Laser Oscillation

13: LASER Oscillation

CONTENTS:

• LASER optical amplication

• Optical feedback and LASER oscillation

• Cavity Lifetime

• Rate equation of laser oscillator

• Lasing threshold and gain clamping

• Optical gain and emitter power

• Dependence of output power on mirror reflectivity

LASER Optical Amplification

LASER: Light AMPLIFICATION by Stimulated Emission of Radiation
First we looked at the propagation of light
in a material exhibiting optical gain: Optical Gain
⎛ g 2 ⎞ c 2 A21
γ (ν ) = ⎜ N 2 − N1 ⎟
⎝ g1 ⎠ 8πν 2
L
I(L)>I(0) + Pumping
I(0) Medium with g R
gain γ and N 2 − 2 N1 =
internal loss αi g1 1 τ 21 + W

pumping
→ exponential growth
(when gain exceeds
internal losses)
I ( z ) = I 0 exp[(γ − α )z ]
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Laser Oscillation

Optical Feedback and LASER Oscillation

LOSER: Light OSCILLATOR using Stimulated Emission of Radiation
Now we look at optical feedback, i.e. a gain material inside a laser cavity:

L
Mirror M1 Mirror M2
HR Medium with OC (Output Coupler)
(High Reflector) gain γ and
internal loss αi
Reflectivity Reflectivity R2 < 100%
R1 ≈ 100% (e.g. 98%)
pumping

Why a resonator / cavity?

• γ is typically small (~0.1m-1) so multiple passes needed for sufficient
amplification (exception e.g. Nd-glass lasers)
•optical feedback gives self-sustained laser oscillation rather than laser
amplification - and hence longitudinal coherence of beam
•optical resonator determines frequency of oscillation → tunability
3

Cavity Lifetime: Rate Equation of Empty Cavity

First we look at a light field created in an empty cavity, i.e. there is no light
absorption or amplification.

The propagating light bounces around inside the cavity. Some of the light is lost
through scattering, diffraction at the cavity edges, etc; also some is emitted
through the partially transmitting mirrors. The light intensity in the cavity therefore
gradually decays.

If the transmission of the mirrors is sufficiently small, the decay can be

represented as a distributed spatial loss, arising from internal losses (αi) and
mirror losses (αm):
dϕ ( z )
= −(α m + α i )ϕ ( z )
dz
Equivalently, the loss can be represented by a finite cavity lifetime τcav in the time
domain: dϕ t () ϕt ()
=−
dt τ cav
We can see how this works by considering a short “pulse” of light propagating
in the laser cavity:
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Calculation of Cavity Lifetime

Light “pulse” propagating within cavity
L
Mirror M1 refractive Mirror M2
Reflectivity R1 index n Reflectivity R2

Zero time: t=0 φ (z) = φ 0

Single pass: t=(nL/c) φ (z+L) = R2φ 0
Round trip: t=(2nL/c) φ (z+2L) = R1R2φ 0
dt ⎛ ∆t ⎞ ⎧(∆t )RT << τ cav
τ cav = − ϕ ≈ −ϕ ⎜ ⎟ if ⎨
dϕ ⎝ ∆ϕ ⎠ RT ⎩(∆ϕ ϕ )RT << 1 (i.e. R1R2 ≈ 1)
⎛ ϕ ⎞ ϕ (z )
∴τ cav ≈ −⎜ ⎟ (∆t )RT = − (2nL c )
⎝ ∆ϕ ⎠ RT ϕ (z + 2L) − ϕ (z ) (2nL c )
τ cav ≈
1 − R1R2
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Cavity Lifetime 2
Exercises:
1. For a symmetric high reflectivity cavity (R1 =R2 = R ≈ 1), show that the
cavity lifetime is given by

τ cav ≈
(nL c )
1− R

2. Internal losses also affect the cavity lifetime. By writing the lifetime in terms of
the internal losses (αi) and mirror (αm) losses, show that
(2nL c )
τ cav =
2α i L − ln ( R1R2 )

3. Show that the formula in (2) approximates to

(2nL c )
τ cav ≈
1 − R1R2
when R1 R2 ≈ 1 and αi is small.
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Laser Oscillation

Rate equation for laser material in a cavity

dφ ⎛ dφ ⎞ dφ
+ ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟
We combine the terms for the radiative
transition rates and the cavity loss =⎜ ⎟
(spontaneous emission can be dt ⎝ dt ⎠ radiative ⎝ dt ⎠ cavity loss
neglected since it is isotropic and so
⎛ g ⎞ φ
couples weakly to the laser cavity mode) = ⎜ N 2 − 2 N1 ⎟ B21 ⋅ ρ −
⎝ g1 ⎠ τ cav
dI ⎛ g ⎞ I
Converting to irradiance: = hυ ⋅ ⎜ N 2 − 2 N1 ⎟ B21 ⋅ I −
dt ⎝ g1 ⎠ τ cav
In terms of optical gain γ :

⎛ g ⎞ c 2 A21 dI 8πν 2 hυ ⋅ B21 I

γ = ⎜ N 2 − 2 N1 ⎟ = γI −
⎝ g1 ⎠ 8πν 2 dt c2 A21 τ cav

Using Einstein’s relation for A21/B21: dI I

= cγI −
dt τ cav
… a rate equation for laser material in a cavity
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Lasing threshold and gain clamping

We could have obtained this dI ⎛ dI ⎞ ⎛ dI ⎞
result more directly if we =⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟
dt ⎝ dt ⎠ radiative ⎝ dt ⎠cavity loss
converted to the spatial gain
(dI/dz) and remembered the ⎛ dI ⎞ ⎛ dI ⎞ I
= c⎜ ⎟ +⎜ ⎟ = cγI −
definition of the gain coefficient: ⎝ dz ⎠ radiative ⎝ dt ⎠ cavity loss τ cav

In steady state (dI/dt=0), there ⎛ 1 ⎞

⎜⎜ cγ − ⎟I = 0
are two solutions to the equation:
⎝ τ cav ⎠⎟

I=0 I is finite
There is no light (neglecting There is light of intensity I inside the
spontaneous emission) in the laser laser cavity, and the gain is clamped
cavity, i.e. the optical loss exceeds to a fixed value:
1
the optical gain. γ th =
cτ cav
BELOW THRESHOLD
FOR LASING AT OR ABOVE LASING
THRESHOLD
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Laser Oscillation

Threshold Gain Coefficient γth (another approach)

L

Mirror M1 Medium with Mirror M2

Reflectivity R1 gain γ and Reflectivity R2
internal loss αi

pumping
Round-trip gain G: I2
= R1R2 exp[2(γ − α i )L ]
G=
I1
Self-sustained oscillation when round trip gain G = 1 and γ = γth
R1R2 exp[2(γ th − α i )L] = 1
1 ⎛ 1 ⎞
∴ γ th = α i + ln⎜ ⎟ = αi + α m
where α m is the mirror loss : 2 L ⎝ R1R2 ⎠
1 ⎛ 1 ⎞ 1 1
αm = ln⎜ ⎟ = − ln ( R1R2 ) = ln ( R1R2 )
2 L ⎝ R1R2 ⎠ 2L 2L
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Gain coefficient and light intensity

We earlier found the and the population inversion
spatial gain coefficient: for a 4-level system:
⎛ g2 ⎞ g2 R
γ = ⎜ N2 − N1 ⎟σ 0 N2 − N1 =
⎝ g1 ⎠ g1 1 τ sp + W

Hence ⎛ R ⎞ Rτ spσ 0 Rτ spσ 0

γ = ⎜⎜ ⎟σ 0 = =
1 τ sp + W ⎟ I (ν ) I (ν )
⎝ ⎠ 1+ 1+
c B21τ sp I sat

Below lasing threshold ⎧ c2

• light density in laser cavity is zero ⎪γ = R τ σ
sp 0 = R
• gain increases linearly with pumping: ⎨ 8πν 2
⎪I = 0
⎩
Above lasing threshold: γ = γ
⎧ th
• gain is clamped at γth ⎪
⎨ ⎛ Rτ spσ 0 − γ th ⎞ ⎛ R ⎞
• light density increases ⎪ I = I sat ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = I sat ⎜⎜ − 1⎟⎟
⎩ ⎝ γ th ⎠ ⎝ Rth ⎠
with pumping rate for R>Rth:
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Laser Oscillation

Emitted laser power

Power emitted by stimulated emission in a lasing mode of volume V is:
dφ ⎛ g ⎞
Pe = V ⋅ hν ⋅ ⎛⎜ ⎞⎟ = V ⋅ hν ⋅ ⎜ N 2 − 2 N1 ⎟ ⋅W
⎝ ⎠ stim
dt ⎝ g 1 ⎠
Hence above threshold (R>Rth) in an ideal 4-level laser:

γ th ⎛ σ 0 ⎞ ⎛ γ ⎞
Pe = V ⋅ hν ⋅ ⋅ ⎜⎜ R − 1 τ sp ⎟⎟ = V ⋅ hν ⋅ ⎜ R − th ⎟ = V ⋅ hν ⋅ ( R − Rth )
σ 0 ⎝ γ th ⎠ ⎜ σ 0τ sp ⎟⎠
⎝
The power from spontaneous emission at threshold is similarly:

⎛ dφ ⎞ N γ
Ps = V ⋅ hν ⋅ ⎜ ⎟ = V ⋅ hν ⋅ 2 ≈ V ⋅ hν ⋅ th = V ⋅ hν ⋅ Rth
⎝ dt ⎠ spon τ sp σ 0τ sp

Hence a very simple expression for the power emitted from an ideal 4-level laser:
⎛ R ⎞
Pe = Ps ⋅ ⎜⎜ − 1⎟⎟ (R>Rth)
⎝ Rth ⎠
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Optical gain and emitted power of a laser

gain: power:
( R < Rth ) ⎧ 0 (R < Rth )
⎧ Rτ σ ⎪
γ = ⎨ 21 0 Pe = ⎨ ⎛ R ⎞
⎩ γ th ( R ≥ Rth ) P⎜ − 1⎟
⎪⎩ s ⎝⎜ Rth ⎠⎟
(R ≥ Rth )
optical emitted
gain γ power Pe
γth= αi +αm
=(cτcav)-1 Pe=Ps
threshold

γ=αi transparency

γ=0 inversion
pump pump
Pe=0
Rth rate R Rth 2Rth rate R
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Laser Oscillation

Output power: dependence on mirror reflectivities

We’ve focussed on how the laser output power depends on the pumping rate R,
but we can also work out how it depends on the mirror reflectivities. And for
a given laser material or configuration, we can work out how reflective to
make the mirrors, in order to optimise the light output!

We know the following:

1. The gain saturates with power according to the equation: γ0
γ=
where PS is the power associated with spontaneous 1 + Pe Ps
emission at threshold.
2. PS scales with the threshold gain γth :
Ps ≈ V ⋅ hν ⋅ γ th σ 0τ sp = Ps′γ th
3. At threshold, the gain balances the losses: γ th = α m + α i

Rearranging (1) and taking account of (2), ⎛γ ⎞ ⎛γ ⎞

Pe = Ps ⎜⎜ 0 − 1⎟⎟ = Ps′γ th ⎜⎜ 0 − 1⎟⎟
we obtain: γ
⎝ th ⎠ γ
⎝ th ⎠
⎛ γ0 ⎞
Pe = Ps′(α m + α i )⎜⎜ − 1⎟⎟
⎝ (α m + α i ) ⎠
Substituting (3) we get:

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Output power (2)

We have calculated Pe, the power emitted by stimulated emission within the laser.
What we can measure is Pout, the light coming out through the mirrors. This is just
given by the fraction of the total light which couples into mirror loss rather than
internal loss:
⎛ αm ⎞ ⎛ γ0 ⎞
Pout = ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ Pe = Ps′α m ⎜⎜ − 1⎟⎟
⎝ α m + αi ⎠ ⎝ (α m + α i ) ⎠
How does this vary with the mirror loss αm ?
Look at the limiting cases:
Pout
•When αm is zero: no light gets out of the cavity!
Pmax
•When αm is small: Pout increases linearly with αm
Pout ≈ Ps′α m (γ 0 α i − 1)

•When αm is large: Pout decreases linearly with αm

(think about why…) Pout ≈ Ps′(γ 0 − α m ) αm
Hence there must be a value of αm which
maximises the output power α m ( Pmax ) γ 0 − αi
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Laser Oscillation

Output power (3): (important) exercise

A simple laser contains a medium with a gain coefficient (at low optical power) of
0.1cm-1, and an internal loss coefficient of αi =0.02 cm-1. The gain medium fills
the space between two parallel plane mirrors, one with reflection coefficient of
R1=100% and the other with a reflection coefficient R2.

• Find an expression for the mirror loss αm which maximises the output power.
• Calculate the corresponding mirror reflectivity R2.
• Calculate the corresponding threshold gain γth .
• Find an expression for the maximum output power Pmax .

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What U need 2 know: LASER oscillation

Describe briefly: • multiple passes for sufficient amplification
Role of cavity in a laser • optical feedback gives self-sustained oscillation
• resonant cavity → tunability
Definition of: dϕ (t ) ϕ (t )
cavity losses =−
dt τ cav
Derivation of: (2nL c0 ) (nL c0 )
cavity lifetime τ cav ≈ ≈
1 − R1R2 1− R
Derive:
dϕ (t ) ⎡⎛ c0 ⎞ 1 ⎤
⎥ϕ (t )
rate equation for optical = ⎢⎜ ⎟γ −
gain medium in cavity dt ⎣⎝ n ⎠ τ cav ⎦

Solution 1: φ=0 (below threshold)

Derive:
steady state solution Solution 2: φ>0 (gain is pinned at
threshold value)
γ th = n c0τ cav
Derivation of:
optical gain at threshold 1 ⎛ 1 ⎞
γ th = α i + ln ⎜ ⎟ = αi + α m
(in terms of mirror losses) 2 L ⎝ R1R2 ⎠

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Laser Oscillation

What U need 2 know: LASER oscillation

Derive: Derive: Derive:
Dependence of optical Dependence of emitted Dependence of laser
gain on pump rate power on pump rate output power on
mirror losses

⎧ Rτ 21σ 0 ( R < Rth ) ⎧ 0 (R < Rth ) ⎛ γ0 ⎞

γ =⎨ ⎪ Pout ∝ Ps′α m ⎜⎜ − 1⎟⎟
⎩ γ th ( R ≥ Rth ) Pe = ⎨ ⎛ R
P⎜
⎞
− 1⎟ (R ≥ Rth ) (
⎝ mα + α i ) ⎠
⎪⎩ s ⎜⎝ Rth ⎟⎠

optical gain γ emitted power Pe Pout

αi +αm threshold
Ps
Pmax
αi transparency

inversion
0 pump
rate R αm
pump rate R 0
Rth Rth 2Rth
α m ( Pmax ) γ 0 − αi

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What U need 2 know: LASER oscillation

Describe briefly: • multiple passes for sufficient amplification
Role of cavity in a laser • optical feedback gives self-sustained oscillation
• resonant cavity → tunability

Definitions of:
⎧ dϕ ( z )
⎪⎪ dz = −(α m + α i )ϕ ( z )
cavity losses (in spatial domain)

⎨ dϕ (t ) ϕ (t )
cavity lifetime ⎪ =− (in time domain)
⎪⎩ dt τ cav

(2nL c0 ) (nL c0 ) (approximate

Derivation of: τ cav ≈ ≈
cavity lifetime 1 − R1R2 1− R forms)

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Laser Oscillation

What U need 2 know: LASER oscillation

Derive: ⎧ dϕ ( z ) = [γ − (α + α )]ϕ ( z ) (spatial
rate equation for optical ⎪⎪ dz m i domain)
gain medium in cavity
⎨
⎪ dϕ (t ) = ⎡⎛⎜ c0 ⎞⎟γ − 1 ⎤ϕ (t ) (time
⎢ n ⎥ domain)
⎪⎩ dt ⎣⎝ ⎠ τ cav ⎦
optical gain cavity loss

Derive: Solution 1: φ=0 (below threshold)

steady state solution Solution 2: φ>0 (gain is pinned at threshold value)

⎧γ th = α m + α i
⎨
⎩γ th = n c0τ cav
Derivation of:
optical gain at threshold
1 ⎛ 1 ⎞
(in terms of mirror losses) ∴ γ th = α i + ln⎜ ⎟ = αi + α m
2 L ⎝ R1R2 ⎠
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