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Бух копия экзамен
Бух копия экзамен
Fixed assets include not only dwellings, buildings, structures, machinery and equipment but also
cultivated assets such as livestock for breeding and vineyards. They also include intangible assets
such as computer software and entertainment, literary or artistic originals.
Fixed assets consist of produced assets (mostly machinery, equipment, buildings or other
structures) that are used repeatedly or continuously in production over periods of time of more than
one year.
The European system of national and regional accounts explicitly includes intangible assets (e.g.
mineral exploitation, computer software, copyright-protected entertainment, literary and artistics
originals) within the definition of fixed assets.
Current assets are expected to be consumed within one year, and commonly
include the following line items:
▪ Cash and cash equivalents
▪ Marketable securities
▪ Prepaid expenses
▪ Accounts receivable
▪ Inventory
Column Graph - Microsoft Excel calls a bar graph with vertical bars a column graph and a
bar graph with horizontal bars a bar graph.
Box and Whiskers Graph (also called a Box Plot) - A box and whiskers chart, sometimes
called a boxplot, is a way to highlight the middle fifty percent of a data set, including the
median. The middle fifty is also called the interquartile range. It’s called a box and
“whiskers” chart because the graph looks (vaguely!) like a box with the whiskers of a cat.
The box and whiskers chart shows you how your data is spread out. Five pieces of
information (the “five number summary“) are generally included in the chart:
• The minimum (the smallest number in the data set). The minimum is shown at the far
left of the chart, at the end of the left “whisker.”
• The first quartile, Q1, is the far left of the box (or the far right of the left whisker).
• The median is shown as a line in the center of the box.
• The third quartile, Q3, shown at the far right of the box (at the far left of the right
whisker).
• The maximum (the largest number in the data set), shown at the far right of the box.
—>
•
Minimum: 20
• Q1: 160
• Median:
200
• Q3: 330
• Maximum: 590
Cumulative Frequency Table - The total of a frequency and all frequencies so far in a
frequency distribution. It is the 'running total' of
frequencies.
These charts are similar to pie charts, because the total area of the colored bars is 100%. For
example, you might have:
• One bar with an area of 40%
• The next with 30%
• Then 22%
• Then 8%.
Essentially, a funnel chart is
a differently-shaped pie
chart.
Histogram - Histogram is a plot that lets you discover, and show, the underlying frequency
distribution (shape) of a set of continuous data. This allows the inspection of the data for its
underlying distribution (e.g., normal distribution), outliers, skewness, etc. An example of a
histogram, and the raw data it was
constructed from, is shown below:
To construct a histogram from a continuous variable you first need to split the data into
intervals, called bins. In the example above, age has been split into bins, with each bin
representing a 10-year period starting at 20 years. Each bin contains the number of
occurrences of scores in the data set that are contained within that bin. For the above data
set, the frequencies in each bin have been tabulated along with the scores that contributed
to the frequency in each bin (see below):
Line Graph - A line graph is used to show how values change. For example, you could plot
how your child grows over time. Line graphs can also be used to show how functions
change. A function is just an equation that gives you a unique output for every input. For
example, y=- 4/5x + 3 is a function because you’ll get a unique value for y when you put in
any number for x.
Timeplot - A timeplot
(sometimes called a time series
graph) displays values against
time. They are similar to x-y
graphs, but while an x-y graph
can plot a variety of “x”
variables (for example, height,
weight, age), timeplots can
only display time on the x-axis.
Unlike pie charts and bar
charts, these plots do not have
categories. Timeplots are good
for showing how data changes
over time. For example, this type of chart would work well if you were sampling data at
random times.
Relative Frequency Histogram - Relative frequency is how often something happens
divided by all the possible outcomes. The relative frequency formula is:
A relative frequency table shows how often something happens compared to other things.
For example, the following table shows the frequency that books are sold at a particular
book
store. In
other
words, it
shows
you how
many
books
were
sold:
Pie Chart - is a type of graph that displays data in a circular
graph. The pieces of the graph are proportional to the
fraction of the whole in each category. In other words, each
slice of the pie is relative to the size of that category in the
group as a whole. The following chart shows water usage
(image courtesy of the EPA).
In order to make a pie chart, you must have a list of
categorical variables (descriptions of your categories) as
well as numerical variables. In the above graph,
percentages are the numerical variables and the type of
trash are the categorical variables.
Scatter Plot - Scatter plots are similar to line graphs. A line
graph uses a line on an X-Y axis to plot a continuous
function, while a scatter plot uses dots to represent individual pieces of data. In statistics,
these plots are useful to see if two variables are related to each other. For example, a scatter
chart can suggest a linear
relationship (i.e. a straight
line).
We use three different types of average in maths: the mean, the mode and the
median, each of which describes a different ‘normal’ value. The mean is what you
get if you share everything equally, the mode is the most common value, and the
median is the value in the middle of a set of data.
Here are some more in-depth definitions:
• Median: In a sense, the median is what you normally mean when you say
‘the average man in the street’. The median is the middle-of-the road number
– half of the people are above the median and half are below the median. (In
America, it’s literally the middle of the road: Americans call the central
reservation of a highway the ‘median’.)
Try remembering ‘medium’ clothes are neither large nor small, but
somewhere in between. Goldilocks was a median kind of girl.
• Mode: The mode is the most common result. ‘Mode’ is another word for
fashion, so think of it as the most fashionable answer – ‘Everyone’s learning
maths this year!’
• Mean: The mean is what you get by adding up all of the numbers and
dividing by how many numbers were in the list. Most people think of the
mean when they use the word ‘average’ in a mathematical sense.
In some ways the mean is the fairest average –you get the mean if the
numbers are all piled together and then distributed equally. But the mean is
also the hardest average to work out.
You use the different averages in different situations, depending on what you want
to communicate with your sums.
If the first and last intervals are open, they are conditionally closed taking the missing values of
intervals, so called adjacent interval.
This formula uses the sums of deviations from the means in both the X values and Y
values. However for ease of
calculation the following calculation
formula is often used.
Properties of correlation :
r r
1. The correlation coefficient is symmetrical with respect to X and Y, i.e xy = yx
2. The correlation coefficient is the geometric mean of the two regression coefficients.
3. The correlation coefficient is independent of origin and unit of measurement, i.e
rxy=ruv
4. The correlation coefficient lies between -1 and +1
7. Linear and standard deviation – definitions, formulas, properties
Standard deviation is a measure of the
dispersion of a set of data from its mean. If the
data points are further from the mean, there is
higher deviation within the data set. Standard
deviation is calculated as the square root of
variance by determining the variation between
each data point relative to the mean. Its symbol
is σ (the greek letter sigma). Low SD indicates
that the data points tend to be closed to the
mean ( expected value ). High SD indicates that
the data points are spread out of wide range of
values. SD random variable - is a square route
of the variance. Using SD we can analyse such
Mean Deviation is the arithmetic mean of absolute values of the deviations from the arithmetic
mean.
• Coefficient of fertility = Number or amount of birth /the average population of the year. = N/S
*100%
Coefficients of the second group of indexes are connected with the indexes of migration and
population. Number of arrivals - number of immigrants is so called the migration growth.
Coefficient of growth rate = number of migration growth / the average number of population for
the year.
Coefficient of total population growth = migration growth for a year / the average population for
a year.
The employment rate and unemployment rate. Number of economically inactive population.
Number of unemployed in economy = persons engaged in home making and child care + first
time job siekers.
Economically active population = Number of employed in economic - Number of unemployed in
economy
Economically inactive population = persons less than 16 years + students of working age
without of any job + persons engage in home making and child care + non-working pensioners and
disables + non-working persons of working age.
Working age in RF: 55 women, 60 - men.
The unemployment rate = the number of unemployed / number economically active population.
The number of population of working age = number of men from 16 to 59 years + number of
women between 60-65 years.
We have some coefficients which characterise the demography burden of the working age
population.
Child depending ratio = (number of children from 0 to 15 years) / (population of working age)
Ratio of total load = (number of population 0 -15 years + number of over pension age population)
/ (population of working age)
Labour potential of a country includes: business activities, forms of ownerships, according to global
monetary statistics, we have 4 types of ownership : public, stock, private, joined ownership.
Labour productivity - is output per worker; when workers are more productive the demand for their
services will be higher and therefore, they will be able to commend higher wages. High productivity
is a source of high wages, when the output per hour of worker is high, the real wages workers also
will be high.
Mode
The mode is the number that occurs most often within a set of numbers. For the server power
consumption examples above, there is no mode because each element is different. But suppose
the administrator measured the power consumption of an entire netowork operations center (NOC)
and the set of numbers is 90 W, 104 W, 98 W, 98 W, 105 W, 92 W, 102 W, 100 W, 110 W, 98 W,
210 W and 115 W. The mode is 98 W since that power consumption measurement occurs most
often amongst the 12 servers. Mode helps identify the most common or frequent occurrence of a
characteristic. It is possible to have two modes (bimodal), three modes (trimodal) or more modes
within larger sets of numbers.
Median
In the data center, means and medians are often tracked over time to spot trends, which inform
capacity planning or power cost predictions.The statistical median is the middle number in a
sequence of numbers. To find the median, organize each number in order by size; the number in
the middle is the median. For the five servers in the rack, arrange the power consumption figures
from lowest to highest: 90 W, 98 W, 100 W, 102 W and 105 W. The median power consumption of
the rack is 100 W. If there is an even set of numbers, average the two middle numbers. For
example, if the rack had a sixth server that used 110 W, the new number set would be 90 W, 98 W,
100 W, 102 W, 105 W and 110 W. Find the median by averaging the two middle numbers: (100 +
102)/2 = 101 W.
11. Statistical indexes – definition, groups of different indexes, some
formulas and relationship between them
1. individual
2. combined
3. chaine/ absidal indexes
4. aggregate indexes
5. average of individuals indexes
6. average levels
7. index of variable composition
8. fixed composition
9. structural fix index
Aggregate index and index of physical volume of production shows how many times cost of
production is increased or decreased in current period, compared to basic period as a result of
change only the physical volume.
The difference between the numerator and dominator of the formula of the index of production
prices and physical volume will show the absolute change in the volume of production as a whole
and due to studied production.
Formulas 2 shows us how many times the cost and volume of production ( price and quantity of
production) changed in current period in comparison with basic period.
Formula 3 shows how many times the cost is changed, the price is changed.
Three different formulas which shows us the relationship between quantity of product and price of
product in current period is changed compared to the quantity and price in base period.
In 1 time we have the level of increasing or decreasing of quantity if our price remains on the level
of base period. 2 formula we have change of quantity and price in the current period comparing
quantity and price in base period. We move quantity and price.
12. How many kinds of forming the sample population you know?
Population sampling is the process of taking a subset of subjects that is representative of the entire
population. The sample must have sufficient size to warrant statistical analysis.
Stratified sampling – when sub-populations within our overall population ; its advantages to sample
each sub-population independently.
Clusters sampling is an example of two stage sample or multistage sampling. In the first stage a
sample error is chosen. In the second stage a sample of respondents
Sometimes it is easier and cheaper by selecting errors by selecting responds from certain areas
only or certain time series only.
The procedure for matched random sampling can be briefed with the following sampling:
13.
How many
types of variable
series you know?
Dependent and idependent
Independent variable is a variable that is being manipulated in experiment in order to observe the
effect on dependent variable.
Nominal-variables that have 2 or more categories but don’t have an intrinsic order
Continuous (quantitive)variables:
Interval (THEIR CENTRAL CHARACTERISTIC IS THAT THEY can be measured along and they
have a numerical value)
Ratio (are interval but with added condition that 0 of the measurement indicates that there’s none
of that variable.
In statistics, sampling is concerned with the selection of a subset of individuals from within a
statistical population to estimate characteristics of the whole population. Sampling is the process by
which inference is made to the whole by examining a part. The purpose of sampling is to provide
various types of statistical information of a qualitative or quantitative nature about the whole by
examining a few selected units.
Stratified sampling
And others :
Cluster sampling
Quota sampling
Minimax sampling
Accidental sampling
17. Specify the difference between coverage error, systematic error and
random error in sampling
Coverage error – is an error that occurs in statistical estimates of a survey. It results from gaps between
the sampling frame and the total population. This can lead to biased results and can affect the variance of
results. Coverage error is a kind of nonsampling error.
Systematic error – Systematic error is a type of error that deviates by a fixed amount from the true
value of measurement.
As opposed to random errors, systematic errors are easier to correct. There are many types of systematic
errors and a researcher needs to be aware of these in order to offset their influence.
Systematic error in physical sciences commonly occurs with the measuring instrument having a zero error. A
zero error is when the initial value shown by the measuring instrument is a non-zero value when it should be
zero. EXAMPLE:
1. The cloth tape measure that you use to measure the length of an object had been stretched out from
years of use. (As a result, all of your length measurements were too small.)
2. The electronic scale you use reads 0.05 g too high for all your mass measurements (because it is
improperly tared throughout your experiment).
Systematic errors are difficult to detect and cannot be analyzed statistically, because all of the data is off in
the same direction (either to high or too low). Spotting and correcting for systematic error takes a lot of care.
Random error – A random error, as the name suggests, is random in nature and very difficult to
predict. It occurs because there are a very large number of parameters beyond the control of the
experimenter that may interfere with the results of the experiment. Random errors are caused by sources
that are not immediately obvious and it may take a long time trying to figure out the source. Random error is
also called as statistical error because it can be gotten rid of in a measurement by statistical means because
it is random in nature.
Unlike in the case of systematic errors, simple averaging out of various measurements of the same quantity
can help offset random errors. Random errors can seldom be understood and are never fixed in nature - like
being proportional to the measured quantity or being constant over many measurements.
The reason why random errors can be taken care of by averaging is that they have a zero expected value,
which means they are truly random and scattered around the mean value. This also means that
the arithmetic mean of the errors is expected to be zero.
For example, a biologist studying the reproduction of a particular strain of bacterium might encounter random
errors due to slight variation of temperature or light in the room. However, when the readings are spread
over a period of time, she may get rid of these random variations by averaging out her results.
18. Describe the relationship between the value of confidence level and the
coefficient of confidence
The confidence coefficient is the probability that a confidence interval will contain the true value of
the population parameter. For example if the confidence coefficient is 95% 95% of confidence
intervals so calculated for each of a large number of samples would contain the parameter.
The value of confidence level – In survey sampling, different samples can be randomly selected from the
same population; and each sample can often produce a different confidence interval. Some confidence
intervals include the true population parameter; others do not.
A confidence level refers to the percentage of all possible samples that can be expected to include the true
population parameter. For example, suppose all possible samples were selected from the same population,
and a confidence interval were computed for each sample. A 95% confidence level implies that 95% of the
confidence intervals would include the true population parameter.
The coefficient of confidence – A confidence coefficient, or confidence level, is a measure of the
accuracy and repeatability of a statistical test. Researchers often decide how confident they need to be in
their results and set the confidence level accordingly. Together with margin of error, a confidence coefficient
defines the expected results of subsequent tests. For example, say the results of a political poll have a 95%
confidence coefficient with a 5% margin of error. If that poll were performed 100 more times, 95 of those
times the results would fall within the margin of error. The confidence coefficient can be thought of as the
percentage of confidence in a finding. In other words, how confident the researcher is in the results.
Economic contents
The price index of Laspeyres - index proposed by German economist Étienne Laspeyres (1834–
1913) for measuring current prices or quantities in relation to those of a selected base period. A
Laspeyres price index is computed by taking the ratio of the total cost of purchasing a specified
group of commodities at current prices to the cost of that same group at base-period prices and
multiplying by 100. The base-period index number is thus 100, and periods with higher price levels
have index numbers greater than 100.
числитель - the cost of production realized in the (previous) period at the prices of the reporting
period.
знаменатель - the actual cost of production in the basic period.
Fishers index
Represents average geometrical of works of two modular price indexes of Laspeyres and Paashe:
Ideality is that the index is reversible in time, that is at shift of the basic and reporting periods the
return index turns out (an inverse value to the size of an initial index). Price indices are used to
monitor changes in prices levels over time. This is useful when separating real income from
nominal income, as inflation is a drain on purchasing power. They work by dividing expense on a
specific basket in the current period (the sum of p*q for each product in the basket considered when
calculating the index) by how much the same basket would cost in the base period (period 0). The
main difference is the quantities used: the Laspeyres index uses q0 quantities, whereas the Paasche
index uses period n quantities.
where
C is equal to all private consumption, or consumer spending, in a nation's economy, G is the sum
of government spending, I is the sum of all the country's investment, including businesses capital
expenditures and NX is the nation's total net exports, calculated as total exports minus total
imports (NX = Exports - Imports).
GDP is commonly used as an indicator of the economic health of a country, as well as a gauge of
a country's standard of living. Since the mode of measuring GDP is uniform from country to
country, GDP can be used to compare the productivity of various countries with a high degree of
accuracy. Adjusting for inflation from year to year allows for the seamless comparison of current
GDP measurements with measurements from previous years or quarters. In this way, a nation’s
GDP from any period can be measured as a percentage relative to previous years or quarters.
When measured in this way, GDP can be tracked over long spans of time and used in measuring a
nation’s economic growth or decline, as well as in determining if an economy is in recession.
22. Describe the difference between frequency and shares. How we calculate
shares in a variable series?
The absolute density of distribution is the frequency falling on interval width unit.
The cumulative frequency — this number received by consecutive summation of frequencies in the
direction from the first interval to the last to that interval inclusive for which the cumulative
frequency is defined. It’s main aim to control data by showing , which share of sample units doesn't
exceed this value.
More than are in descending order. The curr. Freq of each class is plotted against the lower limit of
the class interval.
The total frequency of all classes less than the upper class boundary of a given class is
called the cumulative frequency of that class. “A table showing the cumulative frequencies
is called a cumulative frequency distribution”. There are two types of cumulative frequency
distributions. The graph for the cumulative frequency is called an ogive.
Less than cumulative frequency distribution:
It is obtained by adding successively the frequencies of all the previous classes including the
class against which it is written. The cumulate is started from the lowest to the highest size.
The less than cumulative frequencies are in ascending order. The cumulative frequency of
each class is plotted against the upper limit of the class interval in this type of ogive and
then various points are joined by straight line.
More than cumulative frequency distribution:
It is obtained by finding the cumulate total of frequencies starting from the highest to the
lowest class. The cumulative frequencies in this type are in the descending order. The
cumulative frequency of each class is plotted against the lower limit of the class interval.
From the standpoint of graphic presentation, the ogive is especially used for the following
purposes:
To determine as well as to portray the number of proportion of cases above or below a given
value. To compare two or more frequency distribution. Generally there is less overlapping
when comparing several ogives on the same grid than when comparing several simple
frequency curves in this manner. Ogives are also drawn for determining certain values
graphically such as median, quartiles, deciles, etc.
26. Describe the economical difference between simple means and weighted
averages
'Weighted Average'-An average in which each quantity to be averaged is assigned a weight. These
weightings determine the relative importance of each quantity on the average. Weightings are the
equivalent of having that many like items with the same value involved in the average.
• Average is the sum of all individual observations divided by the number of observations.
• Weighted average is also an average with a slight difference that not all observations carry
equal weights. If different observations carry different importance, or weights in this case,
each observation is multiplied by its weight and then added up. This is done to take into
account importance of different observations as they carry significance more than others
1. Unlike simple average, where all the observations carry same value, in weighted average,
every observation is assigned a different weightage and thus the average is calculated
keeping in mind the importance of each observation.
2. Simple Average is used in mathematical equations, while the weighed average is applied
in the daily activities of a persons life, like finance.
3. Simple Average is the main representation of a data set, while weighted average needs to
be evaluated first to arrive at a certain solution to a certain problem.
4. You can solve the simple average of a data set by using arithmetic formulas like finding
the median, while in weighted average, components are given weight of value to arrive in a
certain answer.
(Other variant)
- When simple average is used as a mathematical term, it is finding the middle value of the
data set. It is also called the central tendency, because it is used to find the central tendency
of a certain group of data. Methods of statistics are usually the medium in finding the
central tendency of a certain data group. The average value is simply the representation of
the entire data set. If the number is in a certain data set, then that number is the average of
that set.
- Weighted average on the other hand is used in many different fields, but it is used most
especially in the field of accounting. It is normally used in fields where mathematical
evaluations and analysis is needed. The main purpose of weighted average is to put value or
weight on certain components so that you will be able to come up with the right solution
with the problem that you are solvingWhen it comes to the financial aspect, the weighted
average is the average value of the principal repayments of a certain bond or loan until the
principal value is paid.
• Ordinary least squares - A statistical technique to determine the line of best fit for a model.
The least squares method is specified by an equation with certain parameters to observed
data. This method is extensively used in regression analysis and estimation.
• In the most common application - linear or ordinary least squares - a straight line is sought
to be fitted through a number of points to minimize the sum of the squares of the distances
(hence the name "least squares") from the pointsto this line of best fit.
• Example: Okun's law in macroeconomics states that in an economy the GDP growth
should depend linearly on the changes in the unemployment rate. Here the ordinary least
squares method is used to construct the regression line describing this law
29. Describe difference between multiple and partial coefficient of
correlation
Multiple linear regression coefficient and partial correlation are directly
linked and have the same significance (p-value). Partial r is just another
way of standardizing the coefficient, along with partial coefficient. So, if
the dependent variable is Y and the independents are x1 and x2 then:
We see that the numerators are the same which tell that both formulas
measure the same unique effect of x1.
Frequency is the number of times a specific value appears in a data set or list. To find the
frequency of these values, one constructs a frequency table and inputs all the different
values from the set. The frequency of a class divided by the total frequency is called the
relative frequency of that particular class. Frequency distribution is a representation, either
in a graphical or tabular format, that displays the number of observations within a given
interval. The intervals must be mutually exclusive and exhaustive, and the interval size
depends on the data being analyzed and the goals of the analyst. Frequency distributions are
typically used within a statistical context. As a statistical tool, a frequency distribution
provides a visual representation for the distribution of a particular variable. Analysts often
use it to show or illustrate the data collected in a sample. The most important factors are that
the intervals used must be non-overlapping and must contain all of the possible
observations.
Frequency distributions can be presented as a frequency table, a histogram or a bar chart.
Both histograms and bar charts provide a visual display using columns, with the y-axis
representing the frequency count, and the x-axis representing the variable to be measured. In
a histogram, the height of the column represents the range of values for that variable.
Frequency distribution is one of the simplest methods employed to describe populations of
data and can be used for all four measurement scales - indeed, it is often the best and only
way to describe data measured on a nominal, ordinal or interval scale. Frequency
distributions are sometimes used for equity index returns over a long history - e.g. the S&P
500 annual or quarterly returns grouped into a series of return intervals.
Frequency distributions are not commonly used in the world of investments. However,
traders use an approach to trading based on frequency distribution. The frequency chart is
referred to as a point-and-figure chart and was created out of a need for floor traders to take
note of price action and to identify trends. The y-axis is the variable measured, and the x-
axis is the frequency count. Each change in price action is denoted in X's and O's. Traders
interpret it as an uptrend when three X's emerge; in this case, demand has overcome supply.
In the reverse situation, when the chart shows three O's, it indicates that supply has
overcome demand.
Cumulative Frequency is the total number of data values that are less than or equal to a
certain value. The cumulative frequency of a class divided by the total frequency is called
relative cumulative frequency. Cumulative frequencies can also be represented by graphs.
The most popular graph is known as a cumulative frequency graph or ogive. The simple
cumulative frequency, as in the case of ogive, we take the ordinate as the percentage
cumulative frequency, we shall get a percentage cumulative frequency curve. Such a curve
is useful for comparing different frequency distributions as they are adjusted to a uniform
standard. It is to be noted that the ogive for a discrete series is drawn on the assumption that
the data is continuous. When the class frequencies run up to a maximum at one end of the
range, they form a J-shaped curve. A cumulative frequency plot also is a way to display
cumulative information graphically. It shows the number, percentage, or proportion of
observations in a data set that are less than or equal to particular values. From economic
essence, this concept is important for analysis of total values, which are connected by
specific criteria. For example, if you want to open a shop, you can calculate how many
people will buy something there according to their willingness to pay.
Coefficients of population regression is the parameters of the population regression line. In the
linear regression model with a single regressor, coefficients of population regression are the
intercept b0 and the slope b1 of this line.
Coefficient of elasticity of Y with respect to X is the percentage change in the Y resulting from a 1%
increase in X. The most common elasticity used in econometrics is the price elasticity of demand,
which is the percentage change in the quantity demanded caused by a 1% increase in price.
When the regression model is log-log function form, the slope b1 of this line is equal to the
elasticity of Y with respect to X, it means that b1 is the percentage change in Y caused by a 1%
change in X.
Price elasticity is important in business to determine in a given market whether an increase (or
decrease) in prices will generate an increase (or decrease) in revenues.
Y is the value of the Dep. var ehat is being predicted or explained α a constant;Y is the value of thr
Indep.variables ;ε- error regression equation is often used to estimate economic statistics such as
inflation and GDP growth.In statistics it helps to estimate the strength and the direction of the
relation between 2 or more variables.
46. Describe the difference between linear and square standard deviation
Linear (mean) deviation (MD, L ,̅ d ̅) this indicator is the arithmetic mean of
absolute values of the deviations from the arithmetic mean. The linear
deviation helps us to calculate the average amount by which the values in the
population or sample vary from their mean.
If the data set is not grouped, we use simple mean
MD = L ̅ = d ̅ = (∑_(x=1)^n▒〖(xi- (x)) ̅ 〗)/n
xi = [(x1;xn) ̅] – value of each observation arithmetic mean of the values
n – number of observations
If we have a data set consisting of variables with not equal frequencies, we
use weighted frequency of this mean deviation
MDW = L ̅ w= d ̅ w= (∑_(x=1)^n▒〖(xi- (x)) ̅ 〗 "fi" )/(∑_(i=1)^n▒fi)
fi – frequency of every variable
Sometimes it is necessary also to calculate relative linear deviation
VL = L ̅/x ̅ × 100%
- Use a PivotTable;