Marine and Petroleum Geology 59 (2015) 202e216

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Marine and Petroleum Geology

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Research paper

Thermal maturity history and petroleum generation modelling for the

Upper Jurassic Madbi source rocks in the Marib-Shabowah Basin,
western Yemen
Mohammed Hail Hakimi a, *, Wan Hasiah Abdullah b
a
Geology Department, Faculty of Applied Science, Taiz University, 6803 Taiz, Yemen
b
Department of Geology, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Widely exposed in the Marib-Shabowah Basin, the early Upper Jurassic Madbi Formation is divided into
Received 2 March 2014 two units (Lam and Meem, youngest to oldest) believed to be major source rocks. The Madbi source rocks
Received in revised form are characterized by relatively high total organic carbon contents (TOC) ranging from 0.5 to 10.0 wt%,
27 July 2014
meeting the standard as a fair to excellent source rock generative potential. They contain Type II kerogen
Accepted 3 August 2014
Available online 14 August 2014
grading to mixed Type II/III kerogens and Type III kerogen with HI values between 40 and 620 mg HC/g
TOC. Vitrinite reflectance values range from 0.41 to 2.61% Ro, indicating sufficient thermal maturity for
both oil and gas generation.
Keywords:
Madbi source rocks
Burial/thermal history models indicate that the Upper Jurassic Madbi source rocks passed the peak of
Thermal maturity oil generation stage and convert the oil to dry gas in the Late Jurassic to Late Cretaceous time. Oil
Hydrocarbon generation modelling generation began immediately after deposition in the Late Jurassic time (150e145 Ma) and maximum
Marib-Shabowah Basin rates of oil with significant gas have been generated during Late Cretaceous time (110e65 Ma). The peak
Western Yemen gas generation occurred during the early Tertiary. The modelled hydrocarbon expulsion evolution sug-
gests that the timing of hydrocarbon expulsion from the Madbi source rocks began in the early Creta-
ceous (140 Ma) persisted to present-day. The modelling results also indicate that the peak hydrocarbon
generation and expulsion from Madbi source rocks in the studied area occurs well after deposition of the
seal rock and formation of traps, ensuring entrapment and preservation of migrated hydrocarbons.
© 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction maturity based primarily on pyrolysis methods (Alaug et al., 2011;

The Marib-Shabowah Basin is an important hydrocarbon prov-
ince in the western part of Yemen and has attracted the interest of
numerous researchers and exploration oil companies. The basin
was explored initially by the Yemen Hunt Oil Company (YHOC) and
the first commercial discovery was made in 1984. Several oil and/or
gas fields were discovered since the main early discovery being the
Alif Field in the northwest region (Fig. 1).
Hakimi and Abdullah (2013b) identified two petroleum systems
in the Marib-Shabowah Basin, the most prominent being the Upper
Jurassic Madbi Petroleum System with the Kimmeridgian shales
contributing variable quantities of liquid hydrocarbons (Hakimi
and Abdullah, 2013b). Although, several studies had been under-
taken on the basin's source rocks potential and organic matter (OM)
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: ibnalhakimi@yahoo.com (M.H. Hakimi).
Hakimi and Abdullah, 2013a,b; Hakimi et al., 2014), detailed basin
modelling investigations of the source rocks are scarce or missing.
Basin modelling plays an important role in modern petroleum
exploration in that it integrates the principles of maturity history
and petroleum generation, expulsion and migration, thereby
helping the exploration geoscientist to understand the petroleum
system and to verify different exploration scenarios (Waples, 1980,
1994; Burrus et al., 1991; Hermanrud, 1993; Littke et al., 1994;
Yalcin et al., 1997; Wendebourg, 2003). In this paper, we evaluate
the level of thermal maturity for the formations within the Marib-
Shabowah Basin and define the existing temperature anomalies by
using geochemical parameters and a standard basin modelling
procedure. The majority of the organic matter analyses are previ-
ously published (e.g., Hakimi et al., 2014) and only samples of the
Meem member are newly added. A total of 80 well cutting samples
from three wells were analysed by Rock-Eval pyrolysis and 55
selected samples were studied by organic petrography and vitrinite
reflectance was measured. These analyses are incorporated into 1D

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2014.08.002
0264-8172/© 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 M.H. Hakimi, W.H. Abdullah / Marine and Petroleum Geology 59 (2015) 202e216
Figure 1. Location map of the oil and gas fields in the Marib-Shabowah Basin including representative studied wells (Jabal Haddan-1, Alif-1 and Jannah-1).
modelling to reconstruct the geological history of the basin, to es-
timate the heat flow values for thermal development of the basin,
and to determine the timing of hydrocarbon generation and
expulsion of the Madbi source rocks.
2. Geological and tectonic framework
The geological evolution of Yemen was driven by the plate
motions that broke southern Gondwana during the Mesozoic and
formed the Gulf of Aden and Red Sea in the Cenozoic (Beydoun
et al., 1998; Redfern and Jones, 1995; Csato et al., 2001). Petro-
leum occurs in two rift basins in Yemen. In western Yemen, pe-
troleum is generated and produced in the Marib-Shabowah Basin,
and in eastern Yemen in the Masila Basin. These basins are part of a
system of major rift basins, and largely separated by a structural
high known as the Jahi-Mukalla High (Fig. 1). The Marib-Shabowah
Basin was initiated during the Jurassic and was related to rifting of
the Arabian plate from the Gondwana supercontinent (Redfern and
Jones, 1995). The main stratigraphic succession of the Marib-
Shabowah Basin is presented in Figure 2, and dominated by a
thick Mesozoic succession, which ranges in age from Jurassic to
Cretaceous and can be classified into three tectono-stratigraphic
megasequences: pre-rift (? BathonianeKimmeridgian), syn-rift
(KimmeridgianeTithonian) and post-rift (Earliest lower Creta-
ceouseUpper Cretaceous) (Figs. 2 and 3).
Pre-rift (? Bathonian to Kimmeridgian) sequence represents the
Mesozoic pre-rift sequence which is regionally widespread and
divided into the Kuhlan and Shuqra Formations (Fig. 3). Previous
stratigraphic schemes (Beydoun, 1989) regard the Kuhlan
203
Formation as pre-rift and the Shuqra Formation as syn-rift. Here,
the Kuhlan and Shuqra are regarded as a discrete pre-rift package
(Ellis et al., 1996). The Kuhlan Formation is predominantly clastic
with local basement topography commonly providing the prove-
nance of sediment. This formation includes fluviatile and arkosic
red beds that grade upward into a shallow-marine facies and rep-
resents the early transgressive phases of the Late Jurassic seas
(Beydoun et al., 1998). These continental rocks are overlain by
shallow-marine fossiliferous carbonates of the Shuqra Formation
(Fig. 2). The middle-upper Jurassic Shuqra Formation conformably
overlies the Kuhlan Formation with a gradational contact. This
conformable relationship reflects the gradual transgression and a
slight deepening of marine conditions, corroborating the evidence
for a tectonically quiescent platform. The Shuqra Formation is a
neritic limestone with rich-fossiliferous marls and does not contain
potential source rock beds (Beydoun et al., 1998). This pre-rift
sequence provides proven reservoirs (e.g., Kuhlan Formation
sandstones, Shuqra Formation fractured limestone) and seals (e.g.,
intraformational mudstones of the Kuhlan Formation and non-
fractured limestones of the Shuqra Formation).
The syn-rift (KimmeridgianeTithonian/Berriasian) sequence is
characterized by horsts and nested fault blocks that were devel-
oped during late Jurassic to lower Cretaceous time (Redfern and
Jones, 1995). Initiation of rifting occurred during the early Kim-
meridgian, and activity continued until the late Tithonian to early
Berriasian. During the Late Jurassic, syn-rift sediments of the
Kimmeridgian Madbi Formation were deposited (Beydoun et al.,
1998). This formation is divided into two members. The lower
Meem member consists of source rock-quality shales, and sandy
204 M.H. Hakimi, W.H. Abdullah / Marine and Petroleum Geology 59 (2015) 202e216

Figure 2. Regional stratigraphic nomenclature, Marib-Shabowah Basin, Republic of Yemen.

turbidites that form the reservoir rocks in some oilfields of the
western Marib-Shabowah Basin. The Upper Lam Member is mostly
composed of laminated organic-rich shales and considered to be
the most prolific oil prone source rock in the basin (Brannin et al.,
1999; Csato et al., 2001; Alaug et al., 2011; Hakimi et al., 2014).
During Tithonian times, late syn-rift sediments of the Sabatayn
Formation were deposited (Beydoun et al., 1998). This formation
consists of thick sequence of clastic and evaporite sediments
(Fig. 2). The Sabatayn Formation is divided into four members
named Safer, Alif, Seen and Yah Members (Fig. 2). The Alif Member
is considered as the main reservoir in the Marib-Shabowah Basin
and comprises over 90% of recoverable oil in the basin (JNOC, 2000
“personal communication”). The Safer Member constitutes an
excellent seal to the underling Alif Member reservoir and contains
internally some potential good local reservoireseal pairs in the
intra evaporate clastics and evaporates (Beydoun et al., 1998). It
consists predominantly of halite with subordinate anhydrite,
divisible into several bodies separated by interbedded organic-rich
shale and sandstone with minor argillaceous, dolomite and lime-
stone. The interbedded organic-rich shales within the Safer Mem-
ber are considered to be the prolific oil-prone source rock in the
Marib-Shabowah Basin (Hakimi and Abdullah, 2013a).
From latest Jurassic to early Lower Cretaceous time, the rift
system of the Marib-Shabowah Basin was active, but the subsi-
dence rate decreased. This was accompanied by the accumulation
of carbonates in shallow-marine shelf deposits (Naifa Formation).
The post-rift represents earliest Lower Cretaceous to Upper
Cretaceous and rests unconformably on the syn-rift section (Fig. 3).
The post-rift sediments comprise the Saar, Qishn and Tawilah
Formations (Fig. 2). The Saar Formation is mainly composed of
limestone and dolomite, with mudstone and sandstone in-
tercalations (Beydoun et al., 1998). The Saar Formation was
 M.H. Hakimi, W.H. Abdullah / Marine and Petroleum Geology 59 (2015) 202e216 205

Figure 3. Tectono-stratigraphic, halokinetic, and petroleum generation history model of Marib-Shabowah Basin, western Yemen (modified after Csato et al., 2001).

deposited during transgression in Early Cretaceous time. It index (HI), as well as kinetic parameters are used to incorporate into
conformably overlies the Naifa Formation and unconformably un- basin modelling for hydrocarbon generation simulation.
derlies the Qishn Formation (Fig. 2). The Qishn deposits represent a Fifty five samples were selected for vitrinite reflectance mea-
transgressive marine sequence progressing from east to west across surement based on the amount of organic carbon present within
Yemen that grades laterally westward into clastics of the non- the samples (Table 1). The shale samples were crushed to a
petroleum-bearing Tawilah Formation (Fig. 2). A regional hiatus maximum particle size of 1 mm, mounted in epoxy resin and pol-
spanning the Late Eocene to ?Late Oligocene probably represents ished. Polished blocks were prepared using standard organic
regional uplift which preceded rifting and seafloor spreading in the
Gulf of Aden and the Red Sea (Fig. 3). The Upper Cretaceous Tawilah
Group partially was eroded after uplift related to the Red Sea rifting,
which the erosion thickness has been estimated as 1000 m in the
Marib sector of the Marib-Shabowah Basin (Mitchell and Galbiati,
1995).

3. Methodology and experimental results

3.1. Analytical procedures

TOC determination and Rock-Eval pyrolysis analysis were per-

formed on 100 mg crushed whole rock samples, heated to 600 C in a
helium atmosphere, using a Rock-Eval II unit with a total organic
carbon module. The Rock-Eval pyrolysis data provide information on
the quantity, quality and maturity of organic matter contained within
the Madbi source rock units (Figs. 4e7). A total of 80 drill cutting
samples were collected from shales of the Madbi Formation (Fig. 2).
Initially, the studied shale samples were cleaned of contaminants
from drilling mud additives by washing the samples with water
several times until no mud was visible on their surface. Source rock Figure 4. Pyrolysis S2 versus total organic carbon (TOC) plot showing generative
properties such as total organic carbon content (TOC), hydrogen source rock potential for the Madbi units in Marib-Shabowah Basin.
206 M.H. Hakimi, W.H. Abdullah / Marine and Petroleum Geology 59 (2015) 202e216

Figure 5. Plot of Hydrogen index (HI) versus pyrolysis Tmax for the analysed samples from Madbi units, showing kerogen quality and thermal maturity stages.

Figure 6. Plot of total organic carbon (TOC) versus pyrolysis S2/S3, showing potential
hydrocarbon generative and type. Most of the Madbi source rocks plotted in an area Figure 7. Plots of maturity parameters Tmax and vitrinite reflectance for wells Jannah-
fair to very good potential source rock for oil- and gas-prone. 1, Alif-1 and Jabal Haddan-1.
 M.H. Hakimi, W.H. Abdullah / Marine and Petroleum Geology 59 (2015) 202e216 207

Table 1
Thermal maturity data (vitrinite reflectance and Tmax) used to constrain models in the representative wells, Marib-Shabowah Basin.

Jabal Haddan-1 well Alif-1 well Jannah-1 well

Depth (m) Vitrinite reflectance Tmax Depth (m) Vitrinite reflectance Tmax Depth (m) Vitrinite reflectance Tmax

VRo (%) Num. measu. SD VRo (%) Num. measu. SD VRo (%) Num. measu. SD

484.6 0.43 22 0.05 400 448.1 0.41 35 0.05 405 1580.0 0.61 43 0.11 410
786.4 0.44 6 0.08 410 798.6 0.47 25 0.13 410 2020.0 0.73 15 0.07 430
944.9 0.45 12 0.04 415 1828.8 0.78 3 0.06 431 2250.0 0.80 8 0.02 432
1030.2 0.54 9 0.04 420 2002.5 0.85 4 0.07 432 2605.0 0.93 10 0.09 430
1127.8 0.56 9 0.06 423 2158.0 0.94 8 0.09 436 2761.0 1.00 9 0.07 433
1591.1 0.59 12 0.09 427 2249.4 0.98 7 0.07 434 2840.0 1.03 13 0.08 430
1877.6 0.61 32 0.05 433 2462.8 1.11 7 0.13 440 3059.9 1.14 25 0.09 445
2037.9 0.70 55 0.07 435 2502.4 1.15 9 0.09 441 3299.8 1.25 6 0.05 452
2130.9 0.65 15 0.10 435 2575.6 1.19 7 0.13 443 3534.5 1.42 26 0.16 446
2133.3 0.70 55 0.07 436 2779.8 1.25 15 0.15 445 3757.0 1.67 9 0.13 452
2138.8 0.74 17 0.09 437 2842.3 1.40 12 0.09 436 4003.3 1.88 18 0.14 459
2142.4 0.77 24 0.09 436 2910.8 1.42 22 0.10 458 4120.0 2.12 5 0.03 e
2267.4 0.79 13 0.07 438 3057.1 1.48 23 0.11 445 4450.6 2.37 25 0.09 e
2366.8 0.82 40 0.05 441 3224.8 1.57 15 0.09 435 4820.5 2.61 15 0.12 e
2426.2 0.83 21 0.08 442 3334.5 1.78 14 0.19 452
2535.9 0.90 32 0.08 446 3557.0 2.02 26 0.14 445
2645.7 0.92 27 0.07 448 3703.3 2.17 29 0.17 458
2700.5 0.96 31 0.11 448 3928.9 2.21 17 0.21 e
2792.0 0.99 29 0.14 449
2901.7 1.09 39 0.10 453
2974.8 1.21 8 0.11 458
3028.8 1.27 25 0.11 456
3069.3 1.28 27 0.13 453

petrographic preparation techniques (Taylor et al., 1998). Vitrinite
reflectance measurements were carried out under oil immersion in
a plane polarized reflected light microscope. The percentage of
incident light reflected from the vitrinite particles in the samples
were measured in comparison to a known standard of 0.589%
reflectance. Mean vitrinite reflectance (% Ro) determinations were
carried out on particles of vitrinite that are not associated with
strong bitumen staining using an oil immersion objective. Typically,
25 measurements were made for each sample, and standard de-
viation is in the range of 0.02e0.21 (Table 1). However, low organic
content limited the number of measurements in some samples. The
vitrinite reflectance (% Ro) measurements were also correlated with
maturity pyrolysis Tmax values (Fig. 7).
3.2. Basin modelling procedure
maturity of the source rocks and the timing of HC generation and
expulsion in the basin could be modelled (Abdalla et al., 1999).
Good knowledge of the lithologies of the sedimentary section, their
ages and periods of deposition and erosion are necessary for the
evaluation of basin evolution (Lerche, 1990). The geologic model
consisting of the depositional, non-depositional and erosional
events in absolute ages (Table 2), was compiled using stratigraphic
data were provided from well reports, the data bank of Petroleum
Exploration and Production Authority (PEPA), Yemen and previous
stratigraphic studies (e.g., Beydoun et al., 1998). Hydrocarbon
generation modelling was based on TOC and HI of the Madbi source
rocks in the Marib-Shabowah Basin and the maturity modelling
was calculated using the EASY% Ro model of Sweeney and Burnham
(1990). A details description of the numerical 1D modelling steps in
the study area follows.

In this study, we selected wells (Alif-1, Jabal Haddan-1 and
Jannah-1) within the western central Marib-Shabowah Basin
(Fig. 1) as a representative site to simulate the petroleum genera-
tion and expulsion. Schlumberger's PetroMod (1D) modelling
software (version 10), was used for the reconstruction of the burial
and temperature histories of the studied wells. Subsequently, the
3.2.1. Subsidence modelling
3.2.1.1. Lithologies and formation thicknesses. Subsidence curves
(Fig. 8) were first constructed for the three composite wells by
decompacting the sedimentary section using formation thicknesses
and lithologies assigned from mud logs and composite well logs
(Table 2). The Madbi Formation was modelled as two layers (Lam

Table 2
Input data for modelling of depositional and erosional events of studied wells (Jabal Haddan-1, Alif-1 and Jannah-1) in the Marib-Shabowah Basin.
Deposition Representative wells in the Marib-Shabowah Basin (see Figure 1)
Erosion age
age Erosion Jabal Haddan-1 well Alif-1 well Jannah-1 well
Rifting Age Formations Lithology
From To From To (m) Top Bottom Thick Top Bottom Thick Top Bottom Thick
(Ma) (Ma) (Ma) (Ma) (m) (m) (m) (m) (m) (m) (m) (m) (m)
TAWILAH Course graind sandstones 130.0 38.00 38.00 25.00 900 14 240 226 50 800 750 20 814 794
Post-Rift

Cretaceous

Limestone and dolomite 140.2 136.4 136.4 130.0 100

SAAR 240 666 427

NAIFA Limestone 146.3 140.2 666 1037 370 800 1090 290 814 1372 557
Sandstones, shales and 148.0
SABATAYN 146.3 1037 1873 836 1090 1800 710 1372 2286 914
evaporites
Syn-Rift

MADBI (LAM) Organic-rich shales 150.8 148.0 1873 2961 1088 1800 2850 1050 2286 3658 1372
Jurassic

Organic-rich shales and 155.7 150.8

MADBI (MEEM) 2961 3094 133 2850 3510 660 3658 4877 1219
sandstones
Massive Limestone and
162.2 155.7 3094 3445 351 3510 4250 740
Pre-Rift

SHUQRA
shale interbedded
Granite and metamorphic
BASEMENT ROCKS 162.2 <170.0 3445 3570 125 4250 4410 160
rocks
208 M.H. Hakimi, W.H. Abdullah / Marine and Petroleum Geology 59 (2015) 202e216
and Meem, youngest to oldest) (Table 2). Maximum thickness of
Upper Jurassic Madbi Formation is observed in the northeast
(Jannah-1 well) and toward the central part of the Marib-Shabowah
Basin (Alif-1 and Jabal Haddan-1 wells). Figure 2 shows the li-
thologies that are representative for the Middle Jurassic-Upper
Cretaceous lithostratigraphic units of wells Jannah-1, Alif-1 and
Jabal Haddan-1 of the Marib-Shabowah oil fields. All sediments
penetrated continental non-marine and shallow to deep marine
sediments carbonate (Beydoun et al., 1998).
The Jurassic section comprises around 3250 m of the Sabatayn,
Madbi, and Shuqra Formations (Fig. 8). The Upper Madbi Formation
consists mainly of organic-rich shales but with some interbedded,
consolidated medium-grained sandstones. A massive limestone
with some interbedded shale interval of the Shuqra Formation is
productive in the basin. The Sabatayn Formation consists of thick
sequence of sandstones and intercalated shales with evaporite
sediments. The Cretaceous section is only some 1150 m thick
(Fig. 8), consisting mainly of carbonate rocks (Naifa and Saar For-
mations) and poorly consolidated coarse grained sands (Tawilah
Group).
3.2.1.2. Event ages. The ages of the events chosen for subsidence
modelling were based on those assigned by As-Saruri et al. (2010).
Ages of the base of each modelled rock unit or start of erosion are
shown in Table 2.
3.2.1.3. Erosion events. Several erosion events in the Marib-
Shabowah Basin have been recognized in published stratigraphic
columns (Beydoun et al., 1998; As-Saruri et al., 2010), but their
positioning varies as has been noted by Mitchell and Galbiati
(1995). The Top of the Naifa Formation (E2) and the top of the
Tawilah Group (E1) probably are the unconformities that represent
periods of erosion in the basin (Fig. 2). Mitchell and Galbiati (1995)
suggested that a total amount of 900 m and 100 m (sum 1000 m)
erosional thickness was split into two erosion events (E1eE2)
during 136.4e130 Ma and 38e25 Ma, respectively were considered
in the model (Table 1). E1 has a significant effect on modelled
maturities because it determines maximum burial prior to Oligo-
ceneeMiocene uplift, which has been estimated as 900 m in the in
the Marib sector of the Marib-Shabowah Basin (Mitchell and
Galbiati, 1995). Therefore, E1 primarily was used during model-
ling to optimize the fit of modelled maturity with observed re-
flectances (Fig. 9). A good fit between measured and calculated % Ro
values would require an additional major increase of erosion
thickness and/or heat flow (Fig. 9).
3.2.2. Thermal maturity modelling
3.2.2.1. Temperature and heat flow. The thermal history of sedi-
mentary basins can be evaluated based on the burial history and on
the heat-flow evolution (Allen and Allen, 1990; Lachenbruch, 1970).
Present-day heat flow is calculated keeping the thermal conduc-
tivities of the rock units constant and from subsurface geothermal
gradients that are determined from corrected bottom hole tem-
peratures (BHT) (e.g., Abdalla et al., 1999). The present-day tem-
peratures at the minimum and maximum depths fit to a linear
relationship are used to calculate the geothermal gradient at each
borehole location (Ameed et al., 2005) and the heat flow values
derived from present-day geotherms suggest heat flow may
currently be higher (62 mW/m2) at Jannah-1 and Alif-1 wells than
Jabal Haddan well (60 mW/m2) (Fig. 10).
The heat flow is a vital input parameter in basin modelling, but
is difficult to define for the geological past. Constant heat flow
models (Fig. 11) are used to help constrain maturity modelling and
usually calibrated with thermal maturity measurements such as
vitrinite reflectance (e.g., Welte and Yukler, 1981, 1987; Poelchau
et al., 1997; He and Middleton, 2002; Li et al., 2010; Hakimi et al.,
2010; Shalaby et al., 2011, 2013). In a basin such as the Marib-
Shabowah, paleo-heat flow is affected by the tectonic evolution
and rifting phase. The rift influenced heat flow model, which in-
corporates a higher heat flow episode during the rift phase and an
exponential reduction during the post-rift phase (Mckenzie, 1978),
has been widely used to calculate the paleo-heat flow (e.g.,
Justwana et al., 2006; Hu et al., 2005). Based on the geological
evolution of the Marib-Shabowah Basin, the time of rifting is
assigned to the initial phase during Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous
(155.7e140.2 Ma) of the basin (Redfern and Jones, 1995). Paleo-heat
flow modelling results for the studied wells (Fig. 11) indicate that
the heat flow increased from background values (60e62 mW/m2)
during the initial phase (155.7 Ma) of syn-rifting stage in the Marib-
Shabowah Basin and reached peak heat-flow values of approxi-
mately 90.0 mW/m2 at 150 Ma (Fig. 11). This peak is related to the
initial rifting event starting the basin development (late Jurassic
time; Redfern and Jones, 1995). A cooling history with exponen-
tially decreasing heat-flow values is modelled from 140.2 Ma to
40 Ma (Fig. 11). The heat-flow values were kept constant during the
Late Cretaceous-Paleocene (70e80 mW/m2) then increased from
middle Eocene to early Miocene times (40e20 Ma; Fig. 11), which is
explained by Tertiary rifting of the Gulf of Aden and Red Sea during
OligoceneeMiddle Miocene (Redfern and Jones, 1995).
3.2.2.2. Maturity parameters and model validation. The geothermal
history model was validated by comparing measured vitrinite
reflectance to values calculated using the Easy Ro model routine
(Sweeney and Burnham, 1990). Vitrinite reflectance (% Ro) generally
is considered to respond to both maximum burial temperature and
its duration (geological or exposure time) (e.g., Waples, 1980). In
this study, the modelled and measured % Ro values exhibit a good
correlation over a wide range (~0.4e2.6%, Table 1). A very good
correlation between measured and calculated % Ro values implies
that the thermal model is valid for this study area (Fig. 12).
3.2.3. Hydrocarbon generation and expulsion modelling
Madbi Formation was modelled as two units Meem and Lam
thus the progress of generation could be tracked with time, the
tracking horizons being the tops of the respective units. To assess
the hydrocarbon generation characteristics to the units, the source
rocks were considered to be marine shales, and kerogen in the units
was modelled on a type II gradient to type IIeIII kerogen (mainly
oil- and gas-prone; Fig. 6). For the purpose of modelling, therefore,
TOC and HI data for the Marib-Shabowah Basin were adopted as
mean values. We have used mean TOC of 4.5 and 1.5% and mean HI
of 400 and 250 mg HC/g TOC for the Meem and Lam units,
respectively (Figs. 4 and 5). The IES Kimmeridge Clay kinetic model
was used throughout as this is most respectative of the highest
generative potential facies. The proportion expelled portion of the
calculated generated hydrocarbons was modelled using a satura-
tion threshold 0.2.
4. Results and discussion
4.1. Source rocks characteristics
The Madbi shales display widely variable organic-matter rich-
ness with TOC contents ranging from 0.5 wt % to 10 wt %. Shale
samples from the Lam and Meem units have slightly similar TOC
values with higher TOC values in the Lam samples (Fig. 4). Conse-
quently, the majority of the samples contain above average levels of
organic matter (TOC > 1.0 wt%). The TOC contents meet the
accepted standards of a source rock with fair to excellent hydro-
carbon generative potential as suggested by Hunt (1995). This is
Figure 8. Burial history modelling for investigated wells (Jabal Haddan-1, Alif-1 and Jannah-1) in the Marib-Shabowah Basin. Notice that the Madbi Formation divided into two
units (Lam and Meem).
Figure 9. Optimized fit of modelled maturity to measured vitrinite reflectance in model wells Jabal Haddan-1, Alif-1 and Jannah-1 for the heat flow models in Figure 11. Amount of
erosion (E1; 38e25 Ma) required to optimize fit is indicated.
 M.H. Hakimi, W.H. Abdullah / Marine and Petroleum Geology 59 (2015) 202e216 211

Figure 10. Modelled geotherms for Jabal Haddan-1, Alif-1 and Jannah-1 wells and bottom-hole temperatures on which they are based. Modelled present-day basal heat flow values
are indicated.

confirmed by pyrolysis S2 yield (Fig. 4) as a useful parameter to
evaluate the generation potential of source rocks (Peters, 1986;
Bordenave, 1993).
The Rock-Eval hydrogen index (HI) of the shale samples within
Madbi units ranges from 40 to 620 mg HC/g TOC, generally revealed
that the Madbi units consist Type II kerogen grading to mixed Type
IIeIII kerogens and Type III kerogen (Fig. 5). The most Lam shale
samples are plotted in the Type II and mixed Type IIeIII kerogens
field, while the most Meem shale samples plotted within the Type
III kerogen (Fig. 5). This is in agreement with the petrographic re-
sults discussed in Hakimi et al. (2014). All the above data indicate
that the shales with Madbi units are very good source rocks for
hydrocarbon generation (mainly oil- and gas-prone) in the Marib-
Shabowah basin (Fig. 6).
4.2. Organic petrography
Vitrinite reflectance measurements were carried out on 55
cutting samples collected from three wells (see Table 1). Vitrinite
reflectance increases gradually with depth and mean reflectance of
vitrinite particles ranges from 0.41 to 2.61% Ro (Table 1) comprising
a maturity stages from immature to the dry gas window. Based on
reflectance data from various stratigraphic intervals, a relatively
low level of maturity was obtained in the Jabal Haddan-1 well and a
relatively high level of maturity was determined for the strati-
graphic intervals in the Alif-1 and Jannah-1 wells (Table 1). The
main explanation can be the depth of burial of the analysed sam-
ples. The stratigraphic intervals in Alif-1 and Jannah-1 wells are
buried deeper than Jabal Haddan-1 well (Table 1). The measured
vitrinite reflectance values are in good agreement with pyrolysis
Tmax data, as illustrated in Figure 7. There is some lack of correlation
between Tmax and % Ro, even though samples follow a trend, as
indicated by a good correlation coefficient (r2 ¼ 0.60). Several
samples possess relatively low Tmax values relative to their vitrinite
reflectance (Fig. 7). This observation can be attributed to the range
of variation of the Tmax is narrower for organic matter Type I or II
(430e450
C) than for Type III (460e478
C) (Espitalie
et al., 1985),
because the former are composed mostly of cross-linked acyclic
chains, causing a certain independence of thermal maturity with
regard to the Tmax. However, the positive correlation between

Figure 11. Heat-flow through time in the investigated wells (Jabal Haddan-1, Alif-1 and Jannah-1), which were used to model the most probable scenario for hydrocarbon gen-
eration and expulsion in the Madbi source rocks.
212 M.H. Hakimi, W.H. Abdullah / Marine and Petroleum Geology 59 (2015) 202e216

Figure 12. Burial and thermal maturity histories for the studied wells: Jannah-1 (a), Alif-1 (b) and Jabal Haddan-1 (c). To the right the depth vs. bottom-hole temperature and depth
vs. mean vitrinite reflectance data are shown, respectively. Observed data is plotted in solid red circles and correlated to the modelled curve (solid black line). (For interpretation of
the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

vitrinite reflectance and Tmax data is a result of their regular in-
crease with increasing depth.
4.3. Source rocks maturity history
In thermal history reconstructions of the study area, the in-
fluence of the tectonic evolution on the heat-flow distribution
through time was applied. Based on the basal heat flow values
(60e98 mW/m2) considered for rifting basin that assigned the
initial phase during Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous (Redfern
and Jones, 1995), constant heat flow values were considered for
modelled wells. The detailed maturity history of source rocks in
the Madbi Formation is modelled for the representative wells in
the different locations of Marib-Shabowah Basin (Fig. 1). The
modelling results of the studied wells in the basin show differ-
ences in source rock maturity and hydrocarbon generation his-
tories because of variation in thermal and burial histories
(Fig. 12).
 M.H. Hakimi, W.H. Abdullah / Marine and Petroleum Geology 59 (2015) 202e216
4.3.1. Jannah-1 well
The Jannah-1 well is the deepest well in the study area, which
reaches a total drilled depth of 6412 m (Fig. 12a). Assigning a heat
flow value of 98 mW/m2 during 150 Ma for Jannah-1 well gives the
best fit between measured and calculated vitrinite reflectance and
bottom hole temperatures (Fig. 12a). Compared with other wells,
the Meem and Lam units of the Madbi Formation have reached
higher levels of maturity in the Jannah-1 well probably due to the
temperatures (Fig. 12a). Based on burial/thermal history model, the
maximum burial temperature within this well ranges from 105 to
240
C for the Meem unit of Madbi Formation. The calculated vit-
rinite reflectance value is 0.55e4.00% Ro, indicating that the Meem
unit has passed the peak oil generation stage and converted the oil
to dry gas (Fig. 12a). Oil generation of the Meem source rock began
from about 150 Ma at a depth of about 1630 m with the calculated
vitrinite reflectance (VR) value at 0.55% Ro (Fig. 12a). The maturity
of the Meem source rock reached 0.70% Ro at 149 Ma at a depth of
2013 m (Fig. 12a). Peak oil generation occurred at 147 Ma at a depth
of 3200 m for the calculated VR value 1.00% Ro with temperature of
approximately 179
C. At 110 Ma, the maturity of the Meem source
rock reached 1.30% Ro at a depth of 4565 m, which converted some
of the oil to wet gas. The dry gas generation from Meem source rock
began from about 90 Ma at a depth of about 4925 m with the
calculated VR value at 2.10% Ro (Fig. 12a). In contrast, the Lam unit of
the Madbi Formation in the burial history model has burial tem-
peratures ranging from 104 to 200
C and are presently in the peak
oil generation window (roughly at 0.55e1.30% Ro). The thermal
maturity modelling result of the Lam source rock in well Jannah-1
shows that oil generation began from about 147 Ma at a depth of
about 1713 m, reached maturity of 0.70% Ro at 145 Ma and peak oil
generation at 97 Ma (Fig. 12a). The oil was converted to some wet
gas during 56 Ma at a depth of about 4218 m with VR value of 1.3%
Ro (Fig. 12a).
4.3.2. Alif-1 well
An approximate thickness of 4360 m has been drilled in this
well and its maximum burial temperature varies between 100 and
180
C for the Meem unit of the Madbi Formation (Fig. 12b). The
modelled burial/thermal history shows that the Meem source rock
has passed the peak oil generation stage and converted some oil to
wet gas with calculated vitrinite reflectance value of 0.55e2.00%
Ro (Fig. 12b). This model also shows that the corresponding onset of
the oil window (0.55e0.70% Ro) of the Meem source rock began
from about 149 Ma at a depth 1520 m (Fig. 12b). The Meem source
rock reached main oil generation (0.70e1.0% Ro) at 147 Ma at a
depth greater than 2000 m (Fig. 12b). Peak oil generation occurred
at 120 Ma at a depth of 2977 m for the calculated VR value 1.01% Ro
with temperature of approximately 131
C. The generated oil from
Meem source rock began convert to wet gas during late Cretaceous
(78 Ma) at a depth of about 3725 m with the calculated VR value at
1.3% Ro (Fig. 12b). In contrast, the Lam unit of the Madbi Formation
is buried at depth 2850 m and its maximum burial temperature
varies between 100 and 165
C with calculated VR values of
0.55e1.30% Ro (roughly peak oil generation window) (Fig. 12b). The
burial/thermal history model of the Lam source rock shows that oil
generation began from about 146 Ma at a depth of about 1784 m
and reached maturity of 0.70% Ro at 125 Ma at a depth 2225 m
(Fig. 12b). The peak oil generation was during 66 Ma at a depth of
about 3210 m with VR value at 1.0% Ro (Fig. 12b). At 55 Ma, the
maturity of the Lam source rock reached 1.30% Ro at a depth of
3380 m, which converted the of oil to wet gas (Fig. 12b).
4.3.3. Jabal Haddan-1 well
Figure 12c displays a burial/thermal history model of the Jabal
Haddan-1 well. The Jabal Haddan-1 well is the shallowest well in
213
the studied area, which reaches a total drilled depth of 3570 m
(Fig. 12c). The best match, between measured and calculated vit-
rinite reflectance (Fig. 12c) was achieved using a heat flow of
60e89 mW/m2 (Fig. 11b). Based on the burial/thermal history
model, the maximum burial temperature for the Meem unit of the
Madbi Formation is estimated between 104 and 150
C and the
calculated vitrinite reflectance values range from 0.55 to 1.30% Ro
(Fig. 12c). This indicates that the Meem source rock is in the late
stage of oil generation window and increased temperatures to more
than 130
C may have converted some of the oil to gas (Fig. 12c). The
model also shows that the source rock in this unit has reached the
required levels of thermal maturity to onset of the oil window
(0.55e0.70% Ro) from about 147 Ma at a depth 1820 m (Fig. 12c).
The maturity of the Meem source rock reached 0.70% Ro at 140 Ma
at a depth of 2580 m (Fig. 12c). Peak oil generation occurred at
68 Ma at a depth of 3730 m with the calculated VR value 1.0% Ro and


temperature of approximately 130 C (Fig. 12c). Some generated oil
from the Meem source rock converted to wet gas during 35 Ma at
calculated VR value of 1.20% Ro and at a depth of 3860 m (Fig. 12c).
The Lam unit of the Madbi Formation is interpreted to be within the
main stage of the oil generation window, as indicated by calculated
vitrinite reflectance values of 0.55e1.00% Ro and maximum burial
temperatures of 105e140
C (Fig. 12c). The modelled burial/thermal
history of the Lam source rock shows that the oil generation started
from about 146 Ma at a depth of about 1784 with calculated VR
value of 0.55% Ro and the main generation reached maturity of
0.70% Ro at 135 Ma at a depth 2895 m (Fig. 12c). The peak oil
generation was during 55 Ma at a depth of about 3810 m with VR
value at 1.0% Ro (Fig. 12c).
4.4. Timing of hydrocarbon generation and expulsion
The generated and expelled per unit weight and timing for the
Madbi units were analysed and determined from its maturation
history using an assumed 10% transformation ratio (Figs. 13 and 14).
The modelled hydrocarbon generation and expulsion of the studied
wells shows that the Madbi source rocks were generating hydro-
carbon with oil as the main product and significant gas (Figs. 13 and
14).
4.4.1. Lower Madbi Formation (Meem unit)
The hydrocarbon generation and expulsion history of the Meem
source rock in the investigated wells (Jabal Haddan-1, Alif-1 and
Jannah-1) are slightly similar and can be summarized in to four
stages (Fig. 13). The first stage (approximately 150e131 Ma) is the
early phase of oil generation without any expulsion (Fig. 13a). The
transformation ratio of the source rock varied from 10% to 25%
during this stage (Fig. 13b). The second stage (approximately
149e68 Ma) is the main phase of oil generation and less gas gen-
eration. The transformation ratio of the source rock varied from 25%
to 65% with calculated VR of 0.75e1.0 % Ro (Fig. 13b). The oil
expulsion also began during this stage because of significant
amounts of oil generation. The third stage (approximately
140e40 Ma) is the main stage of oil expulsion and the trans-
formation ratio increase from 65% to 90% (Fig. 13b). The fourth stage
of hydrocarbon generation and expulsion for the studied wells
show that significant gas expulsion from the Meem source rock
started at the Late Cretaceous time and continued to present day
(80e0 Ma) (Fig. 13a) with transformation ratio of 85 %e99%
(Fig. 13b).
4.4.2. Upper Madbi Formation (Lam unit)
The Lam unit, upper Madbi Formation, generated and expelled
hydrocarbon later due to its shallower burial depth (Fig. 12). The
hydrocarbon generation and expulsion from the Lam source rock
214 M.H. Hakimi, W.H. Abdullah / Marine and Petroleum Geology 59 (2015) 202e216

Figure 13. (a) Cumulative hydrocarbon generation and expulsion from the lower Madbi source rock (Meem unit) in the studied wells. (b) Evolution of the transformation ratio and
rate of hydrocarbon generation with age from the lower Madbi source rock (Meem unit) in the studied wells (Jabal Haddan-1, Alif-1 and Jannah-1).

can be divided into the first stage from approximately 143 Ma to
65 Ma, the second stage from approximately 95 Ma to 40 Ma and
the third stage from 40 Ma to the present-day (Fig. 12). The first
stage (approximately 143e65 Ma) is the early phase of oil gener-
ation with less gas generation (Fig. 14a). The transformation ratio of
the source rock varied from 10% to 25% during this stage (Fig. 14b).
The second stage is still the phase of oil generation with high oil
generation and significant of gas generation (Fig. 14a). Gas gener-
ation in this stage can be expected from reaching the maximum
transformation ratio (25%e58%) and calculated VR of 0.72e0.98 %
Ro (Fig. 14b). The oil expulsion also began during this stage because
of significant amounts of oil generation. The third stage (approxi-
mately 40 Ma to present day) is the main stage of oil expulsion
because the saturation threshold has been reached (Fig. 14a). The
volume of oil expelled from the Lam unit is secondary compared to
the Meem unit (Fig. 14a). The transformation ratio during this stage
increased from 40% to 66% (Fig. 14b).
5. Conclusions
In this paper the burial/thermal histories for three locations in
the Marib-Shabowah Basin were modelled by using one-
dimensional basin modelling software. Rock Eval data were used
for source rock information/input and the vitrinite reflectance
values for the calibration process. The burial/thermal history
models were performed to analyses the hydrocarbon generation
 M.H. Hakimi, W.H. Abdullah / Marine and Petroleum Geology 59 (2015) 202e216 215

Figure 14. (a) Cumulative hydrocarbon generation and expulsion from the upper Madbi source rock (Lam unit) in the studied wells. (b) Evolution of the transformation ratio and
rate of hydrocarbon generation with age from the upper Madbi source rock (Lam unit) in the studied wells (Jabal Haddan-1, Alif-1 and Jannah-1).

and expulsion history of the Madbi source rocks in the Marib-
Shabowah Basin. Rock-Eval data show that TOC values of the
Madbi sequence mainly range from 0.50 to 10.0 wt% and the con-
taining kerogen type II grading to mixed Type II/III and type III
kerogen, thus considered to be mainly oil- and gas-prone. The
Madbi source rocks contain organic matter which has reached
maturities corresponding to the early oil/gas generation stage (as
indicated by their vitrinite reflectance and Tmax values).
The heat-flow history modelling results indicate that the paleo-
heat flow in the Marib-Shabowah Basin increased from 155.7 to
140.2 Ma, reaching a peak heat-flow value at 150 Ma, which in-
corporates a higher heat flow episode during the initial rifting
event starting the basin development and an exponential reduction
during the post-rift phase (140.2e40.0 Ma). The high paleo-heat-
flow in the basin during Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous
(155.7e140.2 Ma) has a considerable influence on the Madbi source
rocks maturity.
The burial/thermal modelling of various wells indicates that the
Madbi source rocks are presently at a stage of oil and dry gas
generation with thermal maturity ranging from 0.55% to 4.00% Ro.
The Madbi source rocks may have began to generate oil from
approximately 150 Ma to 146 Ma, reaching increased maturities
(0.70% Ro) from 149 Ma to 125 Ma, and peak oil generation from
147 Ma to 55 Ma. The oil conversion to gas occurred from
approximately 110 Ma to 35 Ma. The models also indicate that
hydrocarbon expulsion from Madbi source rocks occurred from
140 Ma to present day. As a result, a main portion of the oil reserves
within the studied oilfields must have been contributed by both
216 M.H. Hakimi, W.H. Abdullah / Marine and Petroleum Geology 59 (2015) 202e216
Meem and Lam units of the Madbi Formation, with significant
amounts of gas originating from the Meem unit. In summary, re-
sults from the present study reveal that time of peak oil generation
and expulsion from Madbi source rocks was after deposition of
related cap rocks and can explain oil accumulations in the Upper
Jurassic reservoir rocks.
Acknowledgements
The authors thank the Petroleum Exploration and Production
Authority (PEPA) and Safer Oil Company, Yemen for supplying the
data and samples for this research. Schlumberger is acknowledged
for providing the PetroMod Basin Modelling software. The authors
also would like to sincerely thank an Associate Editor Hanneke
Verweij and Drs. Clifford Walters and Robert Ondrak for their careful
and useful comments that improved the revised manuscript.
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