DOCUMENTA MISSIONALIA - 15 (STUDIA MISSIONALIA - DOCUMENTA ET OPERA) FACULTAS MISSIOLOGICA - PONT. UNIVERSITAS GREGORIANA CLASSICAL HINDUISM MARIASUSAI DHAVAMONY UNIVERSITA GREGORIANA EDITRICE - ROMA - 1982 This one 9S6R-ZYF-SZ3HCuapTeR ONE REVELATION InrRODUCTION Hinduism possesses definite sets of documents which are re- garded as conveying unique divine truths which need to be known for salvation. It makes the claim of having these saving truths as not merely man-made, nor even man-discovered, but divinely inspired. There are two sets of such documents recognised as be- longing to its sacred Scripture. They are Sruti and Smrti. Sruti means that which has been heard and communicated from the be- ginning; sacred knowledge orally transmitted by the Brahmans from generation to generation; that is to say, the Veda, the sacred knowl- edge, eternally heard by certain holy sages, as different from what is only remembered and handed down in writing by human authors. The whole body of sacred tradition or what is remembered by human teachers, in contradistinction to what is directly heard or revealed to the sages, is called Srarti. The Veda,' as we have it, is historically divisible into three strata: ‘collections’ of hymns and formulas (Savshitas),? sacrificial texts (Brabmanas),* ‘forest treatises’ (Aranyakas)* which’ culminate in the Upanishads.* All these texts and the Bhagavad-gita* which 1 The Veda is spoken of both in the singular and in the plural; in the singular it means sacred knowledge, sacred wisdom, contained in the revealed texts, which forms the primary authority in matters religious; in the plural, it refers to the four Vedas: Rig Veda (verses recited in the course of sacrifices), Sima Veda (a collection of chants or melodies; Yajur Veda (a collection of sacrificial formulae); finally, Atharva Veda (a collection of magical formulae). 2 "These are prayers or hymns in which the praises of the gods are sung and their blessing is invoked. 3 These embrace both the liturgical institutes in which the ceremonial applica- tion of Vedic hymns is prescribed. + These are secret treatises read in isolation in the forest because of their occult nature; they contain prayers, sacrificial and magical formulas. 5 These are theological treatises in which the spiritual aspirations which were6 M. DHAVAMONY practically is considered as containing sacred knowledge, belong to Sruti or revelation, containing eternal truth. Smrti, on the other hand, is said to comprise aphorisms (sifras), generally philo- sophical in content, the Law Books (Dharma-Satras), long mytho- logical works (Purdnas), and the two epics (Mahabharata and Ré- mayana). These are also called Vedariga (limbs of the Veda), con- taining eternal truths but mixed with human truths. The authority of the first category of texts (Sruti) is primary because it contains primary revelation in the form of direct experience, whereas the authority of the second (Syrti) is secondary as it is a recollection of that experience. We have Manu’s statement on the dignity and authority of Hindu Scriptures as follows. “By Sruti is meant the Veda, and by Smrti the Dharma-Sastras: the contents of these are not to be ques- tioned by reason, since from them arises dharma... To those who are seeking a knowledge of dharma, the Sruti is the supreme au- thority.”” The term dharma is difficult to define in the Hindu con- text. It is the form of things as they are and the power that keeps them as they are. The eternal dharma sustains the whole cosmos in being and holds together mankind in the moral and religious sphere. The eternal dharma is set down in the Hindu sacred texts and in- cludes all the religious assumptions on which the Hindu laws are based.* Hence those who are seeking to know and follow dharma have to rely on the supreme authority of the Veda. Our purpose here is to study and determine the nature of revela- tion that is proper to Hinduism and to bring out the various ele- ments that constitute the specific character of the Hindu revelation. 1) Toe Oricin or REvELATION Accorpinc To Hinpu ScripTurEs The whole of the Hindu sacred Literature, or greater part of it, appears to have been composed and preserved orally. This is under- gradually developed in the minds of the more devout of the Indian sages are preserved * Tucked away in the middle of the Mahabharata is the most important, the most influential, and the most luminous of all the Hindu Scriptures, which has been separated from the great epic and given the name, Bhagavad-gita. 1 Manu 2.108: Srutistu vedo vijfteyo dharma-tastrantu vai smritib, te sarvartheshv amimarrsye tabbyan dbarmo bi nirbabkau... dbarmari jijfidsamananam pramanam paramatht Srutib. 8 Manu 25,REVELATION 7 standable by the fact that the Indian learned men at ancient times were trained in extraordinary memory. These oral compositions were transmitted from generation to generation with meticulous care. Only comparatively recently have they been committed to writing. First, it is clear from the sacred texts themselves that the an- cient sages speak of themselves as the authors of the hymns. We give here some examples of this: “This hymn, conferring wealth, has been made to the divine race, by the sages, with their mouth [or in the presence of the gods].”° Rig Veda 1.20.1. “Thus, O Indra, yoker of steeds, have the Gotamas made for thee pure hymns.” " Rig Veda 1.61.16. “Seeking heaven, the sages Kusikas have made a hymn with praises to thee, O, Indra.” " Rig Veda 3.30.20. Although the word ‘make’ (yi), used in the context of compositions of hymns, can be taken in the sense of ‘making supplications’ in which case it would mean ‘to offer up’ rather than ‘to compose’, this cannot be the case in such passages as Rig Veda 4.16.20, where the sage speaks of making the hymn as the Bhrigus made a chariot: “Thus have we made a prayer for Indra, the productive, the vigorous, as the Bhrigus fashioned a car...” Besides, one can adduce many texts where words expressing ‘to fashion’ or ‘to fabricate’ clearly indicate that the authors refer to the composition of their hymns. Second, the sacred authors also speak of supernatural attributes attaching either to themselves or to their compositions: “The pious sages who lived of old, and who conversed about sacred truths with the gods, led a conjugal life ...”® Rig Veda 1.179.2. “The rishis are various in character, profound in emotion; they are the sons of Angiras; they have been born from Agni.” " Rig Veda 10.62.5. “And, Vasishtha, thou art the son of Mitra and Varuna, born, O priest, from the mind of Urvasi... Born at the sacrifice, and impelled by adora- tions, they (Mitra and Varuna) let the same procreative energy fall into the jar; from the midst of this Mana [Agastya] issued forth; from this men say the rishi Vasishtha was produced.” Rig Veda 7.33.11 ff. 9 ayant devaya janmane stomo viprebbir asaya, akéri ratna-dhatamah 0 eva te hariyojand suvrikti indra brabmani gotamasab akran. 1 syaryavo matibbis tubbyari vipra indraya vabab kusikasah akran, 2 ye chid bi piirve ritasapab asan sakars devebhir avadann ritani, te chid avisur ityadi.8 M. DHAVAMONY “Varuna has placed Vasishtha in the ship; the beneficient [deity] has, by his mighty deeds, made him a rishi, [and caused] his worshipper to enjoy a fortunate existence, so that his days and dawns have been prolonged.” Rig Veda 7.88.4. “Combating their foes, like hosts of Maruts, the first-born of Brahma [or prayer?] are masters of all knowledge; the Kusikas have uttered a prayer accompanied with oblations; every one of them has kindled Agni in his house.” Rig Veda 3.29.15. From the above passages of the Rig Veda it becomes evident that a certain superhuman character is ascribed by the later rishis who composed the hymns to some of their predecessors; that the rishis speak of the divine influence in their compositions; and that wé come across passages in which the hymns are attributed to the agency of one or more particular deities. There are also passages where a certain mysterious knowledge is said to have been possessed by tishis. For example, it is said in Rig Veda 9.87.3: “A wise tishi, a leader of men, skilful, and prudent, is Usanas, through his insight as a seer; he has known the hidden mysterious name applied to these cows.” * The rishis, thus, often speak of themselves as authors and com- posers of the hymns, at the same time admitting that they have been prompted by supernatural aid. However, they do not seem to have had very clearly defined ideas of inspiration, although they were con- scious of divine assistance or at least implored it, while composing the hymns. While it is true that an efficacy is ascribed to the hymns, which could be interpreted as nothing greater than what we ordinarily mean by the efficacy of our prayers, a special mystical, magical, or supernatural power is represented as residing in the prayers and metres. It should be noted that the conviction that the rishis had of the divine inspiration falls very short of the conceptions which later writers entertain with regard to the supernatural origin and authority of the Veda. The gods from whom they supposed that they received illumination and assistance like Agni, Indra, Varuna, Pashan, etc. would disappear eventually or take secondary place in the Hindu pantheon, or will be thought of as divinities created in time. The only deity among the many referred to in the Rig Veda as soutces of illumination, to whom this remark does not apply, is shir viprab pura-etd jananam ribbur dbira Utana kavyena, sa chid viveda nibitari yad asim apichyani gubyark nama gondm.REVELATION 9 Vak or Sarasvati, who is identified with the supreme Brahman. In the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad it is said: “By speech, O monarch, Brahman is known. Speech is the supreme Brahman.” Later writers represent the eternal Lord (Ifvara) as the author of the Veda. The Upanishads also clearly indicate what their authors thought of their own inspiration, or that of their predecessors. “He who alone presides over every place of production, over all forms, and all sources of birth, who formerly nourished with various knowledge that rishi Kapila, who had been born, and beheld him at his birth.” Svetafvatara Up. 5.2. “By the power of austerity, and by the grace of the Veda, the wise Svetaévatara declared perfectly to the men in the highest of the four orders, the supreme and holy Brahman, who is sought after by the company of the tishis.” Svetdfvatara Up. 6.21. “This [doctrine] Brahma declared to Prajapati, Prajapati declared it to Manu, and Manu to his descendents. Having received instruction in the Veda from the family of his religious teacher in the prescribed manner, and in the time which remains after performing his duty to his preceptor; and when he has ceased from this, continuing his religious studies at home, in his family, in a pure spot, communicating a knowledge of duty [to young men]... a man attains to the world of Brahmi...” Chandogya Up. 8.15. The doctrine of the Upanishads on the origin of the Veda takes on two tendencies: non-dualist and theist. If the above mentioned texts bring out the theist current, namely, that it proceeds from God, the following passages emphasize its origin from, or rather its iden- tification with, the Absolute (Brahman). The Brihadaranyaka Upa- nishad teaches that as from a fire laid with damp fuel, clouds of smoke separately issue forth, so from the great Being (Bhita) has been breathed forth that which is Rig Veda, Yajur Veda, Sima Veda, Hymns of the Atharvans and Angirases, Upanishads, etc. (4.5.11). The Maitri Upanishad is even more explicit in its affirmation of all the scriptures originating from the All-One. “From this indeed do all living things, all worlds, all the Vedas, all the gods and all contingent beings issue forth, [though it abides ever] in itself. Its secret meaning (Upanisad) is: The real of the real.” (6.32) The Upanishads are the first recorded attempts of the religious seers at systematic theologizing. These religious thinkers pondered over those mighty problems which confront every serious religious person —10 M. DHAVAMONY the problems of the meaning of life and the world and of the rela- tion of the individual to the sacred. The Upanishads constitute the earliest written presentation of their religious insights, and as such have continued to be the generally accepted authoritative statements with which every subsequent orthodox theological formulation has had to show itself in accord, or at least not in discord. The Bhagavad-gita presents Krishna as the supreme God who tells Arjuna of the use of the Vedas for a Brahman. “As much use as there is in a tank flooded with water on every side, so much is there in all the Vedas for the Brahman who discerns.” (2.46) The meaning of this verse is much discussed, and commentators differ widely in their interpretation. Some commentators hold that there are certain uses that the enlightened Brahman alone can detect in the Vedas. Others” limit the uses of the Vedas to those aspirants who are just beginning the way of works (karma-marga) and understand the text in the sense that for the truly enlightened Brahman the utility of the Vedic ritual is comprehended in right knowledge, just as the utility of the tank is comprehended in that of the all-spreading flood of water. The second view seems to be more reasonable. The Veda is of use; so is a tank; but Krishna’s doctrine is the widely spreading flood. To worship the gods of the Vedas is to worship Krishna, for Krishna is the gods. It was Krishna who made the Upanishads, or Vedanta. Krishna says: “I am the father of this universe, the mother, the ordainer, the grand- sire; that which is to be known, and that which purifies; Ora; the Rig-, Sama-, and Yajur-Vedas ® too.” (9.17) Sometimes Krishna says that he is the Sama Veda (as in 10.22) because this Veda receives special honour in Chandogya Upanishad 1.1 as being the essence of the Rig Veda, from which nearly all %6 The ones who are afraid of allowing the teaching to depart too far from the old paths. 7 Such as Sankara. 18 The Vedas are sometimes reckoned three in number and sometimes four, according as the reference is to the collections themselves or to the nature of their contents; and of these two modes of reckoning, the second is the more ancient. One of the oldest divisions of the mantras (liturgical texts), is, in fact, that which distributes them into Rig, Yajus, Saman, generally accepted as valid for a period of much greater antiquity; i.e., into hymns, formulae, chants. When there is men- tion of the four, on the other hand, the reference is to the four collections as they exist at present.REVELATION iL its verses are derived. The fact that its verses are also chanted give it special value. More specifically, Krishna says, “I make my dwelling in the hearts of all: from me stem memory ®, wisdom, the dispelling of doubt. ‘Through all the Vedas it is I who should be known, for the maker of the Vedanta” am I, and I know the Vedas.” (15.15) It is significant that Krishna describes himself as the maker of the Vedanta, i.e. the Upanishads. Hence, Krishna’s teaching in the Bhagavad-gita is an epitome of the essentials of the whole Vedic teaching as contained in the Upanishads; and a knowledge of its teaching leads to the realisation of all human aspirations. 2) RevELATION IN Hinpu MyTHOLocy After having seen what the Hindu Scriptures themselves say of the origin and authority of the Veda (primary revelation), we now study the mythical accounts concerning the same point. First, the most ancient Vedas are described as having been produced from fire, air, and the sun. The Satapatha Brabmana relates that Prajapati toiled and performed austerity, that from this effort of his three worlds were created, — earth, atmosphere, and sky, that he brooded over them and created fire, and the sun, from which the three Vedas were produced: the Rig Veda from fire, Yajur Veda from air, and the Sama Veda from the sun. (11.5.8.1ff) The account of creation in Manu (1.21-23) also contains the same view: Brahma, after having fashioned all creatures, drew forth from fire, from air, and from the sun, the triple eternal Veda, distin- guished as Rik, Yajus, and Saman. The commentators™ on these texts have explained that the doctrine of the superhuman origin of the Vedas is maintained by the above cited texts. The Purdyas represent the four Vedas to have issued from the 4 Of past births (Anandagiri). ® Probably, the Upanishads. 2 Namely, Kullaka Bhatta says, “The word sandtana means ‘eternally pre-existing’. The doctrine of the superhuman origin of the Vedas is maintained by Manu. ‘The same Vedas which existed in the previous mundane era were preserved in the memory of the omniscient Brahmi, who was one with the supreme spirit.” See J. Muir, Original Sanskrit Texts, Vol. 3, p. 5, London, 1861. Another commentator, ‘Medhitithi remarks “that the Rig Veda opens with a hymn to fire, and the Yajur Veda with one in which air is mentioned.” Ibid. pp. 56.12 M. DHAVAMONY mouth of Brahma at the time of creation. In the Vishzu and Bha- gavata Purdnas it is said that the four Vedas have been created by the four-faced Brahma from his several mouths. “From his first mouth Brahma formed the rik verses... From his southern mouth he created the Yajus verses... From his Western mouth he formed the Sima verses ... From his northern mouth he framed the atharvan ...” Vishnu Purana 1.5.48 ff. “Once the Vedas sprang from the fourfaced creator, as he was medi- tating ‘how shall I create the aggregate worlds as before?” ... He formed from his eastern and other mouths the Vedas called Rik, Yajus, Siman, and Atharvan, together with praise, sacrifice, hymns, and expiation.” The Bhagavata Purdna 3.12.34 and 37 ff. It is significant that the Mahabharata in one passage speaks of the goddess Sarasvati as the mother of the Vedas: “Behold Sarasvati, mother of the Vedas, abiding in me.” * (Santi Parvan, verse 12920). While the Purusha Sikta (Rig Veda 10.90.9) derives the Vedas from the mystical Victim Purusha, the Atharva Veda (19.54.3) makes them spring from Time. Two passages from the Vishnu Purana assert the eternity of the Veda and its oneness with Vishnu: “The Sruti (Veda) derived from Prajapati (Brahma) is eternal; these, O Brahman, are only its modifications” (3.6. last verse); “He is com- posed of the Rik, of the Saman, of the Yajus; he is the soul ... of embodied spirits. Formed of the Veda, he is divided; he forms the Veda and its branches into many divisions ... the infinite Lord, whose essence is knowledge.” (3.3.19ff) The cosmogony in Hindu mythology is built upon the hymn to Purusha, the major source of cosmogonic thought in ancient India. The hymn visualizes creation as a sacrificial act — the self-immola- tion of the primal Being in order to produce the manifold worlds. This primal Being, called Purusha, came to signify in the later litera- ture the Supreme Being seen as a person and as the immortal sub- strate of the human soul. From his primeval sacrifice, the proto- type of all sacrifice, all things came into being. From that sacrifice completely offered were born the Rik, Saman, and Yajus, that is, the formulas of the three Vedas. In this context, it is under- standable why the Vedas are called the remnants of sacrifice, since creation itself is a sacrifice. We learn in the Purdnas about a primi- tive Veda, coming out of Brahma; to be more specific, the Vedas 2 vedanim matarars pasya matsthim devirk sarasvatim.REVELATION 13 make one whole with Brahma who is the sourse of their manifesta- tion; it is in making use of the words of the Veda, as primary matter, that Brahma determines the names, the forms and the func- tions of all beings. (Vishyu Puraya 1.5) Brahma is regarded both as a personification of all manifested universe, and as the Lord and Father of all beings (Prajapati). He possesses a double nature: one quiescent, the other active. The active was called his Sakti (Power) and was personified as his wife. Brahma with his four faces is connected with the utterance of the four Vedas. Hence the worship due to him was transferred to the Brahmans, regarded as his peculiar offspring and, as it were, his mouthpieces who possess the true knowledge (Veda). His consort Sarasvati is regarded as the goddess of speech and learning. She is sometimes identified with the Vedic Goddess, Vak (Speech) and invoked as patroness of sacred science. The primordial Word plays an essential role in the Vedic myth- ology.” Vak is the Word personified, the Goddess, Speech, In the earlier Rig Vedic texts the personalist aspect of the Word is prominent; in the later portions the impersonal aspect gains greater emphasis. As used in the Vedic texts, it may mean either merely human word, or a word, empowered with creative and efficacious force, or a word that embodies the Supreme Power, or the word of a creative god, or the word of the one God, the supreme God himself. All these meanings can either take a personal form or an impersonal form. The religious meaning of Vak, Speech, is closely connected with the religious, archaic, mythical vision of the Cosmos and its origin. On a pre-philosophical plane, Vak is the sacred Word, the sacred utterance which is empowered with divine power. In gen- eral, the Word is heard by seers, pronounced by the gods. It con- stitutes an incommensurable power. It is the divine Speech; it is marvelous, immortal, resounding in every generation anew, and of which the poet asks that it be maintained in us, that it be con- served for him. The sacred Word is the product of thought as it is implied in the Vedic poet’s invocation to Agni: “I bring my words and thought unto the Son of Strength”. In the Rig Veda 10.125 there is question of the sacrificial Speech as that which en- riches (2-3); but also of the cosmic Speech (7), universal principle of life (4, 8); at the lowest level, of the magical formula (6). The B See André Padoux, Recherches sur la symbolique et Vénergie de la Parole dans certains textes Tantriques, Paris, 1963, ch. 1.14 M. DHAVAMONY hymn expresses the origins of the sacred Speech; they reside in the names given by sages, acting in unison, meditating, sifting the lan- guage; they impress on the language a happy ‘sign’. Speech is as- sociated with sacrifice; one finds it in holy poets; one extracts it from them; one devises it to put it at the service of men. But not all are called to exercise it but only the elect; others are excluded from inspiration. One’s fitness is proved by a poetic contest which is a pious act and which saves from sin. In reality each separate god and the priest himself become the master of the sacred word (Brabmanaspati) at the moment when they pronounce the mantras which give them power over the things of heaven and of earth. The same idea in more abstract form comes out in Vak, the Speech, which is represented as an infinite power, as superior to the gods, and as generative of all that exists. The origins of Speech (Va) are clearly brought out in the Rig Veda 10.71: “O Brhaspati, that was the first beginning of the word, when [the seers] set out, giving names [to things]. That spotless and noblest [possession] of theirs, which had been hidden in them, was revealed through their affection. Where the wise [seers] have fashioned the word with their minds, as if sifting grain with a sieve, there the friends recognize the friend- ships, [for] their auspicious sign is imprinted on their word. By sacrifice they have followed the track of the word; they discovered her, entered into the seers. Taking her thence, they have settled her in many places; seven (ie., many) singers chant her in unison. Many a one, seeing, has not seen the word; many a one, hearing, does not hear her. But to many another she has revealed herself, like a fair-clothed bride, willingly, to her husband. Many a one they say is stiff and heavy in friendship; they cannot stimu- late him at all to [hymnal] contests. He moves about with infertile delusion; the word he has heard remains without fruit or flower. He who abandons (or, betrays) his friend, his colleage in knowledge, has no part in the word. Even if he hears her, it is all in vain that he hears; for he knows not the path of good action. Those who move not this way or that (ie., lazy and sluggish), who are no [true] priests and are not active in pressing the soma, in sinful fashion do they use the word; ignorantly they weave a web out of rags. All friends rejoice with a friend who returns in glory after winning, after having won in the assembly (hymnal contest). For he saves them from sin, gains for them sustenance, and is duely stimulated for [receiv- ing the price of] the contest.REVELATION 15 Thus on a pre-philosophical level the word Vale is the equi- valent of Logos; it is the prototype of the notion dtman-brahman (The Absolute). The terms which later designate the Absolute (brab- man, aksara) have denoted first ‘formulation’ or ‘word’ which is sacred.* Speech is pronounced at the origin of time and often personified as a creative and efficacious force, an energy (akti) which is both cosmic and human; man can harness it by means of sacred formula in which it is expressed and is therefore equalled to gods or first creative principle. * 3, REVELATION IN Hinpu THEOLOGY Religious thinkers have paid attention to what are called pra- ménas. The word pramapa signifies the essential means of arriving at valid knowledge. There is great diversity of opinion on the nature and scope of the means of valid knowledge. In general three such pramdpas are proposed: perception (pratyaksa), inference (anumana), and verbal testimony (Sabda). There are two aspects of verbal testimony (fabda) which should be noted. Namely, on hearing a sentence uttered, a certain impres- sion is produced on the mind through the auditory channel. This is perception and what we apprehend then are sounds occurring in a certain order. The second aspect is semantic and refers to the knowledge acquired by the testimony of others. Of the numerous facts one knows, only a small portion is obtained through personal observation or inference; the rest depends on the testimony of others which comes to him through spoken or written word. Here, of course, we take up the question of knowledge acquired through the divine testimony, forming the sacred tradition of the Hindus. The Nyaya system defines this means of valid knowledge as the testimony of a trustworthy person — one who knows the truth and communicates it correctly.” We find out that a person is trust- % See Otto Strauss, Altindische Spekulationen iiber die Sprache und ibre Pro- bleme, in Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenlindischen Gesellschaft, 1927 (81), pp. 99- 151. ‘On Vae and Logos (in St John) see A. Weber, Indische Studien, 9, 473-480; Schlottman and Weber, Indische Studien, 10, 444f, where Biblical parallels are found. % See L. Renou, Etudes Vediques et Paninéennes, T. 1, Patis, 1955. % See L. Renou, The Destiny of the Veda in India, Delhi, 1965, especially, para. 8 7 Tarka-sarngraba by Annathbhatta (Bombay Sanskrit Series), p. 50.16 M. DHAVAMONY worthy by the truth of his statements and by his unselfishness. Honesty and competence of the speaker guarantee its truth-value. On this principle it regards what is taught in the Veda as valid because its author is God, all-knowing and all-trustworthy*. Ac- cording to Mimathsa, the Veda is self-existent and its authority is inherent in it, as we shall see shortly. Hindu thinkers did not indiscriminately admit as valid what- ever belief had come down from the past even though it were to be found in the Veda. The Hindu theology felt the need for testing the mutual compatibility of the elements constituting each creed, and hence set about examining the traditional beliefs and tried to interpret them consistently. This interpretation involves a great deal of independent reasoning and the systematized doctrine which resulted from this reasoned inquiry constitutes Hindu theology. Hence, for the orthodox theologians, the Veda means revela- tion, which, if not exactly divine or coming from God, is super- natural in some sense. Beyond what human experience can attain is the transcendental sphere of being which can be known only by means of revelation (fruti). In that case the question arises: how does revelation as found in the Veda and received through verbal testimony stand related to experience in general and to reason in particular? The generally accepted views on this question are as follows: 1) The revealed truth should be new or extra-empirical, which cannot be attained by any other means except divine verbal testimony. The authority of revelation is not to be invoked to show that heat destroys cold, for it is a fact of common experience. But revelation should speak to us in terms of human experience in order to render its message intelligible and achieve its purpose. The novelty of the transcendental truth on the one hand and the need of its communication in terms of human experience on the other show us a new way of construing our experience. 2) The next condition is that what is revealed should not be contradicted by any of the other means of valid knowledge; nor should there be conflict between the different parts of Scripture. That is to say, the content of revelation should be internally coherent; though it is above reason, it should not be against reason. The fact that con- ditions are laid down for the validity of revelation shows that it cannot be opposed to reason. 3) Mote positively, reason can show that revealed truth is probable and can forecast roughly the truth % Nyaya Siitra 2.1.68.REVELATION 17 of revelation by means of analogies drawn from empirical experience. These are not proofs of revelation but serve to remove any ‘ante- cedent improbability’ of the revealed truth. Even in Sruti texts we come across the appeal to reason, especially in the Upanishads. In their view reason by itself cannot arrive at such truths. At best it can allude to two or more equally plausible conclusions; without the help of revelation it is impossible to avoid scepticism. For example, the survival of the self after death is not accessible to reason but there is nothing in reason which contradicts it. Thus revelation (frwti) remains an external authority. It is obvious that Scriptural truth also should have been known at first through direct intuition. If revelation thus represents the intuitive experience of ancient sages, then arises the question of explaining how far this experience of particular individuals is authentic. Hence the or- thodox thinkers introduce the condition that the revealed truth should have proved acceptable to the general mind of the com- munity (#ahdjana-parigraba) or that it should be in harmony with what may be called race-intuition. This sanction of the community determines what is authentically Hindu from the non-Hindu ele- ments of revelation. There have been proposed two different theologies to explain the authority and nature of the Veda as containing revealed doctrine. 1. Mimiathsa and Vedanta systems hold that the Veda is not only infallible but also eternal. Their reasoning can be summarized as follows. It is urged that like the sun, the Veda shines by its own light, and evinces an inherent power both of revealing their own perfection, and of elucidating all other things. Sayana says, “Although jars, cloth, and other such dark objects have no inherent property of making themselves visible, it is no absurdity to speak of the sun, moon, and other luminous bodies, as shining by their own light. Just in the same way ... let the all-penetrating Veda be held to have the power of proving itself as it has of proving other things” *. Sankara observes, “For the Veda has an independent power of demonstration in respect of itself, as the sun has of manifesting forms. The words of men, on the other hand, have a power of proving themselves, which is derived from another source [the Veda], and which is separated [from its source] by the recol- ® See Introduction to his Commentary on the Rig Veda, the Vedarthaprakasa.18 M, DHAVAMONY lection of the author. Herein consists the distinction [between the two kinds of evidence]” *. The language of which the Vedas are composed is eternal and therefore the Vedas are eternal. The Mimiathsa considers the Veda as produced by no author, human or divine, and states that in the otder of words as well as in the permanence of the text the Veda is eternal*. In this connection it is instructive to cite the opinion of Patafijali that while the sense of the Veda is eternal, the order of the words in it are not so”. Sankara modifies the view of Mi- méathsa to signify not that the Veda has no author and is eternal, but that it is produced, or more exactly, resuscitated at the begin- ning of each age by one that cannot interfere with its content or the order of words. He too bases the authority of the Vedas on the eternity of sound. The gods and the world are produced from the word of the Vedas in the form of sphota which is defined as a modification of sound, described as single, indivisible, distinct from individual letters, existing in the form of words, and con- stituting a whole*. Sankara concludes his discussion by saying, “So too in the case of Prajapati the creator, we conclude that before the creation the words of the Veda were manifested in his mind, and that afterwards he created the objects which resulted from them ... Of what sort, now, was this word which is intended, when it is said that the word was produced from the word? It was sphota (disclosure or expression), we are told”™, That is to say, “from the eternal word, in the form of sphota, which designates (all things), the object to be designated, viz., the world, under the three characters of action, causer, and the results of action, is pro- duced.” * Thus the eternity of the Veda is established by the fact that it was remembered by its Self-dependent Maker. This eternity % Sce his Commentary on Brahma Sitra 2.1.1. 3 See Mimarisa Satra 1.1.5: “The connection of a word with its sense is coeval with the origin of both. In consequence of this connection the words of the Veda convey a knowledge of duty, and impart unerring instruction in regard to matters imperceptible. Such Vedic injunctions constitute the proof of duty admitted Badardyana, author of the Vedanta Siitras, for this proof is independent of per- ception and all other evidence.” ® Mababhasya 4.3101: “Is it not said that the Vedas were not composed — but are eternal? Quite so; but it is their sense that is so, not the order of the syllables in them.” 3 BrabmaSitra Bhisya 1.3.28. 4 Ibid. see the end. 8 Tid. end of Stra 1.3.28 and 29.REVELATION 19 is not inconsistent with the admission that individual gods have begun to exist, since these gods are produced from it. In brief, the Veda is eternal and is self-evident. It it eternal not in its human form (svatab-pramanya) but in its form of word- significance (fabda-Sakti). The relation between the word and mean- ing is natural and necessary eternally. Hence while for the Safkara- Vedanta the Vedas are fabda-brahman, eternal sound-manifestation of Brahman, for the Mimathsa, Sabda is the eternal word which is the self-subsisting principle of all things, latent in all men but manifest in the rishis. 2) The Nyaya and Sarhkhya reject the eternity (or eternal self- existence) of the Veda and base the authority of the Veda on God’s authorship. The Veda depends on God both for its existence and for its validity. It is infallible because God is its author who is infallible and omniscient and trustworthy totally. From the Nyaya Siitras themselves it is not clear whether the wise and competent author of the Veda is God.* Later writers on the Nyaya such as the author of the Tarka Sangraba™ and of the Kusumafjali* clearly refer the Veda to God (Ifvara). The Sarskbya Sitras also deny the eternity of the Veda but do not derive the Veda from a personal God, and hence ascribe a self-demonstrating power to the Veda.” Vijfianabhiksu says that like breath which issues out with- out conscious effort, under the influence of the unseen factor the Veda came forth from the self-born Brahma (a god, not God). * Having exposed the views of the two different theologies of the Veda, I proceed now to elaborate the Vedanta theology of the 88 See Muir, Original Sanskrit Texts, Vol. III, op.cit., p. xvi. % Thid., p. 209: “Sentences are of two kinds, Vedic and secular. Vedic sen- ces, from being uttered by Ivara, are all proof [or authoritative]. Of secular sentences those only which ate uttered by a competent [or wise] person are proof; the rest are not proof. In this text the authority of the Veda is founded on its being uttered by Iévara; and this characteristic is regarded as limited to the Veda. % 2nd Stavaka, at the beginning: “Since truth [or authoritativeness] depends ‘on an external source, since creation and dissolution are probable, and since there is no confidence in any other than God, therefore no other manner can be conceived [in which the Veda originated, except from God?].” [Comment] Scriptural truth [or authoritativeness] is derived from the attribute, possessed by its promulgator, of comprehending the true sense of words [i.e., in order to constitute the Veda and authoritative rule of duty], it must have proceeded from an intelligent being who understood the sense of what he uttered, and not, as some maintain, from a being who unconsciously breathed it out; and since God is the substratum of this attribute [of intelligence], there is proof of his existence.” 9 Sarnkbya Sitras 545-51. See Hiriyanna, Outlines of Indian Philosophy, London, 1964, p. 397.20 M. DHAVAMONY Vedic revelation, since this forms the most widespread belief of the Hindus. God is the source or cause of the Veda. He is its author not in the sense in which e.g., Kalidasa is the author of Sakuntala, but in the sense that at the time of every creation God manifests the Veda exactly as it was in the past aeon. The Veda is not eternal in the sense in which Brahman is, but is beginning- less and everlasting, in the empirical sense. The authority of the Veda is intrinsic and self-evident, as all truth is; hence it is not derived from any extrinsic evidence such as God’s trustworthiness or authorship. The Veda is self-consistent and uncontradicted. Ac- cording to the non-dualist Vedanta, the Veda is just as real as the world. From the standpoint of absolute truth, both are unreal. Still, we can acquire true knowledge from the Veda, just as the appearance of a snake (false snake) can give an accurate idea of the real snake, or as one may get right solution of a problem in one’s dream. The primary aim of all means of valid knowledge is to serve empirical purposes. They do not give any guarantee for metaphysical validity such that what we commonly hold as real may not be truly so. Common knowledge or perception is true as long as one has not realised the identity of oneself with Brahman, as dreams are as long as one does not awake. Such a view con- siderably changes the idea of inherent validity of the Veda. Ac- cording to the non-dualist Vedanta, true knowledge derives its va- lidity by its very nature; there is no need of any explanation for it. This self-validity, which is proper to empirical knowledge, is relative. Hence the validity of the Veda is also to be understood in this way. Thus when the Veda teaches that heaven can be attained by the performance of the sacrifice, it is of course true from the em- pirical standpoint; the Veda does not guarantee the ultimate reality of heaven or anything connected with it. That is to say, from the absolute standpoint, all means of knowledge (pramdnas), including the Veda, lose their relative validity, except in the case of the Great Sayings of the Upanishads which teach the fundamental unity of Being. * Agreeing with other Vedantins, Ramanuja also holds logical validity for both assertive and injunctive propositions. He differs from Safkara on the question of resolving the contradiction between the two sections of the Veda, that which teaches the necessity of 4 See Revelation and Reason in Advaita Vedanta by K. Satchidananda Murty, New York, 1959, p. 238-239.REVELATION 21 works and that which teaches the necessity of knowledge. Since both of them are taken to be revealed, every school of the Vedanta tries to explain the mutual relation of these two teachings. Sankara assumes that they are meant for different classes of persons; the section of works meant for those who are under the influence of nescience (avidya) and the section of knowledge for those who, having understood the hollowness of works, try to transcend them and aim at higher knowledge. What is true and desirable from a lower standpoint is untrue and undesirable from a higher stand- point. Such an interpretation is logical, given the relative validity of the Veda. Raméanuja rejects this antithesis and maintains that the two sections form but one teaching, meant for the same class of people. The two teachings are complementary to each other; the section on works deals with the ways of worshipping God, while the section on knowledge treats of the nature of God.” This mutual relationship of the two sections are to be understood in the spirit of the teaching of the Bhagavad-gita; namely, that works are to be performed with disinterestedness with regard to the fruit of the action, with the sole purpose of securing God’s grace. Thus, Ramanuja replaces the diverse fruits of actions by the single one of ‘pleasing God’ by their performance. 4) Tue Messace or Hinpu REVELATION So far we have been explaining the origin and nature of the Veda which contains the Hindu revelation. What does the Veda teach? What are the contents of the revealed texts of Hinduism? What message do they give to Hindu believers and to the world? A brief account of the message of the Hindu Scriptures is helpful to have a better idea of what Hinduism means and what it stands for. Vedism is above all a religion of ritual and knows nothing of what we call faith. Faith (fraddha) in the Vedic sense amounts to little more than the exact observance of rites and confidence in their efficacy. Vedic Indians had to observe these rites faultlessly, to make religious donations and to practise good works. Vedic wor- ship is based on sacrifice which consists in paying solemn homage to the gods, carried out in the form of a more or less lengthy ceremony, culminating in offerings made to the sacred Fire. The ® Yantindra-mata-dipika, p. 27.22 M. DHAVAMONY function of sacrifice is to establish communication with the divine world which is believed to secure for men well-being or some par- ticular advantage. The later hymns of the Rig Veda evince the first inquiry into the ultimate principle which lies at the origin of the world and embraces the plurality of created beings. The sacred formula, the sacred power, that is inherent in sacrifice, is raised to the status of the ground of order that is found in the microcosm and macrocosm. Stripped of mythical and ritualistic elements, it becomes identified with the universal Self (atman) or the Absolute. The Upanishads give expression to ideas of a spiritual and mys- tical character which, though to some extent traceable in the hymns and in the older portion of the Brahmanas, are much further matured and take on a more significant importance, in these later treatises. The Upanishadic sages began their reverent inquiry into the ulti- mate nature of all that exists, into the innermost self of the objec- tive and subjective universe. This quest for the Absolute was through and through religious. In fact the problem of religion occupied the mind of these sages right from the beginning, for we read in one of the earliest texts: “From the unreal lead me to the real; from darkness lead me to light; from death lead me to immortality.” Bribadéranyaka Upanishad 1.3.28 The Upanishads embody a diversity of doctrinal and religious trends. The dominant trend is towards the oneness of the ultimate objective ‘ground? of all existence with the ultimate subject and principle of all consciousness, the ‘self? in man. Such an identification of the individual self with the universal pervades the speculative and mys- tical outlook of the earlier Upanishads. The typical case for this line of thinking is the Maydikya Upanishad which begins with the words: “This whole world is Brahman: The Self is Brahman. The realization (jfdna) of the Absolute with which the self is basically considered to be identical leads to liberation. Brahman is the ‘Real of the real’, the ‘inner controller’, the ‘inmost self’, the warp and woof of all things, the ‘unseen seer, the unheard hearer, the un- thought thinker, the un-understood understander’, other than the world but controlling it from within. In short, Brahman is both eternal Being and the source of all that comes to be and passes away and is the inmost self within the heart of man. This famousREVELATION 23 identification of the eternal essence of man with the changeless God- head that indwells and controls the entire universe is best conveyed in the formula: That thou art. Despite this non-dualist outlook, later Upanishads introduce important differentiations within the underlying oneness. They show a clear trend towards theism. In the Katha Upanishad the figure of a personal God emerges as the Lord of both the ideal world and the world of becoming. Purusha becomes one of the more frequent names of the immanent-transcendent Divine Being, to whom are attributed personal qualities and ethical perfections. What is of special interest to note in this context is that the mystical realisa- tion of the Absolute cannot be obtained by human knowledge but by the grace of God. “Through the grace of the creator he beholds the greatness of the Self”. (2.20) It is by means of this grace that an individual obtains release from illusion and reaches immortality. “In this Brahma-wheel the soul flutters about, thinking that itself and the activator are different. When favoured by him, it attains immortality.” Svetas. Up. 16 Mote explicitly the theist Upanishads proclaim: “This Self cannot be won by preaching him, not by sacrifice or much lore heard; by him alone can he be won whom he elects: to him this self reveals his own true form.” Katha Up. 2.23; Svet. Up. 3.20 The Svetdsvatara Upanishad attempts a new synthesis of Vedic and Upanishadic doctrines under the aegis of a personal God, Rudra- Siva, and crowns the ancient spiritual ways with the doctrine of grace and love of God (bhakti). In the Upanishads in general a new type of religious worship comes to the foreground, turning the ritual worship into a mystery cult symbolic of higher knowledge. This new form of worship consists in the reverent pursuit of, and ‘worshipful’ meditation on, the Absolute or God, with or without the help of grace. The Lord Siva causes bondage by his mayasakti and liberation by his prasada. He ‘whom no one knows’ (3.19) can be seen only by the one whom he chooses and upon whom he bestows grace. By the creator’s grace does a man whose sorrow’s spent descry the Lord whose active will transcends in majesty.” (3.20)24 M. DHAVAMONY The Lord manifests himself by his gracious, immanent activity, pac- ifying and illuminating the soul. (4.11) Salvation for the authors of the Upanishads means merging into Brahman, the supreme principle, as a river merges into the sea. What, if anything, of the individual consciousness remains, is left vague; what is certain is that there results a radical change in one’s consciousness. The spiritual aspirant is released from the fetters of phenomenal life and passes into a mode of being which is infinite, omnipresent (since space is transcended), and deathless (since time is transcended). This means to be Brahman; and Brah- man is pure Being, pure Consciousness, and pure Bliss. Salvation or liberation, as they prefer to call it, is not from sin but from human condition itself, liberation from action of any kind, whether good or bad, liberation into a condition where time and space are abolished and all is seen as one. Man is eternally bound by what he does, not only in this life but in countless previous lives. His births are infinite, and so his bondage must be infinite too, unless and untill he is released into a state of unconditioned Being, Ab- solute or God. Man as microcosm corresponds in all resepcts to the universe as macrocosm. Creation is compared to the awakening of the Su- preme Being from a deep and dreamless sleep. Reality is One, and the awakening of the One which produces multiplicity is in a sense a fall. For the Hindus of this rigorous monism, multiplicity, and the whole phenomenal world which is characterised by multiplicity, and by space, time and causation which depend on multiplicity, represent a lapse of the Supreme Being from that undifferentiable One-ness which is his eternal essence, into a mode of being that is conditioned by space and time. Man has to regain this supreme state of being which corresponds to the absolute One-ness of eternal Being, and in this state the Creator-God must disappear along with all phenomenal existence because he himself is involved in the phe- nomenal world. The sphere of pure Being and the worlds of becoming are subtly connected and held together by an inner controller some- times called the ‘Lord’, This cosmic harmony, this interconnection of all things, had been one of the main themes of the Upanishads. The theist Upanishads teach that God who is perpetually at rest in his eternity is nevertheless operative in this world of ours. This God pervades the whole universe and all of it is his. ThereforeREVELATION 25 we must renounce the world because it is not ours, and then enjoy and work in it because it is his and he wishes us to cooperate with him in the destruction of evil. He rules the world according to his own eternal ordinances though at the same time he fills out the eternal order of pure Being which all souls must reach after being liberated from bondage. There is thus interconnection between time and eternity, and both must play their part in human life. Eternity and absolute Bliss are the goal; renunciation and action according to God-given law are the way. But if man’s goal is to pass beyond action into a timeless peace, why should he act at all? The Bhagavad-gita answets that it is not action, strictly speaking, that binds, but at- tachment to action and to its fruits. Action performed with com- plete detachment ceases to bind one to the world. Right action automatically creates a state of mind in which detachment is pos- sible. Even more, right action should be offered to God as a sign of one’s love, as an offering of oneself to God. The pantheism of the Upanishads in course of time has given tise to a more positive theism. The ancient gods Rudra or Siva and Vishnu emerged among their worshippers as not just one god among many, but as the supreme Being, identical with the highest Brahman, but endowed with highly personal attributes. For more enlightened Hindus Siva and Vishnu are no more than names for one and the same God who is not only the Absolute, and hence identical with what is eternal in man, but also the supreme ruler and disposer of the universe to whom love is due. The emergence of Vishnu and Siva as supreme personal God in different religious sects modifies the whole idea of salvation. Love of God (bhakti) not only leads the religious man to liberation, for this is a grace God is willing to bestow on all who seek to know him and love him, but is the goal itself, uniting man to God in eternal and dependent state of being. The Bhagavad-gita marks a turning point in the history of Hin- duism. Man no longer turns exclusively inwards in search of the eternal ground of his soul which is also the eternal ground of the whole universe, but turns outward to meet his transcendent Lord in love and trust, and he finds an answering love and trust on the part of God who never lets him down. Absorption in the still centre of the Self is no longer the ideal, but total self-surrender to a loving and all-powerful God.26 M. DHAVAMONY It is in the Bhagavad-gita that a completely formulated doc- trine of ‘incarnation’ (avatara) makes its first sudden appearance. Krishna declares that he, though in reality God who knows no birth nor change, has been born many times. “Many a birth have I passed through, and [many a birth] hast thou: I know them all, thou knowest not.” (4.5) “Unborn am I, changeless is my Self; of [all] contingent beings I am the Lord! Yet by my creative energy I consort with nature — which is mine — and come to be [in time]. (4.6) Avatdara literally means ‘descent’ and the idea connected with it is that God descends into the created order. In the case of Krishna it is the descent of God Vishnu into the human form. Krishna is the ‘incarnation’ of the whole essence of God, the Lord himself. Various motives are given for Krishna avatdra: to sustain the good and punish the evil-doers. “For whenever the law of righteousness withers away, and lawlessness raises its head, then do I generate myself on earth.” (4.7) “For the protection of the good, for the destruction of evil-doers, for the setting up of righteousness, I come into being, age after age.” (4.8) The climax of the Bhagavad-gita is the theophany in the eleventh chapter, in which Krishna, the ‘incarnate’ God and inseparable friend of Arjuna, reveals himself to the latter in his ‘supreme form as the Lord’, The Blessed Lord said: “Grace have I shown to thee, O Arjuna, revealing to thee by mine power this my form supreme — glorious, universal, infinite, primal — which none save thee has ever seen.” (11.47; cfr. 9-49) The message of the theophany is that while the still, static, eternal state of Brahman can be gained by anyone who can completely detach himself from this world, the fulness of the godhead as it is tirelessly active in time can only be seen and experienced by God- lovers: “By worship of love addressed to me alone can I be known and seen in such a form and as I really am: [so can my lovers] enter into me.” (11.54) Then at the very end of the Bhagavad-gita, Krishna reveals that he (God) loves man. He sums up the whole revelation in these words:REVELATION 27 “Let him give up all thought of ‘I’, force, pride, desire and hatred and possessiveness; let him not think of anything as ‘mine’, at peace — Lif he does this,] to becoming Brahman he is conformed.” (18.53) “Brahman become, with self serene, he grieves not nor desires; the same to all contingent beings, he gains the highest love and loyalty to me.” (18.54) “By love and loyalty he comes to know me as I really am, How great Tam and who; and once he knows me as I am, he enters me forthwith.” (18.55) And then right at the end, the crowning mystery is revealed in the following words which contain the final message of the Bhaga- vad-gita: “And now again give ear to this my all-highest Word, of all the most mysterious: ‘I love thee well’. Therefore will I tell thee thy salvation.” (18.64) “Bear me in mind, love me and worship me, sacrifice, prostrate thyself to me: so shalt thou come to me, I promise thee truly, for thou art dear to me.” (18.65) The crowning purpose of Krishna’s avatara, as is evident from the above passages is to reveal his true nature as God and to manifest his love for man and to demand love in return from man in order that man may attain salvation which is a state of union with God in perpetual and blissful love. The faith of every man accords with his essential character; man is instinct with faith: as is his faith, so too must he be. (17.3) ‘Whatever form, whatever god a devotee with faith chooses to honour, it is Krishna who confirms that faith in him, making it unswerving and secure. It is Krishna who rewards this kind of faith by granting what the devotee desires. (17.21-22) That is to say, faith in any God is God’s own gift and will not fail of its reward since all worship is really directed to the true God. Faith in Krishna leads the spiritual aspirant to true knowledge and perfect peace. “A man of faith, intent on wisdom, his senses restrained, wins wisdom; and wisdam won, he will come right soon to perfect peace.” (4.39) It is said here ‘a man of faith’: faith in what? In many places in the Bhagavad-gitd, it is faith in Krishna (3.31; 6.47; 13.71). The noun fraddha (faith) is frequently used of faith in one or other deity (7.21-22; 9.23; 17.1) or in Krishna (12.2). Tt may also mean28 ‘M, DHAVAMONY faith in the possibility of ultimate salvation. (6.37) The most per- fect saint is one who loves Krishna with faith. “But of all athletes of the spirit the man of faith who loves and honours me, his inmost self absorbed in me, — he is the most fully integrated: this I do believe.” (6.47) Revelation of God’s true nature is a grace bestowed on man and man responds to it in faith. “Grace have I shown to thee, O Arjuna, revealing to thee by mine own power this my form supreme — glorious, universal, infinite, primal — which none save thee has ever seen.” (11.47) “The man of faith, not cavilling, who listens [to this my word], he too shall win deliverance, and attain to the goodly worlds of those whose works are pure.” (18.71) Scholars indicate various currents of thought which seem to have contributed to the final formulation of the Hindu doctrine of ‘incarnation’ (avatdra). The idea of creation as emanation already implies theophanism and panentheism. The idea conveyed by the conception of the God Vishnu is that of a divine Pervader, infusing his essence for special functions into created things. Besides, the success of Buddhism was due to the reverence the Buddha inspired by his own personal character and holiness. The Brahmanic religion was too metaphysical and intellectual to inspire a deeply personal religion. The need to conceive of God in personal terms and of the religious relationship to him in a concrete and lively manner was increasingly felt as indispensable. These reasons probably explain the appearance of the doctrine of avatdra in the Bhagavad-gita The ‘incarnation’ of God is said to be innumerable but the important ones are given as ten, as twenty, as twenty two in various Puranic texts. As Krishna be- comes more definitely identified with Vishnu, avatdra is referred back to theriomorphic descents of early legends like those of the Fish, the tortoise, and the boar. Krishna as the monotheistic deity of the Bhagavad-gita appears as a union of at least three strands: a popular god-hero of a local tribe, an ancient Vedic deity belonging to the hieratic ritual religion, and the philosophic Absolute of the Upanishads. * ® See Franklin Edgerton, Prebistory of the God of Bhagavad-gita in his The Bhagavad-gita, New York, 1944, pp. 132 ff.