frequency-
Frequency-
Response-
Response-
tools usually targets two characteristics [111]: Function Function
Matching Measuring
Matching Measuring // Simulation
Simulation
• The Frequency Response Function (FRF) of the
Compliance [µm/N]
[K]start
compliance at the tool centre point (TCP) Measured FRF no [D]start
Work-
Import of the FE-Data piece
Extraction of the components VR-Cave Tool
Triangulation of the FE-mesh Collision
Area
Clamping
Machine Table
Head
N 90 G01 X-506.303
movement in N 95 G03 X-513.416 Y87.887 I0. J-10.06
x direction N 100 G01 X-480.648 Y55.118
N 105 G02 X-477.729 Y48.678 I-7.099 J-7.099
3D-Visualisation in the “VR” N 110 G03 X-460.589 Y-115.162 12134.642 J140.491
N 115 G02 X-463.428 Y-123.689 I-9.938 J-1.428
N 120 G01 X-487.625 Y-147.887
N 125 G03 X-480.511 Y-165.06 I7.113 J-7.113
N 130 G01 X-357
Figure 23: VR environment for the investigation of ma- N 135 G03 X-324.94 Y-133. I0. J32.06
N 140 Go1 Y-22.33
enables the engineer to get a realistic impression of the N 215 G02 X231.316 Y-166.338 I14.767 J-15.625
N 220 G02 X243.573 Y-174.115 I-50.726 J-93.491
N 225 G03 X248.965 Y-175.801 I5.152 J7.011
design. N 230 G03 X251.841 Y-174.534 I-0.115 J4.158
Trajectory Generation
Pritschow et al. [76], [77], [78] presented the simulation of
Feed motion planning Position closed-loop an entire machine behaviour under real CNC system
Reference Control Actual
S Displacement
t position signal Position control. The actual CNC sends time stamped position
Axis Feed Drive
S
.
. Control Law Servo commands to a model of the complete machine. Since
Feedrate t r(t), r (t),
.. ...
r (t), r (t) the position commands contain velocity, acceleration and
Actual Position
..
S Acceleration
...
t
jerk, they excite the structural dynamics of the machine.
S Jerk
t Feedback The resulting vibrations are sent back to the CNC by
Re-process
Measurements
Feedback mimicking an encoder measurement contaminated with
machine tool vibrations.
Optimization Process Predicted +
Trecking Simulate the contour
-Reschedule Feedrate,
Accel./Decel., Jerk Limit
Error errors generated from
Servo Control in „Virtual“
3.2 Optimisation of NC-Programs for five-axis mill-
-Contour Error Reduction
- enviroment ing
While it is satisfactory in three-axes machining to gener-
Figure 25: Virtual model of trajectory generation and ate NC-programs without considering the axial-specific
control of axes positions. dynamic parameters, practical experience has shown that
it is insufficient for five-axis milling. The reasons for this
are the highly variant dynamics of the involved rotation,
There has been research activities to integrate machine panning, and translation axes [32], [119]. The analysis of
motions and geometric removal of the material from the NC-programs on different machines with respect to the
workpiece so that the part accuracy can be predicted required axis velocity and acceleration shows that, at
ahead of actual production. positions with high feed rate drops, the dynamic limits of
Altintas et al. [127], [128] developed a reconfigurable, the rotation axes have to be considerably higher in order
modular Virtual CNC simulation system by porting the to follow the programmed path. This discrepancy arises
experimentally proven real time algorithms from an actual because the CAM-system does not consider the dynamic
open CNC. capabilities of the machine while generating NC-tool
paths. Weinert et al. [32], [119], [120], [129] developed an
Ball screw or linear motor driven feed drives can be de-
approach for the harmonisation of the rotation and swivel
fined by specifying mechanical dimensions, servo motor
movements. As an intermediate step between CAM-
and amplifier parameters, position-velocity-acceleration
programming and the milling process, the tool path is
sensors and their resolution, friction field between the
adjusted, so that at no time are the limits of the dynamic
guide and drives and time varying cutting force distur-
capabilities violated. The principle of this approach is
bances. The type of trajectory generation algorithm, such
illustrated in Figure 27.
as “jerk continuous with actuator limits”, can be selected
as well as the axis control law. Feed
Workpiece Workpiece
The amplitude and frequency of cutting forces, torque and Ft = Ftc + Fte = K tc ah + K te a
power are used in sizing machine tool structures, spindle
Fr = Frc + Fre = Krc ah + Krea
and feed drive mechanisms, bearings, motors and drives
as well as the shank size of the tools and the fixture rigid- Fa = Fac + Fae = K ac ah + K ae a
ity. The stress and temperature field in the cutting tool
edge, chip and finished work piece surface are used in where the chip shearing, cutting force coefficients ( Ktc,
designing the cutting edge shape as well as in optimising Krc, Kac) can be expressed as a function of tool’s rake
feed, speed and depth of cut to avoid residual stresses on angle, work material shear stress and average friction
the finished surface. Modelling the interaction between coefficient between the chip and tool rake face. The edge
the cutting process and structural vibrations of machine force coefficients (Kte, Kre, Kae) are found from cutting
tool, cutting tool and fixture leads to the identification of tests by extrapolating the measured forces at zero cut
weak links in the machine structure and to the determina- thickness (h = 0) intercept. The theory of this approach of
tion of chatter vibration free spindle speeds and depths of analytical modelling of the cutting process can be found in
cut [5]. [8].
The complete model of the machining process is there- It is also customary to use nonlinear cutting force coeffi-
fore used in both design of cutting tools and machine cients as proposed by Kienzle [55]:
tools, as well as in planning of machining operations for
maximum productivity and accuracy. Ft = K t ah
Fr = Kr ah
4.1 Analytical modelling of cutting processes
Fa = K a ah
The first step is to model the cutting process as a function
of work material, tool geometry and material, chip load
and cutting speed. The macro-mechanics of cutting lead where the cutting force coefficients (Kt, Kr, Ka) are usually
to the identification of cutting coefficients, which are used expressed as a function of rake angle and chip thickness.
in predicting the cutting forces, torque, power and chatter It is most important to have a cutting coefficient data base
stability limits for a specified tool geometry and work ma- which allows the user to select a work material for a vari-
terial. ety of tool geometries.
The cutting coefficients can be modelled using either 4.2 Numerical simulation of cutting processes
orthogonal cutting mechanics or mechanistic models [6].
The micro-mechanics of metal cutting on the other hand, For cutting processes involving geometrically defined
are used to predict the stress, strain and temperature cutting edges, high speed cutting (HSC) is widely used in
distribution in the chip and tool. This simulation results are aerospace, and the die and mold machining industry.
primarily used for tool design, the analysis of material High speed machining allows the operation of machine
behaviour under high strain and temperature, and optimal tool spindles in large stability pockets where deeper cuts
selection of chip load and speed to avoid tool chipping, are possible. While keeping small chip loads to avoid
tool wear, and residual stresses left on the finished sur- thermal overload of the tool edge and mechanical over-
face. load of the spindle power limits, high material removal
rates can be achieved with high spindle speeds and table
The directions of cutting forces in turning and milling are feeds while maintaining a good surface finish on the part.
given in Figure 28 [8]. However, the practical application of HSC methods de-
pends on empirical cutting data which has to be obtained
through cost- and time-consuming cutting experiments.
The Finite-Element-Method (FEA) is a tool that is suited
for optimisation of the cutting edge geometry and mate-
dFa Y rial. Hence the cutting edge can withstand high thermal
Workpiece
dFr n and impact loads during machining [29]. Finite-Element-
Ft
Z Analysis belongs to the class of micro-mechanics of metal
dFt Fa
Fr cutting and is widely used by the cutting tool industry.
However, the key bottle neck is to model the flow stress
X
f
of the work material reflecting high strain, strain rate and
Tool temperature experienced in metal cutting processes. The
Y thermo-plastic properties of the material is usually evalu-
Fy(φ) Chip load
ated under high strain rate conditions using either Or-
φst
Frj thogonal Cutting Tests or Hopkinson Bar tests [67].
n φ
f Ftj Three main methods of mechanical formulation are com-
X
c
φex Fx(φ) monly used in Finite-Element-Modelling of metal cutting
[12], [122]:
Figure 28: Prediction of cutting forces for turning and • Eulerian formulation, where the grid is not attached to
milling operations. the material, is computationally efficient but needs
the updating of the free chip geometry [55].
• Lagrangian formulation, where the grid is attached to The geometric model of the part, blank and NC tool path
the material, requires updating of the mesh (remesh- in the form of a standard CL file are imported from current
ing algorithm) or the use of a chip separation criterion CAD/CAM systems using IGES or STEP NC standards.
to form a chip from the workpiece [97]. The cutter – part intersection along the tool path is evalu-
ated at feed rate increments using solid modelling tech-
• Arbitrary Lagrangian Eulerian (ALE) formulation,
niques. The intersection geometry is required to solve
where the grid is not attached to the material and it
machining process simulation algorithms [93]. The ma-
can move to avoid distortion and update the free chip
chining process simulation engine is based on the laws of
geometry [67].
metal cutting mechanics and dynamics, it pulls the re-
quired machine tool and work material parameters from
A 3D FEA-Simulation of a Milling Process [85], [122] is the data base and predicts the cutting forces, torque,
presented in Figure 29. power, static and dynamic deformations of the machine
tool-part-fixture along the tool path. For a given set of
3D CAD-Model FEA-Model constraints, such as maximum power-torque-dynamic
stiffness of the machine and chip thickness limit of the
cutting edge, the speed and feed can be optimised to
maximise the material removal rate.
FINAL PROCESS
CAD MODEL PLAN
Tool, Material,
NC Tool Path Machine-Tool Optimized Speed,
M
Cutter Geometry Data Base Feed, Depth,
A
Width, Error
C
Compensation
H
I
3D Simulation of a Milling Process Cutter-part Virtual
VirtualMachining
Machining N
intersection process E
calculations simulation
MONITORING
MONITORINGAND
AND T
CONTROL
CONTROLDATA
DATA O
Peak force, O
PATH PLANNER Path Strategy
torque, power, L
CL File Analysis
tracking error,
modal frequencies
Cutting
NC Code:
...
Tool
N9 X-8.0056 Toolpath
N10 X- 7.9655 Y49.3901
Tool Toolholder Housing Shaft Hydraulic Bearing Pulley
N11 X-6.3125 Workpiece fluid
N12 G3 X28.2708 Y49.1355 I17.3496 -8
J7.7454 x 10
4
N13 G1 X42.8735 Experiment
FRF-Magnitude[m/N]
N14 G3 X102. Y- 7.5278 I67.1265 J10.8645 Simulation
3
N15 G1 Y-8.
N16 X23.083
N17 Y-3.2 2
N18 Y1.6
... 1
0
500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Frequency [Hz]
Figure 31: Simulation of virtual machining of a part with Figure 32: FRF-Simulation of a spindle.
features.
The stiffness changes and contact forces at the bearings
Similar to machining, the process forces during forming and static and dynamic displacements along the spindle
and grinding have also been studied, however mainly for shaft assembly can be simulated instead of manufactur-
process and machine design purposes. The goal of virtual ing and testing the spindle on a real machine which is a
production is to integrate all steps of the manufacturing lengthy and costly process.
cycle into the simulation environment in order to achieve Figure 33 shows the optimisation of the bearing locations
a true digital factory. to achieve maximum depth of cut at 9000 rev/min spindle
speed for a four fluted end mill machining aluminium
5.1 Simulation of chatter vibrations in cutting alloy, and a simulation of bearing contact loads during
The dynamics of the machine tool have a major influence milling with the same tool [10]. The spindle was unstable
on the productivity of machine tools. The designers must at the desired spindle speed of 9000 rev/min before the
consider the interaction between the process and the optimisation of bearing locations.
structure in the virtual environment so that the optimal
dynamic stiffness is achieved during the design stage of
the machine and spindle system [9]. Initial design 1
8 Initial design 2
While the major parts of the machine tool, such as col- Initial design 3
Depth of cut [mm]
umn, headstock and table dynamics influence the stability Optimized design Desired
6
Cutting
of low speed machining with large cutters, the stability of Potint
high speed machining is usually determined by the dy- 4
namic behaviour of the spindle-bearing-system and the
tool. The dynamic stiffness of the spindle-bearing-tool 2
assembly can be improved by optimising the locations of
the bearing and direct drive motor along the shaft [63]. 0
2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000
Typically, a Finite Element model of the prototype spindle Spindle speed [rpm]
is modelled by including kinematics of the angular contact
bearings, speed effects and preload. The validity of the 200
Bearing 1
Finite Element model is tested experimentally, and the Bearing 2
mathematical model is improved until realistic results are Bearing 3
obtained. Only the damping ratios of the spindle are bor- 150 Bearing 4
Contact force [N]
20
16
Stability charts can either be determined experimentally 166 179
Fx(t)
GFyy
Fz(t)
GFzy
Tt
stable
dzFz(t)
dyFx(t)
which in turn vary the cutting forces that excite the struc-
b kcb
b kcb dyFy(t)
b kcb dyFz(t) Tt
f [Hz]
dxF x(t)
dxF y(t)
dxF z(t) Tt
n [min-1]
ture. If the process becomes unstable with chatter vibra-
tions, the cutting load on the machine may grow a few
times more than the rigid case and leads to poor surface
Figure 34: Simulation of stability chart for the milling of
finish, short tool life and damage on the spindle/machine
aluminium aerospace parts.
structure [6].
While Frequency Domain chatter stability solutions pro-
For HPC processes of aluminium parts typically tools with vide a direct relationship between the dynamic stiffness of
two or three cutting edges are used which are character- the machine and the process, the time domain simulation
ised by a time varying behaviour. In this case the time allows prediction of dynamic cutting forces and dimen-
varying behaviour is caused by the change of the cutting sional surface errors for complex tools and processes
force direction. For this reason time domain simulation while machining a specific part under defined cutting
techniques are used for the simulation of the stability of conditions.
the cutting process. For this simulation the simulated
A sample prediction of stability lobes in both frequency
dynamic behaviour of the spindle-bearing-system is used
and time domain for an indexed cutter milling aluminium
as an input.
alloy is shown in Figure 36.
With the help of this simulation chain the theory of the
The simulation also shows predicted and experimentally
stability behaviour of cutting processes which is known for
measured dimensional form errors at one specific cutting
a long time becomes applicable for end-users in the area
condition [7].
Stability Lobes for Bull Noes Cutter and Al7075 machine tool and process has to be carried out in time
6
Analytical
domain.
(9500 rpm) (1400 rpm)
5
Time domain
(A=7mm) (A=7mm) The aim of the research project SindBap is to develop an
approach for the integrated simulation and optimisation of
Axial depth of cut [mm]
4
industrial processes [25]. This co-operative project is
3 founded by the German Federal Ministry of Education and
Research. For the integrated analysis and optimisation of
2
industrial production processes time domain simulation
1 models of the process and the machine tool as well as the
workpiece are coupled. The cutting forces cause a rela-
0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000
Spindle speed [rev/min]
12000 14000 16000 tive displacement between tool and workpiece which
changes the instantaneous chip area which affects the
[N] [N]
1500
Exeperimental Resultant Force
1500
Exeperimental Resultant Force
cutting process again. This approach enables the investi-
1000 1000 gation of effects of the machine tool, the workpiece and
500 500 the process.
0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Rotation Angel [deg]
6000 7000
0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Rotation Angel [deg]
6000 7000 Denkena et al. [33], [35], [37], [101] developed the cutting
Rmax=12 um
Surface Roughness
Rmax=2 um
Surface Roughness simulation system CutS which combines different simula-
15 15 tion environments, see Figure 38.
Y [um]
Y [um]
5 5
-5
3
2
-5
3
2
The approach for a coupled simulation of the manufactur-
3 3
Z [mm]
(axial direction)
1
0 0 0,5 1
1,5
Z [mm]
2 2,5 Z [mm]
(axial direction)
1
0 0 0,5 1
1,5
Z [mm]
2 2,5
ing process is to combine separate simulation models via
[Amp.]
100
FFT for Resultant Force
(feed direction)
[Amp.]
100
FFT for Resultant Force
(feed direction)
interfaces and also to include the supporting software
80 Chatter 80 Tooth Passing tools, e.g. FEA-systems for the simulation of the manu-
Frequency
60
40
Frequency
(1448 Hz)
60
40
(467 Hz) facturing process [36].
20 20
0 0
0 200 400 600 800 1400 1600 1800 2000 0 200 400 600 800 1400 1600 1800 2000
Frequency [Hz] Frequency [Hz]
Disp. F
The advantage of such an architecture is a relatively
- ∆
&
S Vel. 0
simple exchangeability of single simulation sub models.
t Through variation of model parts, modelling and calcula-
tion techniques the possibility of studies concerning
Integrated Simulation of Workpiece FPro. f
F(t)
model complexity and extent is given. Due to the non-
Machine Tool, Workpiece ∆
linear system behaviour, the simulation has to be solved
and Process
xd
in the time domain [37], [101].
Results The data flow of such a coupled simulation is shown in
Quality and Tolerances Process Stability Figure 39.
Input data for such a system in general is the NC-code
Depth of Cut [mm]
reference
Simulation Module
Cutting Process Integrated
IntegratedSimulation
simulationand
andOptimisation
optimisationofofthe
theProcess
processChain
chain
Forces
Rough- Hard-
Forging Machining Hardening Machining Grinding Measuring
Forces
Motions
Virtual
NC-Kernel
NC-Code
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