ans 1

An electromagnetic field (also EMF or EM field) is a physical field produced by electrically charged objects.[1] It
affects the behavior of charged objects in the vicinity of the field. The electromagnetic field extends indefinitely
throughout space and describes the electromagnetic interaction. It is one of the four fundamental forces of nature
(the others are gravitation, weak interaction and strong interaction).

The field can be viewed as the combination of an electric field and a magnetic field. The electric field is produced
by stationary charges, and the magnetic field by moving charges (currents); these two are often described as the
sources of the field. The way in which charges and currents interact with the electromagnetic field is described
by Maxwell's equations and the Lorentz force law.

From a classical perspective in the history of electromagnetism, the electromagnetic field can be regarded as a
smooth, continuous field, propagated in a wavelike manner; whereas from the perspective of quantum field theory,
the field is seen as quantized, being composed of individual particles.

 Electricity Magnetism

The electromagnetic field may be viewed in two distinct ways: a continuous structure or a discrete structure.

Continuous structure[edit]
Classically, electric and magnetic fields are thought of as being produced by smooth motions of charged objects.
For example, oscillating charges produce electric and magnetic fields that may be viewed in a 'smooth', continuous,
wavelike fashion. In this case, energy is viewed as being transferred continuously through the electromagnetic field
between any two locations. For instance, the metal atoms in a radio transmitter appear to transfer energy
continuously. This view is useful to a certain extent (radiation of low frequency), but problems are found at high
frequencies (see ultraviolet catastrophe).[citation needed]

Discrete structure[edit]
The electromagnetic field may be thought of in a more 'coarse' way. Experiments reveal that in some
circumstances electromagnetic energy transfer is better described as being carried in the form of packets
called quanta (in this case, photons) with a fixed frequency. Planck's relation links the photon energy E of a photon
to its frequency ν through the equation:

E=hV

where h is Planck's constant, and ν is the frequency of the photon . Although modern quantum optics tells us
that there also is a semi-classical explanation of thephotoelectric effect—the emission of electrons from
metallic surfaces subjected to electromagnetic radiation—the photon was historically (although not strictly
 necessarily) used to explain certain observations. It is found that increasing the intensity of the incident
radiation (so long as one remains in the linear regime) increases only the number of electrons ejected, and has
almost no effect on the energy distribution of their ejection. Only the frequency of the radiation is relevant to the
energy of the ejected electrons.

This quantum picture of the electromagnetic field (which treats it as analogous to harmonic oscillators) has
proved very successful, giving rise to quantum electrodynamics, a quantum field theory describing the
interaction of electromagnetic radiation with charged matter. It also gives rise to quantum optics, which is
different from quantum electrodynamics in that the matter itself is modelled using quantum mechanics rather
than quantum field theory.

In the past, electrically charged objects were thought to produce two different, unrelated types of field associated
with their charge property. An electric field is produced when the charge is stationary with respect to an observer
measuring the properties of the charge, and a magnetic field as well as an electric field is produced when the
charge moves, creating an electric current with respect to this observer. Over time, it was realized that the electric
and magnetic fields are better thought of as two parts of a greater whole — the electromagnetic field. Until 1820,
when the Danish physicist H. C. Ørsted discovered the effect of electricity through a wire on a compass needle,
electricity and magnetism had been viewed as unrelated phenomena[citation needed]. In 1831, Michael Faraday, one of
the great thinkers of his time, made the seminal observation that time-varying magnetic fields could induce electric
currents and then, in 1864, James Clerk Maxwell published his famous paper A Dynamical Theory of the
Electromagnetic Field.[3]

Once this electromagnetic field has been produced from a given charge distribution, other charged objects in this
field will experience a force in a similar way that planets experience a force in the gravitational field of the sun. If
these other charges and currents are comparable in size to the sources producing the above electromagnetic field,
then a new net electromagnetic field will be produced. Thus, the electromagnetic field may be viewed as a dynamic
entity that causes other charges and currents to move, and which is also affected by them. These interactions are
described by Maxwell's equations and the Lorentz force law. This discussion ignores the radiation reaction force.
Ans 2

Gauss's law for magnetism is one of the four Maxwell's equations that underlie classical electrodynamics. It
states that the magnetic field B has divergence equal to zero,[1] in other words, that it is a solenoidal vector field. It
is equivalent to the statement that magnetic monopoles do not exist. Rather than "magnetic charges", the basic
entity for magnetism is the magnetic dipole. (Of course, if monopoles were ever found, the law would have to be
modified, as elaborated below.)

Gauss's law for magnetism can be written in two forms, a differential form and an integral form. These forms are
equivalent due to the divergence theorem.

The name "Gauss's law for magnetism"[1] is not universally used. The law is also called "Absence of free magnetic
poles";[2] one reference even explicitly says the law has "no name".[3] It is also referred to as the "transversality
requirement"[4] because for plane waves it requires that the polarization be transverse to the direction of
propagation.

The differential form for Gauss's law for magnetism is:

∇ B=0
where ∇ · denotes divergence, and B is the magnetic field.

The integral form of Gauss's law for magnetism states:

where S is any closed surface (see image right), and dA is a vector, whose magnitude is the area of
an infinitesimal piece of the surface S, and whose direction is the outward-pointing surface normal (see surface
integral for more details).

The left-hand side of this equation is called the net flux of the magnetic field out of the surface, and Gauss's law for
magnetism states that it is always zero.

The integral and differential forms of Gauss's law for magnetism are mathematically equivalent, due to
the divergence theorem. That said, one or the other might be more convenient to use in a particular computation.

The law in this form states that for each volume element in space, there are exactly the same number of "magnetic
field lines" entering and exiting the volume. No total "magnetic charge" can build up in any point in space. For
example, the south pole of the magnet is exactly as strong as the north pole, and free-floating south poles without
accompanying north poles (magnetic monopoles) are not allowed. In contrast, this is not true for other fields such
as electric fields or gravitational fields, where totalelectric charge or mass can build up in a volume of space.

Due to the Helmholtz decomposition theorem, Gauss's law for magnetism is equivalent to the following
statement:[5][6]

There exists a vector field A such that

B=∇ * A

The vector field A is called the magnetic vector potential.

Note that there is more than one possible A which satisfies this equation for a given B field. In fact, there are
infinitely many: any field of the form ∇φ can be added onto A to get an alternative choice for A, by the identity

∇ * A = ∇ *(A + ∇0)
since the curl of a gradient is the zero vector field:

∇ *∇0=0
This arbitrariness in A is called gauge freedom.

Field lines[edit]
The magnetic field B, like any vector field, can be depicted via field lines (also called flux lines) – that is, a set of
curves whose direction corresponds to the direction of B, and whose areal density is proportional to the magnitude
of B. Gauss's law for magnetism is equivalent to the statement that the field lines have neither a beginning nor an
 end: Each one either forms a closed loop, winds around forever without ever quite joining back up to itself exactly,
or extends to infinity.

The net magnetic flux out of any closed surface is zero. This amounts to a statement about the sources of
magnetic field. For a magnetic dipole, any closed surface the magnetic flux directed inward toward the south
pole will equal the flux outward from the north pole. The net flux will always be zero for dipole sources. If
there were a magnetic monopole source, this would give a non-zero area integral. Thedivergence of a vector
field is proportional to the point source density, so the form of Gauss' law for magnetic fields is then a
statement that there are no magnetic monopoles.

Ans 3

(a) kinetic theory formula

Remember that what follows applies to ideal gases only; the assumptions that we make certainly do not all
apply to solids and liquids.

This proof was originally proposed by Maxwell in 1860. He considered a gas to be a collection of molecules and
made the following assumptions about these molecules:
 molecules behave as if they were hard, smooth, elastic spheres
 molecules are in continuous random motion
 the average kinetic energy of the molecules is proportional to the absolute
temperature of the gas
 the molecules do not exert any appreciable attraction on each other
 the volume of the molecules is infinitesimal when compared with the volume of
the gas
 the time spent in collisions is small compared with the time between collisions

Consider a volume of gas V enclosed by a cubical box of sides L. Let the box
contain N molecules of gas each of mass m, and let the density of the gas be .
Let the velocities of the molecules be u1, u2, u3 . . . uN. (Figure 2)

Consider a molecule moving in the x-direction towards face A with velocity

u1. On collision with face A the molecule will experience a change of
momentum equal to 2mu1. (Figure 3)
It will then travel back across the box, collide with the opposite face and hit
face A again after a time t, where t = 2L/u1.

The number of impacts per second on face A will therefore be 1/t = u1/2L.

Therefore rate of change of momentum = [mu12]/L = force on face A due to

one molecule.

But the area of face A = L2, so pressure on face A = [mu12]/L3

But there are N molecules in the box and if they were all travelling along the x-direction then

Total pressure on face A = [m/L3](u12 + u22 +...+ uN2)

But on average only one-third of the molecules will be travelling along the x-direction.

Therefore: pressure = 1/3 [m/L3](u12 + u22 +...+ uN2)

If we rewrite Nc2 = [u12 + u22 + …+ uN2 ] where c is the mean square velocity of the molecules:

pressure = 1/3 [m/L3]Nc2 But L3 is the volume of the gas and therefore:

Pressure (P) = 1/3 [m/V]Nc2 and so PV = 1/3 [mNc2]

and this is the kinetic theory equation.

Now the total mass of the gas M = mN, and since  = M/V we can write

Pressure (P) = 1/3 [ρc2]

The root mean square velocity or r.m.s. velocity is written as c r.m.s. and is given by the equation:
r.m.s. velocity = c r.m.s. = [c2]1/2 = [u12 + u22 + …+ uN2 ]1/2/N

Ans 3 b)

Landau equation
Landau described the instability by the equation

(1)

for the amplitude of the dominant mode. Here is called Landau constant. Equation (1) is
called the Landau equation. Later we shall see that it is more properly regarded as a truncation of
a system of ordinary differential equation whose other terms are often but not always can be
discarded. If than (1) is the equation given by the linear theory. The second term on the
RHS of (1) is due to nonlinearity and may moderate or accelerate the exponentail growth rate of
the linear disturbance according to the sign of and .

Rewriting (1) as a linear equation

we find its solution as

 (2)

or equivalently

(3)

Ans 4

A pinch is the compression of an electrically conducting filament by magnetic forces. The conductor is usually
a plasma, but could also be a solid or liquid metal. Pinches were the first device used by humankind for
controlled nuclear fusion.[2]

The phenomenon may also be referred to as a Bennett pinch[3] (after Willard Harrison Bennett),electromagnetic
pinch,[4] magnetic pinch,[5] pinch effect[6] or plasma pinch.[7]

Pinches occur naturally in electrical discharges such as lightning bolts,[8] the aurora,[9] current sheets,[10] andsolar
flares.

Pinch effect
A name given to manifestations of the magnetic self-
attraction of parallel electric currents having the same direction. Theeffect at modest current levels of a few amperes can
usually be neglected, but when current levels approach a millionamperes such as occur in electrochemistry, the effect ca
n be damaging and must be taken into account by electricalengineers. The pinch effect in a gas discharge has been the
subject of intensive study, since it presents a possible way ofachieving the magnetic confinement of a hot plasma (a highl
y ionized gas) necessary for the successful operation of athermonuclear or fusion reactor.

The law of attraction which describes the interaction between parallel electric currents was discovered by A. M. Ampère i
n1820. For a cylindrical wire of radius r meters carrying a total surface current of I amperes, it manifests itself as an inwar
dpressure on the surface (Fig. 1) given by I2/2 × 107πr2 pascals. For the electric currents of normal experience, this force
issmall and passes unnoticed, but it is significant that the pressure increases with the square of the current, I2. For exam
ple,at 25,000 amperes the pressure amounts to about 1 atm (100 kilopascals) for a wire of 1-
cm radius, but at 106 amperes thepressure is about 1600 atm or about 12 tons in.-2 (160 megapascals).

Pinch pressure on a current-carrying conductor

There are a number of ways in which the magnetic field of a fusion reactor can be arranged around the plasma to hold itt
ogether, and one of these methods is the pinch effect. A fusion reactor using this type of confinement would ideally be at
oroidal tube in which the confined plasma would carry a large electric current induced in it by magnetic induction from atr
ansformer core passing through the major axis of the torus. The current would have the double function of ohmically heat
ingthe plasma and compressing the plasma toward the center of the tube.

Characteristically, as can be shown by high-

speed photography, the pinch forms at the inner surface of a discharge tube walland contracts radially inward, forming an
intense line, the pinch, on the axis; the pinch rebounds slightly; the contracteddischarge rapidly develops necks and kink
s; and in a few microseconds all structure is lost in an apparently turbulentglowing gas which fills the tube. Thus, the pinc
h turns out to be unstable, and plasma confinement is soon lost by contactwith the wall. The cause of the instability is ea
sily seen qualitatively: The pinch confinement can be described as beingcaused by the magnetic field lines encircling the
pinch which are stretched longitudinally but which are in compressiontransversely (Fig. 2). For a uniform cylindrical pinch
, the magnetic pinch pressure is everywhere equal to the outward plasmapressure, but at a neck or on the inward side of
a kink, the magnetic field lines crowd together, creating a higher magneticpressure than the outward gas pressure. Cons
equently, the neck contracts still further, the kink cuts in on the concave sideand bulges out on the convex side, and both
perturbations grow. The instability has a disastrous effect on the confinementtime.

Instability

The term theta pinch has come into wide usage to denote an important plasma confinement system which relies on there
pulsion of oppositely directed currents and which is thus not in accord with the original definition of the pinch effect (self-
attraction of currents in the same direction). Plasma confinement systems based on the original pinch effect are known a
s Zpinches.

Tokamak is essentially a lowdensity, slow Z pinch in a torus with a very strong longitudinal field. The helical magnetic fiel
dlines, resultant from the externally applied field and that of the pinch, do not close, that is, do not complete one revolutio
n ofthe minor axis in going around the major axis of the torus once. This is known theoretically to prevent the growth of c
ertainhelical distortions of the plasma. The performance of tokamak experiments has raised the possibility of achieving a
net powerbalance.

Ans 5

(i) Plasma oscillation

Plasma oscillations, also known as Langmuir waves (after Irving Langmuir), are rapid oscillations of the electron
density in conducting media such as plasmas ormetals. The oscillations can be described as an instability in
the dielectric function of a free electron gas. The frequency only depends weakly on the wavelength of the
oscillation. The quasiparticle resulting from the quantization of these oscillations is the plasmon.

Langmuir waves were discovered by American physicists Irving Langmuir and Lewi Tonks in the 1920s. They are
parallel in form to Jeans instability waves, which are caused by gravitational instabilities in a static medium.
Mechanism
Consider an electrically neutral plasma in equilibrium, consisting of a gas of positively charged ions and negatively
charged electrons. If one displaces by a tiny amount all of the electrons with respect to the ions, the Coulomb
force pulls the electrons back, acting as a restoring force.

'Cold' electrons[edit]
If the thermal motion of the electrons is ignored, it is possible to show that the charge density oscillates at
the plasma frequency
Ans 5 (iv) Plasma heating
Current heating

When an electric current is passed through the electrical conductive plasma, it generates heat in the plasma through its resistance like a
cooker hotplate. As this resistance decreases with increasing temperature, this method is only suitable for initial heating.
The plasma current which is induced in order to provide the poloidal magnetic field, produces heat just like a wire warms up
when an electric current flows through it. At JET, approximately 1 megawatt (MW) of power is supplied by the Ohmic heating,
which creates plasma currents of up to five million amperes. Ohmic heating is limited by two facts: Firstly the plasma current is
induced via transformer action, which employs an increasing magnetic field. It is therefore pulsed and does not allow continous
plasma operation. Secondly the electric resistance, which produces the heat, decreases with plasma temperature.

Zoom Image
Current heating

© IPP

High-frequency heating – the "microwave oven" principle

When electromagnetic waves of appropriate frequency are beamed into the plasma, the plasma particles absorb energy from the field of the
wave and transfer it to the other particles through collisions. The circular motions of the ions and electrons around the magnetic field lines
afford suitable resonances.
The orbital frequency of the ions is between 10 and 100 megahertz, that of the lighter electrons between 60 and 150 gigahertz.

Zoom Image
High-frequency heating – the "microwave oven" principle

© IPP
Neutral particle heating

Particles with high kinetic energy that are injected into the plasma transfer their energy to the plasma particles through collisions and heat
them: In a neutral particle injector first the ions are produced in an ion source and then accelerated by an electric field. To allow the fast ions
to penetrate into the plasma without hindrance from the magnetic field cage, first they have to be re-neutralised.
The neutralised particles shoot into the plasma and transfer their energy to the plasma particles through collisions. (On the development of
the ITER neutral beam heating >>)