F1-10 Basic Hydraulics Bench - Issue 19

The Armfield Hydraulics Bench and its comprehensive range of optional accessories have been developed to instruct
students in the many different aspects of hydraulic theory.

 Order Specification |
 Description |
 Technical Details |
 Recommened Instruments
 Complementary Equipment |
 Requirements |
 Shipping Specification and Dimensions

ORDERING SPECIFICATION

• Mobile, floor standing service unit for fluid mechanics apparatus

• Base constructed from robust, corrosion resistant plastic moulding

• Top constructed from glass reinforced plastic

• Sump tank capacity 250 litres

• Volumetric flow measurement via remote sight gauge. Two ranges for flows from 1 to 6 litres per minute and 5 to 40 litres per
minute

• Open channel in bench top with quick release outlet fitting

• Self priming centrifugal circulating pump provides water at 21m head at no flow, and a maximum flow of 60 litres per minute

TOP

DESCRIPTION

This unit is designed as a portable and self-contained service module for the range of accessories described later in this data sheet.

The bench is constructed from lightweight corrosion resistant plastic and is mounted on wheels for mobility. The bench top
incorporates an open channel with side channels to support the accessory on test.

Volumetric measurement is integral and has been chosen in preference to other methods of flow measurement for its ease of use,
accuracy and safety in use (no heavy weights for students to drop). The volumetric measuring tank is stepped to accommodate low
or high flow rates.

A stilling baffle reduces turbulence and a remote sight tube with scale gives an instantaneous indication of water level. A measuring
cylinder is included in the supply for measurement of very small flow rates.
A dump valve in the base of the volumetric tank is operated by a remote actuator. Opening the dump valve returns the measured
volume of water to the sump in the base of the bench for recycling. An overflow in the volumetric tank avoids flooding.

Water is drawn from the sump tank by a centrifugal pump and a panel mounted control valve regulates the flow. An easy-to-use
quick release pipe connector situated in the bench top allows for the rapid exchange of accessories without the need for hand tools.

Each accessory is supplied as a complete piece of equipment needing no additional service items other than the Hydraulics Bench.
When coupled to the bench they are immediately ready for use.

TOP

TECHNICAL DETAILS

Technical Details
item value
centrifugal type max. head 21m H2O max. flow 1.35
Pump:
litres/sec
Motor rating: 0.37kW
Sump tank capacity: 250 litres
High flow volumetric
40 litres
tank:
Low flow volumetric
6 litres
tank:
Height of working
1 metre above floor level
surface:
Service pump characteristics curve (indicative)

OVERALL DIMENSIONS

Height: 1.00m
Width: 1.13m
Depth: 0.73m
 THEORY
BUOYANCY:
DEFINITION: In physics, buoyancy is an upward acting force, caused by fluid pressure, that keeps
things afloat.

This can occur only in an accelerated frame of reference (such as gravity or a centrifugal forces) defining
a "downward" direction along the acceleration. The net upward buoyancy force is equal to the
magnitude of the weight of fluid displaced by the body. This force enables the object to float.

Archimedes' principle:
“Any object, wholly or partially immersed in a fluid, is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight
of the fluid displaced by the object”

Explanation:
with the caveat that for a sunken object the volume of displaced fluid is the
volume of the object, and for a floating object on a liquid, the weight of the displaced liquid is
the weight of the object.

More tersely: Buoyancy = weight of displaced water

Archimedes' principle does not consider the surface tension (capillarity) acting on the body.
The weight of the displaced fluid is directly proportional to the volume of the displaced fluid (if
the surrounding fluid is of uniform density). In simple terms, the principle states that the buoyant
force on an object is going to be equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the object. Thus,
among completely submerged objects with equal masses, objects with greater volume have
greater buoyancy.

Suppose a rock's weight is measured as 10 newtons when suspended by a string in a vacuum.

Suppose that when the rock has been lowered by the string into water, it displaces water of
weight 3 newtons. The force it then exerts on the string from which it hangs would be 10
newtons minus the 3 newtons of buoyant force: 10 − 3 = 7 newtons. Buoyancy reduces the
apparent weight of objects that have sunk completely to the sea floor. It is generally easier to lift
an object up through the water than it is to pull it out of the water.

Assuming Archimedes' principle to be reformulated as follows,

then inserted into the quotient of weights, which has been expanded by the mutual volume

yields the formula below. The density of the immersed object relative to the density of the fluid
can easily be calculated without measuring any volumes:

(This formula is used for example in describing the measuring principle of a dasymeter and of
hydrostatic weighing.)

Example: If you drop wood into water buoyancy will keep it afloat. Example: A helium balloon
in a moving car. In increasing speed or driving a curve, the air inside the car experiences an
acceleration, the balloon moves in the opposite direction.

Centre of buoyancy:
“ The center of buoyancy is the center of volume of displaced water of the
hull (of a vessel)”.

Gravity pulls down on a floating object. The fluid it is floating on pushes it up and it floats
(assuming it is bouyant). Both gravity and bouyancy (the two forces at work) will have an
effective center. The center of gravity is not required to be lower than the center of bouyancy and
in general most ship's center of gravity is above the center of bouyancy. The ship will heel until
the Metacenter (which is a function of the actual Waterplane area) is at or above the center of
gravity. It might be advantageous to look at the center of gravity with respect to the center of
bouyancy in ship hull stability and thereby get a better grasp of the particulars. Use the link
below to our friends at Wikipedia and look at some diagrams concerning the stability of ships in
terms of where the centers of bouyancy and gravity are in relation to each other

Stability
A floating object is stable if it tends to restore itself to an equilibrium position after a small
displacement.

For example, floating objects will generally have vertical stability, as if the object is pushed
down slightly, this will create a greater buoyant force, which, unbalanced against the weight
force will push the object back up.

Rotational stability is of great importance to floating vessels. Given a small angular

displacement, the vessel may return to its original position (stable), move away from its original
position (unstable), or remain where it is (neutral).

Rotational stability depends on the relative lines of action of forces on an object. The upward
buoyant force on an object acts through the centre of buoyancy, being the centroid of the
displaced volume of fluid. The weight force on the object acts through its center of gravity. An
object will be stable if an angular displacement moves the line of action of these forces to set up
a 'righting moment'

METACENTRIC HEIGHT
Ship Stability diagram showing center of gravity (G), center of buoyancy (B), and metacenter (M) with
ship upright and heeled over to one side. Note that for small angles, G is fixed, while B and M move as
the ship heels.

“The metacentric height (GM) is the distance between the center of gravity of a ship and its
metacenter”.

The GM is used to calculate the stability of a ship and this must be done before it proceeds to
sea. The GM must equal or exceed the minimum required GM for that ship for the duration of
the forthcoming voyage. This is to ensure that the ship has adequate stability.

Metacenter

“When a ship is heeled, the center of buoyancy of the ship moves laterally. The point at which a
vertical line through the heeled center of buoyancy crosses the line through the original, vertical
center of buoyancy is the metacenter”.

In the diagram to the right the two Bs show the centers of buoyancy of a ship in the upright and
heeled condition and M is the metacenter. The metacenter is considered to be fixed for small
angles of heel; however, at larger angles of heel the metacenter can no longer be considered
fixed and other means must be found to calculate the ship's stability.
The metacenter can be calculated using the formulae:

KM = KB + BM

Where B is the center of buoyancy, I is the moment of inertia of the waterplane in meters4 and V
is the volume of displacement in meters3.
Different centers

Initially the second moment of area increases as the surface area increases, increasing BM, so Mφ
moves to the opposite side, thus increasing the stability arm. When the deck is flooded, the stability arm
rapidly decreases.

The center of buoyancy, is the center of the volume of water which the hull displaces. This point
is referred to as B in naval architecture. The center of gravity of the ship itself is known as G in
naval architecture. When a ship is stable, the center of buoyancy is vertically in-line with the
center of gravity of the ship.

The metacenter is the point where the lines intersect (at angle φ) of the upward force of
buoyancy of φ ± dφ. When the ship is vertical it lies above the center of gravity and so moves in
the opposite direction of heel as the ship rolls. The metacenter is known as M in naval
architecture.

The distance between the center of gravity and the metacenter is called the metacentric height,
and is usually between one and two meters. This distance is also abbreviated as GM. As the ship
heels over, the center of gravity generally remains fixed with respect to the ship because it just
depends upon position of the ship's weight and cargo, but the surface area increases, increasing
BMφ. The metacenter, Mφ, moves up and sideways in the opposite direction in which the ship
has rolled and is no longer directly over the center of gravity.

The righting force on the ship is then caused by gravity pulling down on the hull, effectively
acting on its center of gravity, and the buoyancy pushing the hull upwards; effectively acting
along the vertical line passing through the center of buoyancy and the metacenter above it. This
creates a torque which rotates the hull upright again and is proportional to the horizontal distance
between the center of gravity and the metacenter. The metacentric height is important because
the righting force is proportional to the metacentric height times the sine of the angle of heel.

When setting a common reference for the centers, the molded (within the plate or planking) line
of the keel (K) is generally chosen; thus, the reference heights are:

KB - Center of Buoyancy
KG - Center of Gravity
KM - Metacenter

Righting arm

Distance GZ is the righting arm: a notional lever through which the force of buoyancy acts.

“Sailing vessels are designed to operate with a higher degree of heel than motorized vessels and
the righting torque at extreme angles is of high importance. This is expressed as the righting
arm (known also as GZ — see diagram): the horizontal distance between the center of buoyancy
and the center of gravit”.

GZ = GM sin φ

Monohulled sailing vessels are designed to have a positive righting arm (the limit of positive
stability) at anything up to 120º of heel, although as little as 90º (masts flat to the surface) is
acceptable. As the displacement of the hull at any particular degree of list is not proportional,
calculations can be difficult and the concept was not introduced formally into naval architecture
until about 1970.
Stability

GM and rolling period

GM has a direct relationship with a ship's rolling period. A ship with a small GM will be
"tender" - have a long roll period - an excessively low or negative GM increases the risk of a ship
capsizing in rough weather (see HMS Captain or the Vasa). It also puts the vessel at risk of
potential for large angles of heel if the cargo or ballast shifts (see Cougar Ace). A ship with low
GM is less safe if damaged and partially flooded because the lower metacentric height leaves
less safety margin. For this reason, maritime regulatory agencies such as the IMO specify
minimum safety margins for sea-going vessels. A larger metacentric height, on the other hand
can cause a vessel to be too "stiff"; excessive stability is uncomfortable for passengers and crew.
This is because the stiff vessel quickly responds to the sea as it attempts to assume the slope of
the wave. An overly stiff vessel rolls with a short period and high amplitude which results in
high angular acceleration. This increases the risk of damage to the ship as well as the risk cargo
may break loose or shift. In contrast a "tender" ship lags behind the motion of the waves and
tends to roll at lesser amplitudes. A passenger ship will typically have a long rolling period for
comfort, perhaps 12 seconds while a tanker or freighter might have a rolling period of 6 to 8
seconds.

The period of roll can be estimated from the following equation

Where g is the gravitational constant, k is the radius of gyration about the longitudinal axis
through the center of gravity and is the stability index.

Damaged Stability

If a ship floods, the loss of stability is due to the increase in B, the Center of Buoyancy, and the
loss of waterplane area - thus a loss of the waterplane moment of inertia - which decreases the
metacentric height.[2] This additional mass will also reduce freeboard (distance from water to the
deck) and the ship's angle of down flooding (minimum angle of heel at which water will be able
to flow into the hull). The range of positive stability will be reduced to the angle of down
flooding resulting in a reduced righting lever. When the vessel is inclined, the fluid in the
flooded volume will move to the lower side, shifting its center of gravity toward the list, further
extending the heeling force. This is known as the free surface effect (see below).
Free surface effect

In tanks or spaces that are partially filled with a fluid or semi-fluid (fish, ice or grain for
example) as the tank is inclined the surface of the liquid, or semi-fluid, stays level. This results in
a displacement of the centre of gravity of the tank or space relative to the overall center of
gravity. The effect is similar to that of carrying a large flat tray of water. When an edge is tipped,
the water rushes to that side which exacerbates the tip even further.

The significance of this effect is proportional to the square of the width of the tank or
compartment, so two baffles separating the area into thirds will reduce the displacement of the
centre of gravity of the fluid by a factor of 9. This is always of significance in ship fuel tanks or
ballast tanks, tanker cargo tanks, and in flooded or partially flooded compartments of damaged
ships. Another worrying feature of free surface effect is that a positive feedback loop can be
established, in which the period of the roll is equal or almost equal to the period of the motion of
the centre of gravity in the fluid, resulting in each roll increasing in magnitude until the loop is
broken or the ship capsizes.

This has been significant in historic capsizes, most notably the MS Herald of Free Enterprise.

Transverse and Longitudinal Metacentric heights

There is also a similar consideration in the movement of the metacentre forward and aft as a ship
pitches. Metacenters are usually separately calculated for transverse (side to side) rolling motion
and for lengthwise longitudinal pitching motion. These are variously known as and
, GM(t) and GM(l), or sometimes GMt and GMl .

Technically, there are different metacentric heights for any combination of pitch and roll motion,
depending on the moment of inertia of the waterplane area of the ship around the axis of rotation
under consideration, but they are normally only calculated and stated as specific values for the
limiting pure pitch and roll motion.

Measuring metacentric height

The metacentric height is normally estimated during the design of a ship but can be determined
by an inclining experiment or Inclining test once it has been built. This can also be done when a
ship or offshore floating platform is in service. It can be calculated by theoretical formulas based
on the shape of the structure.

The angle(s) obtained during the inclining experiment are directly related to GM (See Righting
arm, above). Prior to the inclining experiment, an accounting of the 'as-built' center of gravity is
done; knowing GM and KG, the metacentric height (KM) can be calculated.
Centre of buoyancy:
The center of buoyancy is the center of volume of displaced water of the
hull (of a vessel). Gravity pulls down on a floating object. The fluid it is floating on pushes it up
and it floats (assuming it is bouyant). Both gravity and bouyancy (the two forces at work) will
have an effective center. The center of gravity is not required to be lower than the center of
bouyancy and in general most ship's center of gravity is above the center of bouyancy. The ship
will heel until the Metacenter (which is a function of the actual Waterplane area) is at or above
the center of gravity. It might be advantageous to look at the center of gravity with respect to the
center of bouyancy in ship hull stability and thereby get a better grasp of the particulars. Use the
link below to our friends at Wikipedia and look at some diagrams concerning the stability of
ships in terms of where the centers of bouyancy and gravity are in relation to each other