An investigation in Hnguistic history

AMERICAN ORIENTAL SERIES

DEVE,LOPMENT Of THE CANAANITE DIAI.ECTS

YOLUlliffi 16

EDlTOR

BY

W. NOR:M.~N BROWN

ZELLIG S. HARRlS 1\

u" ....... .;!:!! I1f Pm"-"!llu.m..

J'OHN iK. S,HRYOCK

E. A" SPEISER

, .. I ,

._,1 i "

Al\JrnrucAN ORIENTAL SOCIETY NEW HAVEN. OO~"NEC'I'ICUT 1989

AMERJ:CAN ORIENTAL SOCmT'Y !'-.'EW ElA VEN .• CONNECTICU'l' 1989

CONTENTS

l'J.G!Il,

1. IN:rRIlDUCHOoN • 1

1. The conditions of investigation 1

s. What Canaanite includes a

R The rounds of Canaanite .. 3

2. EEl!oRll, THJB SYlIIA-P ALBSTINE PUIOD 5

1. The ancestor of ths languages 01: Syria-Palestine Ii

2.. The Proto-Semitic dialectal parent ef Canaanite ii

3.. Common West-Semitic history of Oanaenite il'

4 .. Common NO):rtlnI'8st·Semitic hiswr:r of Oanaaaite 8

Ii Dialectal separateness 0:[ Canaanite within N orihw'est-

Semitic ., 9

II. Dialectel di .... isions within the parent of Canaanite . 11

3. LING'lHSTIC CONIlITnON~ IN SYlUA-l'.I\LES''rnir.il 13

1, Social and political stracture . 13

2, Degrea oi' eommuaication . J14.

:1. Tone awJLlys.is of limgllli:sl;ic diHusioli. 15

4. The sourees 16

5. Thi' scripts . 24

6, 'I'Hil'LnilGtllSTIO EVGLllT]ON OF CANllilHTE 81

A., Effect npon the structure of Canaanite sn

1. Phonemic pa.tte'rI1 81

2. Phenstie structure 82

3. Morphology 83

4. SymiaK . 85

5. Lexicon 85

6.. Date of changes in the v!lril)us linguistic features 86

B. The Linguisticprecesses invohed 86

L Phoneticcbanges . 86

3,. Analogie new·EclnnatioIJ]s !l·S

x

1'.I.0E

3.F·luctuat:ion in frequency • S9

4, C®n"l~tiOD of ilm prueesses of change w.ifu the ~e!l-'

tnres which were changed SO

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

16,_ FORliu. TilO1\: (Jil' DUIoeOTS •

L The geographic extension ,of changes: eonvergenea and divergence .

2,. Oorrelation of linguistic £eatuJ!'e.> willi their geographic ditrl'ulio:m (TaMe 1)

3. Correlation of linguiedicprocesses with fueir geographic dilf",,'iion (Table .2); the determining element in diffusion ..

4. G~owth of dialect bOmlldarie.s

5. Toe resuIt!lll!t dialects .

6. Soeial basis of diffusion

~. Indepeadent changes ~ml. lin,gJ!listic ib-ift;

LIST Oil' ABBImVIATWl\1

'91

I., TIiI.e ccndltions o,if :ill vestigation. TIle gtud3' of dialed ge.®grn.pny bas shown bow langaage areas break up in dialectal divisions. T:h.e. firs descriptive results of dialect atlases S1le1lL, it is c.rlle, to be spatia! only: the isoglcsses indicate m.er,e1y wilat areas are similar in respect to this or that linguistic ieailuTe, and what areas differ much or litfle from ene another, B,ui; the analysis of Illese results Ems made it possible to !'eco"el' from them certain historical eyiiience too. Tile iaoglesses are ][Iterpte,t.ed !IS the Iimits of diffusion of the respective linguistic feature!!; from varioas criteria sneh as !.he existence und distributioa of relic forms and the movement, of certain. isoglosses in groups, one may infer the direc" "em and date or the' respeetsve lODgtlstiC Il,iffusi,mls, and so discover s®methiDg of the Iingnsnc h:istcIj' of the area.' However, sucb Inference, based O1lJyupcm the current distribution of forms" is m.e[bod,ologieaUj' limited. ]t can not reveal tbose histerical ehanges and diJIllsuons wMcli weTIl later e\'eued out· i.lI some cases it cannot show the order in which certain ehanges wok 'place, or w!left:her given eurrent f[l,ms are the result 0;:1 one change 0'- of several successive changes, If we would know, ~'I'eD roughly, the Iinguietic history of an area, OUT geographiea.Uy specified Iinguistic data IllllS,t D.ot eome from one moment only, but ml1Et range over III long period of time. We nee(]! ,evjlit.:n« from past writings. Such evidence is a'Wailabl€ im fhe Canaanite speech oi Syria-Palestine: between c. 1500 and c., 200 );I. c. While the linguistic data, TIDm this, land are sparse" tliley have the value 0:1' oecerrmg over 8. ong period and a. fairly large area; ,and, eur knew ledgce of the' relat"a Semitic languages makes it possible' for us to aaderstand such mated,ll1 as we he,e, and to know whieb of the observed Iinguistic ieatu:res are Proto-Semitic and which we're developed anddiffused withil!l. Syri8~Pale-stine.

An investigation. of linguistic hisOOTy is necessarily based on he eomparisoa oi a semes 0:1 statie Lillgllistie deseriptions taksn at various timelevels. The historical anlllysi!l is in this case more complete than. any ODe of the static descriptions, since irt is based upon scattered evidence fOI this

'L. ll)oomfield, uaguage, (1933l chapter !9: A. 1l1.ttsc]meiol.,., Spracbk:uLe .10 SprJ1.dt~"'h'''h~." in Indo,germ an ische Por'cl1 ... ~n 411 (1930) 181·221; A. n",u'!ll.l, La g.!ogr .. "h.i.li"gw!igtiq~E ! I Q22) ; 'R. 'G"mill'~heg, m. Spr,,~h,g ee gtal'b'e (NeuphiMog;sclteB\blioU.e1< 1928); J .. GiUMroo" oml J. l'Iollgin, &,l.er d"". I" Gaule romane ! 1'90li); K. Rug" Sp ... eh"mldeL im Lichte de" lliun.dartgr en zen, in 'Rheiin.isCh. Ileil;riige, ,," .. d IWI.bilch er our germ .. ,,i.oh ... pb.n"logi. 16 ! 1'98(1) ;, K. J.bHg" Spra"hgeog:rll.phle 0908,).

&!L

94 95 97 98 99

101

INDEX

103

HI6

OTE:S TO GH.ART' •

107

OHA.Jcr 0<' LINGUISI'IC CHANtl'Ro'l IN CAX.UNITE

facing ]08

1

Deoelopmen: of the Ga1Ulimite Diaiect«

TntrQdooti{m

tne.rdore be included in any complete s,tudy o.f Canaanite, Cauaenite ma terial from this, area is iOUIlQ in the large number of Amorite names in cuneiform tablets 1)£ e, 2i10(J ll. C,,' and In the thousands of eunai{'orm tablet; from Marii,· However" not enough. is as Jet. known of this lal1gu:age 1.0 make i t c~ear whether' it w'as merel y an oUltlying section 'o.f Canaanite, or whether it had certain early linguistie featmes which might set it historically apart from tile rest of ille Oaaaanite area. At ihe present writing 8 lsrge Ill&8S .@£ material, afforded iby the Marl tablets, has been discovered bu not yeO publiehed. It seems therefore bert 1.0 reserve discussion of this area lliI!W the new iIJ'Ia terial is available, and to limit this investigation to the M ediierTlllle!lIl coast lind its imm.edia te hinterland,

S. The sounds of Canaanite, The transcriptio» used heTe for the sounds of OanalUlite speech rovers the phonemes, of all the dialects II:JiId the ehl.o:l phonetic fel!.tures wbieh are here discussed, .AUhaughtbe evidence for ·t:lJeh aetual pronunciation is slight, and is in mas eases not discussed here, the probable nature and. point ,,1' articulation of eaeh s ound may be indicated! thus:

or that linguistic feature at various moments withiu the period, ra tber than UP<J'll il.vo complete deseriptions of tll~ state oi the 1 amglla.ge at the beginning and end 0:£ Ehe penod, We can make a large nurn ber ij)f si:Dgle observations, partial descriptions, at various points within this period; lmi at no point can we o!Jtain !D. reasonably complete pjeture of ihe Semitic spseeh of Syria-Falestine. Even It deseriptive grammar of mil oretic Hebrew, the most fully recorded of any of these dialects, is not as liJigui.s;ti'cs.i1y profitable as an lli&t'C1rical study. For the mliSQfctic text 01 tile bible is not. direct evidence of some one dialect; i does not represent tile. speech of [ust 'one plaee and time. A few forms ill. it are probably artifteial ; many are eonflations of the traditions 'Q-! t.wo dffi'€'r·ent stages ri the spoken lang;u!lge; some are dialectal forma w.hichw~e never used in the! speech 01 Jeru~'lllo:m. A description ~f the siJeeclt of Jertl· salem a.~any particular time would itself' have to be not a mere deseriptioll of llmsoretic Hebrew but an historical reccustrueti em based upon U;~ masoretie and other evidenee,

2.Wbat. Canaanite Includes, During the last tWCl millenni« B. c. m®.st of the inhabit.anis 0] S,ria .• Palest~ne s!lok>e IL Semitic language 'of the Northwest-Semitic tYJ!le'. In the eourse of time many changes took place in this Sip e eeh , ami aifEere.llces grew up among various pads of the area. It is 'these changes tbat I01'm the 'Oasis of the present study.

To the exteDlt hilt these languages can be shown to be 0:1 one Semjic sub-divisien," they are ali caned 1IJl tile g,eneraI name cc Canaanite.' This term is: used o rostinguish them from the ather, Aramaic, s.ub-diyijj,iOlil of the N orthwest-Bemitic group, " CaIlaan" was tll.e 03:llicie·nt name for a large parf o:f the Palest ine-Syria. (lOIL~t and W8 secondarily used to describe these langneges which were spoken 1h~re:' It reeeires ai3.d.ed color sinee it appears tlla.t most of the l:inguistie j,eatures which distinguish these languages rlwm the Aramaic we.re not the heritage of some eerlierperiod but !lad del',e1opoo here ill the area geographically known !IS Canaan."

One important section of tlli areaIs exeludad from tlJ:e present study,; nerth-essbsrn Syria., bordering on the middle Euphrates. Tbe speech ,,£ this area was very ]1;obably Canaanite, making a linguisti.ccontinuum willi that of the Meaitel'TlD.nen C(l~st ani inland Syria-pai.esiinE'. It sl10ulcl

r"Oioet_..lop lvo:[oed

~¥oif-eless. spirant 1,oieoo

r,o.i •• less l!li'llUant l""o:l'ced

! F'on",.iD!l' ,.11 yoked! : la.w.]

ml!

.JJ:!I sa 1 sf!lDi-voiwd WO\lil'leJl'I.

("alb",t and longl

detltd~

labial .• lveole.r "emp,hatic"

P t

b d

1; t(>.Arab.!;')

d ~(>ATtl.b. if)

~U ,~

z

k

s MAr.ab. t.) y(gba.in)

q '(al.eph)

l.l ( Arab. 1:) h

• (ayiJ1)

:1tI w

r It J

i. III

e 0

E (mAsor. n.l>.) :l (onl.l'],ollg.l

a

, Bee ehs pter 'g.

• Egyptian names ;or Palesti".-Sl'rio.: J. H .. 11,,,,,,,100., An.i.nt Records 01 Egyll'[ II U 01" i:'Iamos i" the A", e, ",.. I"tt~'" and c·tbe. tllneifoTm oou<ees" Knudhon 1M 1; B. Maisler, U"~eu,,ohU!JJg'D zur alte". G.,eni"h~. Syri~DS und P .. la.U nas 150-'8; F. BOhI, KaMens.er unol n'b,iier HI. Biol;:",,1 ... me' " S. Driver, 1,,!rcductiol1 I" t.he Old '!'"",t_",ot 119; O. F. Bu.mey, The, Book .. I judg •• H .. Pjb.Oi:niC;~iLJl name: G'P'i .. ,

5Th"" Bauer, Die O.tk .. "aaoo.er; Albright, AfO 3 (1926) 1'~4: Bauer, ZA 38 ~N. F .. 01,)1128) UIi-'\iO;. LoW.)'. ibid. 2:43·12; Nolli, ZA 3ij (N. F, 5, Ig29) 213·22 .. CI. "I.., W.st-SemiU. material i ... the Cap.l"'do~ilLll A.s)'r; an tab~et.: Lew.)', OLZ 29 (192:8) '156~61. 963·6; G . .E!;'sBcer.,J. Lewy, Die al~s'yI;.cl, en B.ecbts .. rkunden ron Xtilltep'l (MV.AG 33) i F. J', SteI'RenS" Personal N .. IO.% from Cuneiil:orm Jnso<ipti<llt!l oj[ Capp a d .... l. a,

The Later spirants wlnich de~'eI0ped 'out of post-roealie stops are traascribed ~ H ~ I.e,g]. T1:tese 'We~e not phonemes, but IDErely positional variants 011 their homo-~r,g:anic stops, a.nd Irencs do not need tQ be indieated iII !I. phonemic transcription. They are iuilimteoli heee, no'Wew,el', because they represent a phOE:etic clmnge which. is In,ere discussed.

In the vowels, the wert grade is indicated br the vowel-.sign ill~ne, The long grade is mdiCllOOd.lly macron. ~ U1r eircumfiez ~ over the ,owelsigIl.. While the diflSeTeJ:Iti.ation u[ these two i;:ype~ ()E longvoweIs would probably nClE be necessary in III descriptiveaccount, since they did not differ in degyee of leD{ltll, it is cl)men.ient to keep them distinct here because the]' had hist-o.rica)]y diffierent origins., A is used ior Proto,semitic Jong vowels, and for long vowels which arose from the assimilatien of III consonant to a \'owel, or from the eoatraetion (If two vowels as a result of the sJ'Ilcope elf R. coasonant between them ; some of these changes toek place in pre-Clrnaan.ite time, many in Canaanite 'r j, - is wed for Proto-Semitie an:ceps vowels (loBgvowels in final position, in ",·n]ru. position. the)' seem to ha "e had their shOlrt. grade as a jfr~e variant}, 8Dd for the stress.lengtitemm,g wkieb touk p13~ ill Cansnnita in. cenditiens w hieh included stress and loss, of It. iolkl'wing' iilnal aho,t.owel (see chapter 4, no. 36}.. 'l'he. h.ter· reduced grade (shwa) of the short vowels is llIark,ed by [oJ or, if particularvowel quality isto be represented, [." 0].

Short [i, 1>,. u] and long [1 a, Iii] are Proto- smitic "(lwel$. Long [e]l arose in Oanaanite from the monephthongization of [ay], and Jater [e] was tliestress·lengtllelled grade uf [i]; shor& [e] appears in the place of Proto-Semitic short [j] in certain forms," [ c] is used only for the segel! of the Tnttsr:iall masoretic vecalization in Hebrew! [5, Ii] lire used for the Iater back-tJuality lengthened grade of [a] j it arose I} tlly in this cireumstanee, and had no short grade. This vowel WIlS pheneraieally di;;tin~t from [5] whieh baa. t1~~elo'ped earlier iErom tbe earl)' eases of I(DD.g [II] !lRd from the mOllojJbthoogi2a.tilln of [8W] ; the short [0] oecurs in eertuin forms inplace of ProIo·Semitic short [ Ill.'.

GRAPTER '2

4

Deoelopment oj the Canaenite Dialects

• :J"r<oI<>-Se.mitic ['a.·) < ["a'· h [3] < (awll, [(;J ( [o.)'J, stressed 1[0] a u d. ImstF't$sed [;;') H>otl! ( [aJ < Ill'J in special .om1:it'ons in early c.." ea nite; Later fa.] <l.'j, [~) < [.i'J; [:1.] < Ill)'a]. etc.; ·"robooMy also I[·i I ([ ·at).

• E. g. in [.l'itte~J ':!t. ,..ilI gi"".'

'Kahle 'j n , EL9,~.e'lOO; Speiser, JQR 2~ (1'983) 11. " E. g. in lyakolt.im I • l'e 1Rl!r. able.,'

BEFORE. TBE S.YlllA~:rAL,ESTIN]J PERIOD

L Tile ancestor of the lan,g:uages of Syria r Palestine, Any zeeenstmetion w the history of Oanaanlte out of the SEveral dialects, any puttiug -together of iorms from dilfer,ell t. parts of the Canaanite area, is ]!Iosi1led 011 the assumption that the speech of all. parts of that area \I'lIS once the same, that all fhe local. dialects are developed :£..1I'{Im one earlier parent Ianguage, To determine whether this was indeed the ease', we must ask (2.) to what extent they all derive from he same dialectal ares of Proto-Semitic, and (3.-,5.) if they all wenl; through the same history from the brerui::-Ilp (!If the Proto-Semiticarea up ill their entrance mto Canaan. To, the·edel!Bttbat this js.so, w,e must say that every dialect which we call Canaanite had virruaUy the same hi:swl")', I!BIliDl.ely; that Ihe!:y W€TE all rirbually identacal tip to the time t'i!l.at they came. to, be speken :ill Syria .. Paleatine. We may then l'I'>OODstru:et out of the later Canaanite dialects a fairly uniformProto-Cansanite speee'fu, and features which do net appear in the PTo o-Canaanite reeonstrucfion will. be assnmed to ha"e developed during the Canaanite period.

But not ail dif'f,erenees among the, Iater Canaanite dialects are neecessadly ]11.00 developments, The single parent 01 fhese later languages may itself have contained some dialectal divisions, wllicli. should appea:r as such ill the reeonstraction of Proto-Caaaanite. We should therefore ask further (0.) 'What dialeclal dmel'ences there WeN wltb.in tlnis parent of tile Canaanite dialects, It is important 1.0 distin,gwsh between dialectal di visiens bdore the Canaanite period and 'tbose th.at de\1;J:opedwithin that period, For the differences that eama up in Sp.ill.-Pa}.est.in~ arose williin thE! known geographic . lind. social positions 01 each part of the 8~., and by studying them. in ·terms Df Ihcsc local. conditions we .may Jeam 50mething of the relation bet;,'een geographic position and the ,[fowili of dialect differences ; but the diffe~e.n= whioh de'iel(]pem beFore: that period arose in geograph:ic and social. eircumstanoes 'II' hieh we do, not know and which were probably unrelated to those established later in yria-plflestine.

2.. The' Prate-Semitic dialectal llarent [If Canaanite. The dialects here studied all derive from a single dialectal parent within Proto. 8~mitie: in the few faaturesfor whi.ch a Proto-Semitic dialectal division (" Ee~,t '" and "W eat ") canbe traced, these languages allshow the forms whiehhad spread in tbe Westl!r.n di'l'islcm. Thus all fhe languages of

6

Beiore the Syri.a-l'cdestine Pe-ood

whlch had used [b-], e.xcept that in Ug;lI.fitic (or its parent dialect) tile [go] form became accepted Iater en.'

Develqpl1tent oj'the: Ca.noomite Dialects

SJria .. Pa.les;ti~e have the [h-] form of !he third person 'P<(Ii!l01lJ:lS,L !IS is tmeof almost al] 1he W'est~Semitic languages., whereasin ba part of Proto- . emitie from whichths Haist-Semitic lan.gue.ge s de>re.lll}led ·tbe [s-J fol'ms bad been accepted, ']['he facttbat {be [s-] forms occur also in ~rne S(Dutn Arabic dialects (M:inaea:a,ere., as against [b-] in Sabaean ; J:lI modern S01!llli Arabic: S~IIU['i and, i(),r the feminine, ~.[elH'i lind S,Qqotri) sugge.ts that these [b-] and [S-] forms did Dot Rrise later in !-he sepll:rated Em;te:n and Western gronps 00.f Semitic Illnguages,burt th~.1; ~th forms existed In Proto-S emitie, preference for [S-] forms spreading through til", prrenr:sora of East-Semiti.c and of some of the southern West-Sem.iiic language'S. while the rest of the Proto.Semitic area usoo mil. [11-] forms,'

.. ~e causative fed fDr~l.l bad an ana1og01iB history: all the Canaanite dialects, had the form wIth [n-] U'· L [y.]).,,' as do almost all West-

'eUli~? rauguges, ~he~ ~ast~ emitic uses tile [s-] causative (Safel).

Uga;lti<3, seems to. cl;iHer, JIL that It uses f;he [~] c:am!a-five: r.egala;])'; but petrified f.urmu!81c CiCCUf.r,ence> of the [. -] ea usaii ve in IT garitic show' lhat.tl~e ~lalec.t!mm which it Wllll derived bll.d onee had ·the [h.-] ([,-]l ,c~uEli.blTe. T1us n;~lacing of tl.e [n-] eeusative by the [s-] form in lJile parent of IT ganhc, and the existenC(l 01' the [s..] causative in some South-Arabic diaJ:ects (JlI.inaElIn) , "With traces of it elsewhere in We-st Semitic (e. ,g .. Arabic istarda), !III indicate that both ellisted in ProtoSemit..ic : pam of the Proto-Semitio area had used tlle [h-] eausafi .. e parts had used [&-]; the Camumii:e languages came from the section

a. Cammal'! West·Semiti.t history of Canaanite. 111 addition to the evidence; of dialectal identity in Proto-Semitic, it is clear thal.all these languages of Sjil"ia-Pales.tiDe had hac! II common lJisl@IY with "the WestSemitic languages aft.er th~ East-Semitic group WliS 110 ]on,ger in eontaet with thsm. ThIlS, prebablyall Ganaanite languagespoaeeesed the inlernal pl1saive verbal eonsh:\o!ciion cbaractezized 11)' ~he functional vowel sequence [-u .. i-] (pi.), [.u-a-] (p,ret., ipi..) .; this fbrm. seems to have developed in the C01!UlSe of the cornmon history o·f West-Semitic and is

absent in Eest .. Semilie:.. .

.Another feature common. to all the (~na!tl!ljte OIiEdects amill as faJr as is known, to' all oUter West-Semitic languages, was the final [-u] of !Jae preterite (i:mpedec\; indieatjve] 1; this (-u] was lost in the various languages when E.til.lll 5ilo)'~ vCiWeiS dropped, blil~ there is abundant evidence of its earher exis~nce., 10 East-Semitic, how",,,el', tile preterite WII$ without find [-u]; there the vowel was suffixed only in certain s"ntactic C()JIld:iti.ons, when the preterite 'WIIS in a &O'Condary elause,

Th.eyaqtuJ. form without [-Ii] (~"'\kka.dian pre!.eri.iie) <tid occur in West-~Semitic, but it had a functicn wnicliJ was absent from A'kkadillJII (Eas ..semitic): the jussive function. Tills West-Semitic jussi'i'e, too, existed, as far as: 1,lle evidence g'iJe,';', iII all the languages 01' Syrill.Palestine."

There was yet another :m.odnl form of the sub] ect-prefixedverb which

"liam~t .ufIi:x:es in [-11,]1 (lI, 9',; UgarWe ['OIl.wa.t1!!, l>i,!'ati., him ..... ] and. ,u~':' ':n, [-'II.], Montgomeo:y, JAOS 5'~ (1!l3jj) 440-1" iPh"."ici.n, ill<luding y a.u d. h h.: h' '.b.: Jlml 'lh~y;' and .ull'h:es 1n [-h·) IlAt.e I"w], ['r.] and. cGGt:·,,:ci.e<l 'iowel.) GP .47 f..; South C~""""ile .o:lllx [-(h)'(I] in ab-r ..... ".,j, ba-d1·", ", ... a~":".~ (~,Ieglddo 1l.A. 245. ID, 35, 141, cl. Dhm:me RB, 11 (1'914~ :l~II; ~.br.w· [hll, h,. h.",il. hem] ,and .• utl;;. ee in [-.1>-]; lfi>.I>ite f" (II) a:nd .uffix,os ... [·h-] (8).

• GvG 302-3, G: B.~gst'.lISer, Einftlhnmg in IIi.. Si)"';ti.~b<,J) Sp",ohe". J'21;

J. B~~th, .PTo"ominalbtidttog 11; D. H. MilDler, 8!Uda .... bische Expedi'l,o<l ;;, Die ~1i.hn Dud S"'Iotri S!"".he 2, 373. s.,q"lti bas mase, [h] ,. f..". [0'] 'in Ii •• ... d.~",uiellt and sru.ffixe<l prceouns, but mase, Is) and few_ fsJ in {he 1'",,,,,,,,,1 nomDDal suffixes,

.• B.a:mat dml,?,y' ' a Old 'he _de me lUng' 131; 'Ugari tie (aaqdll] ',ac:riJice,' e e. cr. J .. Fned:nch. Ras Sb"mJ'a 27; Oin'.1;"' .... Orientalie. 7 (I'gall) 3-4; liar.is J,~O~ ~8, 11;9'311) IO~·;;; IPb"",,;cllUl [Y-l < (h·]I; !l'qdj~ '1 ocrn ••• rale!i,' Nee.Fun;. (( )lqd1!]1 he ~OD"""" a ted' (G.P 42·~); Sou,h a"uaanitA! ~i·i~-IH-e 'b e . hid' I r, EA 2.6. l' I Bilhl S4, Dh<>.",. RB II ,( Hili) 4.<1, Uehtew Mill. ol.m· 1I{""b[t.

k/).1'mI~ • I dodieated it' ~ 1.71. '

"Albright, JPOS 14 (19341.112-3; Ilair.ds, JAOS 58 (19'38)_165-11; in oppo. oili",,, Iio u.a. v:;"'" a ... t:.., J .A,(}S 58 ~ 1938) 280 In. S1.

'Q"G 522-4; Nyl>..-,[, M"",cr. Oriulb[ H [L 9Zill 19i ·!l'I5; Sl'~i"", .J AOI'l 55 !I936') 23-6.

• Ug ... itio [yul.t.<lu) • he beeerne aff'""~",,d' I HAB 'v "),, etc, ,Goette" J AOS .58 (1938), 21'~., :102; H •. His, JAOS ~1 ~ 19l1') 152; 1'],....,;.;".0,. iiI1:c'1uding y,,'udi i.;sy 'he was ·oo.-er.a' (G~' 42:1, ~-U''''1i 'it i s e akllJil' (Hybl"., RA. 105, 82) &ih1 00" E be li·n,g 59 i :South {)a" .. mite w-UI'·p<>-~w-m.i 'it. win be d"".' (AIrll .. EA 232. 20 h B6M e>2, Oetore,'" gal passive. plI .. l, and b<lial stems.

'Ugariti~ [yiSSa,'u] 'lte .oj.edo''' etc, Gootu, .AOS ·58 ~1~38) 290.;1, 30,9; the 'e:'1,id.e.JlII!e fro-m {he .Ama.rna. le-tf~s is jlnaecisbrof:. in "ie'J'.f [If liue oondi:tion9 [If euneiform """iting. Tn. for:m ~qtlllu, witll [·U]I, must &lao be as~umed [ur ea rly Ho.II.,",w, to ae ee ..... t in, tit. djj["".,,<es in Iste jff~&re .. betw"<D th ... nH""ea of the i;nd,;,,,,the e.1I11 j1!lSs1'''''' BL 296.;300. Forth. [on] tlt.t occurred • Jter- final IOJlg ,."we1. in. the indicative btl~ Dot in tile ius';"", see chapter 5_ AS.

• Ugadl.i. [t;Ma:'], .. tc, Goetze, if .AOS :;'S (I !ISS l 2,9'4·6; Ihrr'",J 1I:08!;1 [1111211 162 In, 11; Ph<>etlio;a.n, j"eludilllg Ya'uili "'fIg! ' A!Il!diflJell!ll""",,,r: 'I !/kb<! "may {hey "ot :ho:n",' [Ge? ~II, \t{), 11;-m,,-u1 'then we' die' ,[Am"~na RA 19 [11122) DI. n Byblo"j; s.mt!> C:o.oAanite y ....... ··ICt.. ..... 'r 'lIlA:;' he '''''' .• w ... ·• I R.!.. 2211. 19' 1 i Renu",. see BRO 1I5e, B'[, 29&·9'.

,'"

8

developed in West-Semitic and WIIS abseat from. .A.kkadian: the subjunelive with silf'iired r·lI]. E'i'id.l:n.ce irnr this !o:rm, both in the Canaanite: lruDguages It.nd in some other Wesl.-SemiHc dialects is .net entirely ~ertiLi:n."

The' Canaanite lallguagea also show the characteristie final [-a] which the nominal ( .. perfeet") verb bad developed ill W est-Semitic: q:at:ila., q.atu1a, I and mternal p!l!Ssive quzila}, '0 Tbe anaIGgQUS East-Semitie form, lliepermansive, does not have the finai [-al.

FiIlally, mall the dialed,. 0.1 Syria-,Palestine, as mall other W'eBiSemitio l.a:nglmges, the first persen suffix of thi$ nominal verb-aspect has [.t-],I' whereas in ths East-Semitic permanaiva it has [-k-]. The replaeieg of the [-k-] of this S1!!.Ifu: by [-ft.], perhaps on the anai.ogJ' of tile [-t.] of the !tecoruli per£on suffix, must I1m.l'" taken plnee dUl"ing the common h~stnry of 'West-S1imitic, since it appears in lin West- 'emitie languages, and not in AkkadilID.

4. Common. :NO) rthwest·Sero:iti'c history of Canaanite. The languages of 8yrill- Palestine show further certain features which are connaon only to them and. to the Aramaic dialects, Since these Jell. fures are no-t pressnt in the ~thel' (soli~hem) We;;i-Semitie l:!nguages:, t'hey are assnmed 00 have developed after the precursor III 'Camllinite Il.II.d Aramaic, the N orthwest-Semitie speech, W83 1lI.O lenger in con met with the parent ()Jl S®uth-Se,mitic.

T'hllil in all th~u dialects Proto-Semitic initial [w-] has changed to [y_]," a change which did not takeplace in Akkadianor ~out]j. Semitic. 'lhe special assimilation of [I} ro [q] in £(lrms of the r'oot I'll< "he took'

'p",,';IJI'e cases ill. Ugariti'~, AlbJr,ght, JPOS ]4 (19gl 11.3; Soel""" J'AOS sa (1938) 293. The funol.i."" of i""s.;"" "no! SUbjunctive is inQ1ileed ncrt Dnly ;.0", lhe-:U!r. oeeurreaces in 'C).o.Jila.aililite but also from tbeir' ooK(sldll'rable nee in, Arabic:.

"Uga:Fitic nolL [no!j·aj '1\e raised' IK 167 L Goetz e, ·JAOS ~ {l!t3S)3ct!1; Phoenleian """1"'." r 'he s.mt' (Ell. Gt. I .. , ~tc.) in AkW.io.n II>rn>, but a 1.0 :la.po.-ro ~ EA (1:5.7) ;D, ca"""'ui!efof."'. N""" ,01 .. , U.e d.iff..-M ce in tooealnum,t 01 .tem·fi .. ..:! '·owm belore ""t",mao'to.l suJlt:us ae bet..·.en. E",,~ IIlld W'E'At S~m:ii.i.: [ka:Sdn;ilJ 'I c .. pmreel,' [§aprltaJ 'you ,.nt' in Akkndian aa a""i:n~t [kasadtl] '] ""ptllrH.' rEA 1$. Sil) and ' sa p"rtili] • you ,,,,,u,,ted' dl:.b.) ~in C"';' •. nite,

"UgaJ"m. "9"",1 'I .aid· (U.s.S ... ii 2~1 0",,1..., J1.';..OS 58 (l'SSSI 289; Phoenician, indud.i[Jg Ya:'ud!j~, p'a' I. mad,e • GP' 3'9" .s-,,-pl1ar·li .r i sent I (B),bloo EA 126. 34); South Canaanite i~JI1i ... N'i 'I mad.' lEA 280.121 EbeHng 73;, g"hFew [qii tMti] rOT'" ;M""fui!e ·BI!! "I made' (211).

"'U~r;tio yjl 'they bore." tS:8 1>3, 60), A,io.bi" ",~o!; y,,'uill !f~lPl' "I sat,' 130m, ""10:;' Pb.CJoeil1ici:B!.n ..vr-!t ~!IltOil1th,' Ara'b w.rb.~ SOllth, Ca.!llQ!!lRi~e: :fIa~b-'lL-.ri.tt-un-·7.li s, Cs:na .. nite gloss' I .IOM.' IRA 19 [l1I22j 91.2'" Megiddo" Arab ",~d; Hebrew yMdJp 'he sa.t'; Mo..l>il. !"sb (10). )l:.""j>U"". th""ugbout c.." aa n; Ie are [,.,...J m an~d.,~ whl.eh was ;g.ynlll,cUcaU~ not. -ini~i&l ;but. :mfdial bet'Woon t~ ward!9 ~ and .[w,aw] ~ !book.~

9

BetQTce tM Syria-Palestine ,Fe-nod is also peetiliaI to Ca.Ilwmite {in.all thOSE> dialects in w'hich the T,oot has been. fOWldj .; and Amm!lk.

Another IIevelopment which seems 00 ihal'e taken place specifically in the N orthwest-Bemitic area is the extension of ilIe: bi-eocalic stems with plural suffises liS. ihe r,egnlar plurals of uni-vecalic ,1lI0Wl, stems: [qatalul Ima] (Aram. [-na]) and [qatalatu] plurals Ilf [qatl.u] and! [qat~at:u], Vith eorresponding analogues [ljiWil!ma}, ete., 'j,or [1),1 in), [qutaluma], ete., for [qutlu '[. Such plurals eris eil in S(lU th-Semitic .too., and 'W~e, undou Med!:y a common West-Semitic d,e"'e1o!lmeni"; bul theu- e.xtensl1on as the regular plnrsl :form for aU. nouas of the uni-voeahe cla~ J01l!st hue takenplace speoificallj in the Northwe5t group. As far as toe eVIdeuce goes, all the languages of Syria·-Pal!.estine had thisfu!m.l"

5. Dialectal separateness of Canaanite within Nc,tilwes1-Semitk Even within Nerthwes!'-Semitic" ·tlle parent of the Canaanite. lengnsgee seems to have jf(lnned a separate sab-division distillct from the Anmaic. 'rhus the assimilation of en] m following consonant took place ill. Ara,maic only In certain areas and under certain eonditions ; but in EastBemitic lind in the Caaaanite lasguages which arel1eGoriled here it occurred under 1Il1 cendilions.'·

Siroilarly, of the mascnline plural elements with. [-m-] and. [-lI-],the form with [-m-] spread through most of the dialects which Iater reached 'yria-Palestine" while the [-n-] form remained :in tbe. par:~t. area 'llf Arllmll.i{:, as it had ill, S01l!th-Semitic. In the CaDII!mte ciiVISIOI1 onlY' the parent ()fMoabite accepted the [.u-] forms,"

,. Ugo:ritio yq!> 'he eeeei ved " [lIT AIl I II, K 2G14, but ;"11. perr""t ~ 1591. q~ (U,AB i]32,); Phoenioi .. " !lq~ "1" will bike' (SF H51; H.hrew [Y''I9A\t]. Ct UO&l'''', IIeihlige = As5yri.ologieii [190'1) !li'1l; (he(} 116; IIHGll.21i1i'.; 8],,1911.

"G·"a 41!9·31I. •

~Ugarjtic .-.I ... ['OF [ra'a""f1m.o.], bUI; rio for [,..'on] < [''''''u] (.,. B.rn,.

JiAGS 51 [193'1] 16:3); Hebrew , seg~ld.e • 'nouns, <nig;i".Uy Ilfni·,,,,,,-lio (" ee ehap· tee- 4, 80. GSd). and th." b[ .... ocalio pl",,,1 '"'-emo BL 5650-1, 570; d. &1';", La,,~ge 1:1. 119311 ~'31.

l.4'cr.n A.m[]:rib: [n] was. :8:,PpB.l['e:IJ.t1:r _not. a.!'IEljlDi'.'Bi.~d. Ther,e are: scme tmelear

-'Iorms in ,.ad):, CQ,·II."nite: &"J'nl .ill the ~pt;"n 't:u:DSNll!'tio:ms IVoc. VIR 12), gi".1i i" the .Amant" letter. from ,J:~",s.l"", lEa 286. 26, ~S!l: l~, 19). ~"I~·t. Punic, double Itt] ""d [~JI seem in some eases t<>h".'. been d'8S •. mJ.i"I\eiI, Y'.'<1~llg a. secondary p re -ecnson a ntal In), <lIS in .A.u.maic and &.,..i.o.lI: "''''I'~'; 1>j1 lh" "-,de ~f ""'~ I '''''''''''''I!Dt,' ""in [ninto<mOl] < [nitt.aU] 'tho)' ",ere gi., ... ; ... >11 'gift'

as a;"i".t. Ph ee "k;an ",tt GP 30; d. G.G 174-5. .'

"ugaxiUe nm "gods' (IIAB i 23); l'h"";nici"n,, ;"oludillg Y""ndi~ '1m' god' !~}F' 110);, South 'Can.anite of. Dhorm .• RB 11 jl9141 3:;3; Rebrew 1:l:mJ 1'1D,,:1 10""; Moab;i. ';1$" ' tj:,i,tF' (2); Hamnl has I-~ IllilU'.l" but, Iltese ar. !,IlIDably Arama.ic: ror1!15~

10

Development oj the Ca1Ulcznite Dicile'Cis

Beiore the Sy·ria-Palestine Period

11

, . .1~n.o!her Proto-Semitic Ieature in '>rhi'cn the Canaanl te ~,angu,li.ges, were dIStinct from the Arama.ic was the lise ,of ["anabi] 'I: as in East-Sem:iHe, whe~as Aramaic lind South-;"em,itic had ['ana]. A cOgImte of the Jetter form a1SClIiI~'C'UIS rarely ill Ugat.i-tie and frequently in Hebrew; but these and all othe r C:!l.llaaui!:e 1!W,g~ages show that. the resular form in their

pa.Tent speech had been ['analiJ.]. i' '"

There lvere other Iliiffe'l"enees, chiefly lexiC8!1 between the Cenaanite dh·ision andt!Je Ammaic" for example the sp~ead ,()I the form [barn] t ron' in Aram:aic, as against the [bann] of Cuall.n.iie' and SouthSemitic."

'The' vowe'l [-i) of' the !first persen suJliix: [-ti] of the I10minal ('" perfec~") ru:pect is ~o ~ Canrum:i e deveilopment, as agamslt the earlier [-ht] wh~ch re~amed m~uth-Semitk. All Canaanite dialects had it, It~ fur as ,!;be e:'i1den~e goes,,'" hut We e&.ll.notteU if the cieveiopolllcent t®Ok place before or a:i'te:r- lhe establisbm,ent ,of these languages in Syria-, Palestine,

Fro~ all these indications, it follows tlrnt tile Ianguages of SydaPalestJuae, bef~re tbe .. entranee into tltat area, had all had, tile same history, except iew 6 fe:1iI' dialectal ,iJifi'eren~s. They ail derived from one sub-division, which Illay be called the Canaanite of NorthwestSeIIlitie. Th~ division seems already to have been distinct :Crom the Aramaic, though we cannot 'l:eH how much; mooi'~ 01' the f".a'iures which d:i:lfer~tia.ted Canaanite from Ar&JIlJlic probably cievel@ped in the SyriaPalestine 8.rea, and are hence incl1l!.ded in chapter 4.,

Th~ _ p~ti~n of U~aritic can therefore no longer be in doubt." ygantlc dld mdeed illiE,er from the gtlJer Ceaaani te languages as we know them. III paft these ~.i:fferenee.s ar" d'ue 00 d ialeetel devehlpments

peculiar to Ugllrit 01" to that section or pre-Canaanite of which Uguitie wasthe eontinuation ; i:1I. p8]'~tb~y are merely !!lUl·ly enmmon CanlllJJli!:e forms which had been lost by the time o.i the, inscriptions wli.icll we have, hom the otherdialects, In any e\'e.nt, garitic dearly ,slmreil til" general history ®f the Canaanite division; tba~ ill to ea.}" it is a Canaallite Ianguage,

Jnst SQ, it :is impossible to, place Proto- Canaanite in the East-Semitic group, or til say that the early" H.ebrew " of the: Palestinian inhabitants, before tlle ceming of the Aramfle8Il Hebrews (Habiru), was an EIi.$tSemitic language, and that billli.~a1 Hebrew is, a "Miseb:sprache" of this East-Semitic Oanaanite and the_ W,est-Semitic ATaD!lJle®D oi the Habiru invaders, Ail tlte evidence which we have frem th.e pre-Habiru inhab,itants or Fales tine and hom the ea.rly Phoenicians is clelldyN'DrtbwestSemitic. '2 ]1; js, 'l;lli,w' po;ssible' that the Habiru and ~tlle:r llon~CanlULlJJite speakers had some ill fluance (In the development (lfFLeilrevr, and it is truetlilat many linguislic changes took place in Hebrew after the coming of the Eabiru, as well as before. But what gives Hebrew its North.westS emitie clbal:lIcl<::r is not the de"'elQ:pme9l tMI'. took 'place lifter '1::he arrival Qi' the Habiru, but tile ~lIrly eornmen West-Semilic and N,orthwesl.Semitic features listOO abOVE. And these ear]; feature are as apparent in pre-Habiru Canaanite asin the later Hebrew.·a

6. .Jliaill.ect!ll divis.io:ru;, within the parent of Canaanite. The early lliialedal ,iJifI'erences "bieb e,xisteill within Jl'1"e- Canaanite should be Iisted together, The preterite and present which are found in Ugaritic lin UGt to be oensidered in this category; both w.ere common Proto-Semitic aspaets which probably exisl.ed tbroaghonb W,est-;Semit.ic,illcluding Can!lani,te, as well 0]8 throughout East-:Semih.e_... The use of tITe [5-]

"Cf. for Ug.ariti. 1IIHI8-25; lor Pliloelli.ia .. GP 6-':1, 61·9; for the Callaanite ru the' Am .. rns 101ler .. Dlto,l":IJle. La langue de Canaan Ra 10 'l913) 3!l.9, 11 (191.41 31. a,g; .. nd the footnotes a b<JVIf •

,. Tb. p""iti<>n, t~",t Hebrew 1. • "ll.(i..,h.pro.clJie," which w... P"~ 101'0. by Hana Bauer ;n Zwr E'n1K<' der- S:p ra ebm;"ohung' im 1I.l>r;;i."h." (1112.1) and in IlL ]9·l!2, must therefore be discard.ed. It is aUaclooil by Bergstriis ser , OLZ 26

.,. (192:31' 263.S0, 4'lT-lll, and Landsberger, !ILZ 29 (HM!,S) 96j-16, ,and neendy ofeI""ded b~ G. R. 'Dr;".r, J?r.o!>1.n,s .,; the Ro.!>,.,. 'I'.rb .. 1 S~ateID.M,,"y '0 r u", icili"idual Jl"I',nls, 1! .. uer :mao,e in .,,:!'P or t ".I M. til...:i. a..., cl.llJ1ly ""I.n"b~ .. ,; """' e .,. ses of. dial •• l·mixtur. ""',y'b. 'u"., bu.t they would tlu", ""p .. , ... "t diarectal d.evcl,"pmellts within H.brew, and, wouM mean little lor the' early MstOl:y o'i C'a.o:n.a.nii.e. In calling al!mo:st;- e· ... E1'!' dialeml -featurE! (:If Hebrew an ~r Aram8.DSm u '11l~,e 1;,." .. meth'Od<llogicaJ ioll"ey" for "u.h .. method of ezpl'on a ~i"n II es no cce"'dl over it, behl'g 'eII,ti,·cly ad hee, FurtlLe1"DlO", it l,a','U .I .. o.t :nothmg· '1<> be, oon:aid ... 0:1 a. I .. t •• di.loct..l .llo.nges, ... tJ><>ugh H"b,ev; he.d no i'i"lguistie hi.tory exeeptfor this one Aramaio intr'us;",,_

!Ui For lrriilees o'i 'the p:reteT~te ill CQ!.oaO!nite a.nd .Arabie, S'eE:' clmp:ter .4, no.. 19,

US.e cllxl'ter 4, IlO_ 56 for ['amJ ill UgariUc and Debt,ew. Ug:oritic ~"I< lAB. ii 21; Phoenician '".10; Hebrew [·IlD~l<il; Moablle '!iii; (!).

.. TiIO~"""ur .. ,oe o r b e- i~ the Kii .. ",a in'."ipU"", I .... '" y"',,di is "robab~]' not Co.l!LIlo.mle, hOlt all Ar~lll.". :i",,,,, used onll" in the title (Iii the king. Til_ .oya.! J10Use was not CanlUlmte :rnd. may well I>&\"e Jiad Ar,.m .. ic .""tad. at this time. within the next few g""erntions .Aramlld. became the .,EIlenal language 0" Y".'nd': ••• See Ill. H,. We eo:nno! ten if tlli. d.,..lDp.men/' Ill"" oootLrr.,d ;iu Aoom .. fe,

.,"oe 'the ,,"owel was late, drop,ped. Cf ... I ... tho fl,.'" """'~l. 01 ea,,"'.D.il. l" a .,akil

.,nil A1<lmdio." [IlDil.k,,]. -

'", Doubt •. a!l,~O i1he ?-n ..... ite positi",,: of Up.iu. ~av-" heel> expressed cbi.lly by, J. Ca~bn, ... u, .syna 13 (]9a,2) ,164-70, {OS; B. B~"'.r. Das Alphahe, von Ras ,sbamra 64; see at ... Fri.d~i.b iu ZA'1I (19,lS) 3H, and lUi E'x Orion!,. Lux J ..... b.~~;~t "' U931-8~ 3~5. 2. 0,. the otll •• hand, Dusaaud ""n. it '~OIIJd; Relll'ltw 'l!l D~n •• ~w d. ~ Sh"",;ra 151' o;n~ R.>-u" de :I',EI1.wire des II.clig;,,![s 105 (l9a21 2H_ Albright ""II., ,tN.,..t1t·'Ga"""Dl,1e ill JPOS 14 (19il~1114,. RASOR 10 (April ~938) 20, "lid, tbj~ marne """ heen "e,,,,,pt~d by •• ver,.l Ame,ioall scllola.rs.

12

Development ,oj the Canaanite Diakcu

causative' in U garil.i.e, superseding tile [h-] (['-)) cliusat;i!1'e which remained in the rest of Canaanite, may have dev'elop;ed in Proto-Semifie tirmc2.... Sim.ilar'iy, M(]airite dilfe rr ed in tlD!lt it continued use of the [-n,-] plural iorm, W~UIlS the I[-m'-] itlrm spread throughout the r,est oJ: Clinaanite."

M'or'E' do ... btfw. .is the, [1.-]1 veriJ-preu of 'the third person maseulme plwr,aL This form appears in Ugal'itic~' and in tine A:marn!ll letters ~ bnt. doe,", not occur j~ later Canaanite, where the 3 m. pl. prefu: is ryi~]. It 1S n~t dear w~e!.her l<he [t.], form was diaJeetal in eMly Canaanite, ollie]' o:lbalects he. nng [y-] as elsewhere in Semitie, ar whether, Jess probably~ the [t·] form was regula]!' fo,r al!l M.rly Canaanib! and was Iater replaced by tJte form with [yi-J.

'CHAPTER 3

LIN'GUISTIC CON.DITIOJL S IN SYRIA-PALESTINE

l. Social and poiitical. structure. Close examination oithe Unguistic remains from the various 'Parts o,f Syria,- Palestine reveals no uniformity, 110 standard langusge ,,\'eJ' the area. If we are tounderstand vihJ this was ~.O wd, '!Vb, certain cities rather than others remained dialectally together, we must know something of the social structure and politieal divisions ill the land. 'This 'we may learn in part [rom the local inredpt;ons, especially from political correspondence (Akkadian letters ill Ugarit c. HiOO and c. 1300 B. 0., Amarna correspondence ani Jet!>!rs of the same period found in Palestine sites j,from royal inseripti<ms such. a's those of Kilama, ,Zakir, princes o,f Sidon, and Meiba lIIIe: frem the historical and political material in. the HebNw bible. The acceunts of the Meiliterranean. cam.pajglls of the Assyrian kings, an d. the treaties o£ Assyrian kings with Sj'rian alld Phoenician states, give. a bil1' picture of the pol,itical divisiona; ill:ri:heI ]jgn& OIl the earl ype:ri~d comes from E-gyptian sources dealing with. Westen! Asia (chi.efty historical records, .Aclifungste..'!:ile, lists of conquered dues, aud certain popular stcr1ies }" whi.le Greek writers Ml late Phoenician. ms!,(],'1'. AbQU,t t!:t~ tjpe. 'of economy and civilization we learn roth from these sources and from the material remains iwnd in, archaeological e::;:ca:vatiOTh'!."l

Fro:m the evidence 'of all these sources, it is dear tlJat the speakers oi Prcto-Oaneanite wbe settle.d in titis area developed the t}·pes or eeonomy whleh it permihed: ag;ricuUmn and trad.e, Agriculture ,f},epended upon the regalar rainfall, Sea-g®ing commerce grew at varices ha"ITel!!s along the Dthditerra:nean roast, chiefly toserve (be Egyptian ships 11' hich carne to obtain wood or to. replenish melr provisions, and the

'W. F. Albright:, Arcltaeology of ,Pal""tine and the Bible'. 2!ml '00.; W. F.

AlbTigh~ :Egypt ""dPalesliin. '" the tihird. mill."n;um, In the Soni'D !I?""ts.<·i>rift; A. Al't, Ara:m, 'in :.\l: ... ", Ebe~1:;, ·Rea'lI"x;'k"" iI.~r Vorges<ni.Uei Ii'. :Bib,bel, Ge· .ch.LclLh Vord.",,~ie ns , 'unci "Wlellli,; ,J. :B. Bu,t)', S, .'\... Cool<. and F. E. Ad<!O<!k" Cambddge An.ie"~ Hil;tory;, G. Ccneeua .. , La .h"iliz'''i<>D. pMni.i.nn.; R. Dussa u d, T<>p<>gnt."lt.ie lli.t..riqu. <Ie III ~j" anilqu.e el ~ih .. I.; is. La.n<!sb er ger, trber dle V6.lker Vorileras]en. I,m d1iitle:n Jahrla ... end, ZA 35! 1923·9.4) 213.3S; E. Meye" G,...,llriolrlll des A1i<d",n .. 2"" ..... ""I. I. 1 ,.""tio,ns ur, VII, J .. '"C, 'i'al. IL 2, vel. HI .""lioo I; P_ M<mbet, Bybl<JS et 1''&o;;''Pte; W. O. Oes~"ley and T, H. 11.Qb;nsaD, a History of Israel; A. '1 .. Olmstead, m.wry 'of 'l'alMtine ""d S:YJ1ill. See also the bH,liogmphies of eaeh site and In. 12 in chapter 3 below, o.nd the hlbliographyin GP.,

13

.De·vekrpment .of the Canaanite Dia.!.eets

11[5

Cyprian shi p.S whl.c!a brought copper for tr:lIlI1sfer' to Mesopotami!!l and ~lselFhere.. .Wllnd tmding stations arose at various points along the l[lJpClrtanl; c .arnan routes ~!JicJ:l ran through Syria.Palestine, connecting' Egypt lind th.e sea-coast wl"th Mesopotamill.

The peliticel form which was 'conditioned by this economy was one of small Independent uni ts~ dty.s!a·Ies, nthn than a cent-raHz.ed goy.en-. ~~nt; wesee.tlhi most clearly in the AmaX".Il.8: ooI:reS"pondence, although It. IS re!leeited m all the other sources too, This was 50 because agriculture did not depend upoa uy single. ri .. er or irrigation sij'stem. which would require central eontrol; aad trade, passing lliroilgh suceessim statio1m in. loose: centaet, did not at liro lead. teo all}' inter-city controlling cernmeroial elass and centralized powar, Later, duri ug the 1i:r:stmiUenniWll B •. 0., the economic development ·of the area did result in sectional eentralieations: an assoelation 01 tile s~.<I--porls of ·the Phoenicisn coast (indicated in the 'Greelrhistorie~) ; the expansion @.f several of the large Inland trade-route stations ever the surrounding counl:rysid.~ (Ya'ndi, HlIIDat, ete., !l:<€ knOWD b"m A5S}'rian :~eoords;, Damascus, ete., Irom Ihe bible); and the creation oE two' sma.l.l states, Israel and Juda.h in

inlilnill Palestine (these are knowl!l. above all from the bible). '

In these conditions, social contact was local rather than flll'-lhmg.

There was 110 capital city with which all parts of the area would have been. in hutch, and .. which. m_igbt have set 11.]1 aa Sta.ndlllld -the eharacter and speech of a eensral ruling class, There were no central institutions

1I.cb. 8S a body of officials moving from one place til, another !lnd bFlnging I1'8W soei 11.1 ami. Iingnistic contacts, or an anny which. 'would bring ·together people from aU paris (lfthe area sad SO tend. to level their speech. There must, howE!lIer, ha.e been considerable iinterWlIIn;e !lIDOl!lg clJ)nt:iguol.l~' agrienl tnral vil!lages. The sami-eommereial caravan rata tiona along each tra<Je route musthava been in constant contact. A.nd the sea-ports with tliei:r eommeree and their in~usmes:, whieh had been :mostly derelopad for export and for commercial needs, were mther dosely associeted:

ailors and, merchants moved from portto port, and t<h.e local population had frequent oppcrtunitj- to hear ·true speech. of other' eommunitiss,

2. :DegIlee ef communiCElition, But Ill" econorny and the 'WIIY of living was much the same throughou.t the area ; and there WllS enough intercourse tel ,cury cultural featUres, in.eludillg" i.i.nguisti(' -:larma, over most of the countrj,

The extent 0.£ political contact IIDiong the various centers of popuia!;ion in Syrh-PaiestilJc may he j1'l!l!ged from the Amama letters. And the extanl of cultural contaet may b<! jllldgedfrooo the great cultural similarities throaghout the whole area, appeari1!lg in tbepotwr)' remains,

in the rituals (as in types rod n81l1CS of sacrifices) ~ and mythoJo_g;ies, i!n the ~erywordingof the mjtb-sagas, These similarities of wording, recurreaees of I1te-rat)' pietures and 1ltI:r.ru; of phrase in various parts of the Caaaanite area, are .particularly relevant here. "l'here CaD. be no DJuestiw thai the li!:enf)' tradition whiaili we lind in tbe Uglnitic texts ""as also the m.emry traditinn Q£ the Phoenicians ana [Pre-Habrew] P!llestinill!J1s. or that the Iiterature of :Biblos was also the literature of Si.don, and "!Vag: well known to ilie Hebrews i[l Jerusalem. The Ugtttitic expression in [hum tane daha~a SauI'a ba'ln, taJA!:ara.kibu 'urpati] (nAB i]i 17-8) "Indeed two sacrifices Baal hate!i,!hrne (hates) the Rider of "the Clouds' is paralleled in the bibliea] ('M s'18~ p~s'~ dammeseq w>'al-'afibii.'.a] (Amos L 3) • For the three sins ,of Damascus anil for tile lour .. .' 'Th~ Ugaritic I[yadi:nu dina "almanati ]'lItput;n tiJDta ya.tfuni] (D 217 7-8) 'He pleads the plee olE the "Widow; he ;iuclges the cause of the orphan" is Ireqnen ~Jf reflected :in the bible, as. in [Sip"tU yi~m rll;>\i ·'im.8ml,) {Is. 1. 17) 'J uuge the orphan; plead fot the widow'; Ugaritic ,lykpk bli ",olkk ly,tbf' M mJp~tIc (lAB vi Z8-9) "He w~l.l SlIre1y orerturn youl" sovereign throlle ;he will. break yOtlt royal scepter' , is th.e same plUasA! as B)'b.!os Phoenician '!.ll.!3p Mr m.spOr. !Mph ks' m!kh (A.hiram inscription] 'mal' his loyal seepter he broken; may his seversiga thone 'be overturned.' Similar identity of phrase is fou.n!l! among th.e Phoeajeian cities: Ii! mmlH wiH "am < any prince or man> in both _]~yiblos and Biden, etc.' We should not cverestimate the influence of l:heS'e political an d literllry e01l1tacu; 'upon the speech of the majority of mhabitante ; 01lt they serve as evidence that uch communication existed.

3. The: analysis of linguistis diffusion. The nature ami d~ee ,of soei al mtcreourss determine the Iinguistic eoatact, Forms that were Cll1r~eIlt in one town might be heard and accepted in another j changes that had taken pJaee ill. one arrut migllt thns spread to, others, Sueh linguistie dilIusiol!l wouidusu.aIly proceed along the pafbs of most b:equeni; uomraunication, although in some eases a lingl1isti.c :featurcemight !l.ot spread even IWIO·Jg places wltich were J n. dose contact. 11'1 t.he history

• Cj>. Ugadt'o l'il29. 0,3, 01<. -wJ:u,. ·th. Phoon.\.,itt;[].-Pun·i. wiff in'~'il.'tion l1r·om Mar .. me (CIS. 165 .and Lidz. 63 in GP oU6T-E) and ,~ith 0.. ham~ 0' •• ~rffices ,0 the bibl ••

• See GF 6.; i1f, L. Ginsberg, )I. Ugarit.i. 'Parallel 10 2 Sam. I. 21, J:BL 6:! (1938.) 209-1.h Gin.b~r!!·. Ori."taU". (1936111'2 r. ~ '~ill"bo!rg I" Atti de] XIX 'Go.n,gr. r"terDzl. def>li Ori~talil;1i (.l9351_472.6; Gordon, D.tl.SOR 65 (P·e.b_ 1937, 3,D··L For Ute po;et; . c mcl>er "I th~, UJ"gar,tio mytibs ,a'l.d the bible, s •• 1Illffight .Jl'OS )'2 ",9321206.'; G.'n!b<~g. !lri~llta];" Ii (lg36) 171; MH 2~',31 i nani.., J!AOS 50! (1934:) SID-'3.

Linguistic C01lditWns in SyTia~PaIe.st:im:

fusi; place, it is Dot a randem ,seleeiion of ~e epee"'l of. SJria~Fal.e5tine, for it i. weighted[ in iil"o. of tire Iarger c,ties: I!!(eept for a :few n~es of snuill to=~ and .geographic plAces, almost aU tile ~~btnt mat.r,,al rep.eseD.I~ the ~.~h of the big cities; we do not Imo'w Ii the. speech <li .~iC1lltli]al "rea. and smlLLl! ""mmulILlhe.a di:fEen~ ~uch or l,ttle from the s,peeeh of the eities, F ... tbumo,e, the m~flpti{)m:s g ... ~ 'US m""tly the dialeet IJf the nrhan. upper elass, and usual1jlD. a .rawe[ forma] style. Oon.ly some grafl:Hi and. othu mJo1"'m~.inscriptiOltns may show ·the.~{>re natural .,.""h ol'( tile masses; and~tb the .mall am"~Dt of "",dence which we ""..e, we oonnot tel! if the d.ifferm.oe between the I!pee~h of ilie uppe. I.Wd IOWeT cl.aSlies ",·as gr~"t or n~ligible: E.-ell. for the towns, and for the it standard langueges, the e'lldBJlre IS sketch)l'. 111r,<>m most plaees .... e have 110 linguistic re~ains ~t ,all, so that we ~nof, .te~l whether oeitainfeatures spread in their area. .Ani wher,el.ngtUllsbc maze rial is preserved iit usually covers i nst g. sboTt ll'><ioa, so ilillt we c~ot tell, <!:I.cept "'i~bin wide l';.nits, when tb" development,s in queolion

oocunOO. there,

At present we baTe linguistic material hom 'ihe ioUow:ing places: T

Y lI'udi-mode.rn Z<!njidi" in the farlherl norl:h of Syda, in lli.!! plam rnnning east of M t. lI.mauns:. 1tw~s ru:' impt)mnt oeDI~[ ofla:nd~ ~amm.roe inthe areawbi~b the Ass)'TUlIlS called Ratti, and WlIll: active in the ]>Olittcal! i:ntI:ig""s 'of lb.. early p8r~ Of. t:h.e ~~t miI.~ lsnnium Be G." F,,,m it 'we hili.'. ·t!h.e C;maallllte msc<lpholl of :Kilamn c. goO B. C.; the nama of Ihe !riJlg shews that; the Toling' heuse .:as not Semitic,' and some hsre COllsidered its language 00 be iE'lloeoiciao as ",[[!tell by ronign.ers.lO Three later mscripti.ODS of the Sib oentu.ry, are already in. the, intruding Aramai.c, bU'L '~illi some aillmixture 11] Canaanite ;11 the earUe. twa." All ,III tll.ese inscriptions ",ere written Iu the Pb.oenician alpbOlbet.

.E. LHimanIi", SitzIl1'1lg::;;li;JC:TtclJte preuss.. .Ali:.8Ide.wi_e: dee WLssenscbft.en.l!

E~dill 19i1.976"S5.

of Canaanite the .... , were mamy ,ileve.Lopme!lts I.hot olilfuseaJ over large parts of the CallJl;llnite area, """liel' the w.!wle 01' .it.

These eensideratiens of ,diliwi.r.n ·Il .... ]idalie iIl.1I common .m~thoo <Ii r-eg.ardilllg lb., most 'lI'ide·sp~ead lingWstic f sa tm-e.s as the earliest, IWd the moot IooaIi,.ed as the !DQSt x_m.' AlXOrding 00 fuis method of dating, :my fea:hrre which is eosamente all known C'ana:mioo dialeets mU&~ be JPlo:Jto.Cil.lJ3anile. Such criterie wouTd be admissible ill the case of lal1guages, which had ''''plI.TatOO a "d. w:ere 110 longer m conbaet ; "VeIl then the si.mil1n: ieatuxe5might be fue. result of l:ater iadependen~ psrellel, de,dClp:ments.. Bot the Call1lamt. l&ngu::lgOO were in eontaet Uno1llghouttheir history, "!ld iIlrroughout the S£j'ri"'~P.lesti'll" period. Some changes. spread over the whole Canaanite area even after Ioeal eb.mge.s mad el,.ady· oeeurred. COflversel.y, not all local changes need he late. 'l'b", Proto-Semitic ~nd P",to·Nort'''.e:st~Semitic areas were not un.iform speecli commul!.iti~. There were dialeclalclilIerences. amDlilg the "uio1!sp.!Irts of these area~ a.s is ;.ndicated by the presence <Jf app3!!ren!:ly East-Semitic ie.bires. ill. W;e;t-Semi.tic dialeets, and the like.' .A. wide-spDl!lId Call1Bao:ile devel<>pme",t. mo.y there{ore be lale and a loca]pecll.1inity mar be h"t the relle~ (If III lProoo-Sem;tio diaileciaI 10EIll~·

Each linguistk f.ealuJe must Ih.eldore be studied in<iependently. F~om &be aes~.iptioJl. of eaeh c1iailect al, va rious ti!ll~·le, .. ells:" it is possible to j~bte the i]ldi'l'id1l.lli developments whieh were ~esp~n!iible for ehangee of ferm !Jet",.n any twl1 time~.!eve:rs. The date of each dnelopment may I.. d.i.scoveved DOlt only born direct i",mipt.iol1ail e .. idence, but also from. the co.n:figurntioa of th.e wiwle phouolegic ~ysb.m in III'h;ch i! eeeurs, fmm 1J't .. 'inference of .any ,other .I.'-1I0WD changes wrueb W'ust have been, aIIJ!e,,;or 'J< Sl!J bseq eent to it, and from :any inforl1tLll:.lloll. WI! may .galher' aiJout tile date of !:he particular couditions which tbis ebmg" presupposes, 'lrh~ area over ",h:icll a eha"ge spread cannot, ",iIh 01l:F presaat kOCIWledge, be mferred 'bom the t.lrnguistic 1I1l.d oocial ",,"ditil>.us; we must have direct eviden.ce from i".scriptiorns, or Indirect evidence, "" whau .... e find i .. [he gioen area, II later change whiel, presupposes the ena in question.

,~. Th" seurces, Tbe esidenee QPOU wl'tieh Ute lingui:atic descriptio'Ds muat be bll~ is uaeven and in certain ""'Y" unrepresentative, 1'0 Ute

II This me:bhod~ f'Ol:lowi!l~r the old. fanrity-t!'e,e ~u:miPti(ln. of the ea.]'.y hist.o[i~ ~ .ana]-_f5i~ <Iii' IndlJl·'Eu.rope.a.n; is used. by Bergatri.sser, as a r.esnU. :b.e aUribllt.es a :n;umber i!Jf b~ changes. to IPn:·Carlaa[]ite t~ rues, and is nl8oCe.e..sa:ltilj1' 1M 00 m3J:I· ·Wld"",ta .. d tflo charade.- and co"ditioo.s 01 ·theS!! de- ... npm .... I oJ. BElGIJo,.

.. In Prm.t.o-8:e;mit:i-c ~ (~Jh] in CB;tESau...-e stem aCId third peracu PC"'OfLtJ'Il11!S; in Prow-No-rUl'weslt-Semitic: [m/Dj in 1J1!S.uuline plur31]~, ete. See oeh.:s:pter 2-.2,5.

o On th",.a.,,·(oeoTY ·.r t~!ic .&a<lg" "'" IE.. Ba"" .. :t.,rl, k.gwt,ge .3LU ..

;r FIDI Ith-e abbrevia:~ions used bere !<ll" den of fo'be5Je' SQUl'Ces Sf:'!. .p,'. W bdow .

• F. 'iijf[l ·r..~anJ AArsgn.htmgm in SelJ~hlrli i B. Me.:r.e:r"" ,Qes4,:b1.c"b.UoJ des.

Altutum.ll2.

• lI'dedr"!J. !!].'m ... io.U.,.h" ""r"'.LUD.~en l (lSW ~ 3M·5 .bo,." it 10 be. ·[.,."i ... ; be [ails it 'K.:i:tammra., but; the pl:1!lba'bilif;J' is that. it had beeeme Ki1amill i.ll. Can:aalLif:e. pronc:mi!l:a:ti«D. since find shmrt VQvte.ts had been ,~-[ded (agaiind Fr • ..t;ri.o, ZS, I (I~'" 31·

~ .• L1U'lr:l;l:.n i~ the Dl:St pu'blia:t."i-D"m 0.£ tlte: ~t; 'llie ",'or.d "'son' nB the. ·k.in:ts:

title !has, tile MamajlZ form lIr.. .

:1.1. 011 "the. tbT,ee .A.ram3 ic in-scr;i kttiocs ~ lil. ,Lidzbar~i, &rurbuclJ. dec [l.QOO!-

""mil:;'c."" Bl'i;g,",phl:'k440, 0.. A.. Coo!:: e, A. Tnt-Book .f N.rI>h-S<milic b .. scliipt:ioDS .59-:85,

18

19

C~ EroelieJma.Hr,t" tbi:-d_ 114'SM;;:,

M. L;&" .... ki. 'Eph"",~';3 fm' .",,,,itio.oho &!,ignI;~b.tk ~~ 216.38. a, Bs.·u", ZD~I(l 17 11~i,l" 684;, 6!1 (11114) 2-'2; ."

W. 1'. ,A1","'gtL'~ JI'OS ,Ii 09261 st,

:J. A. li.I<o:o.ig<r""rj', JBL U (1928! 1'~6.

Hamat and :r.a'all-T'tLe area of modem H!l:IlIIa (and Al'eppo), ill. tbe "-~t, of Nn.tlil Sj'l";Il, ..... e, of theclnicef' ,st:J,tiO.1U (JU Ih,., ,g;-eat ro .. d from !he EUjph.a!es "olley. In th .. ,'ioin),t}' ,,1 ,ALopp~ ""as fCllnd, I.be stele. j);l Zfuhlr, king"" Hamat and lAI'l!S ('N II~), C. 800 ll. a, ,..df;tem in 'lfue Phooenicim alphabet, in .a mixrurn o,E tbe Ieeal, Oaneanite ~1?E!<)Ch and, 1L1l, atOO:ml't at the iQcoming "t'fldal,A.r.amllic. Onlyihose feahues in tbisinscciplion whi.h are dearll' OwaaJ:>i'le

are ,tudi.ed 'here, .

1m. F.ttOgGJI!~ ItlSeI'~pli.o1lJl!; sernli!~q.l!.Iies; de Ie, Sy.rie" p. 15li·'l8. 't:I.o. sa. M. :£i.Ibba.-rsl:i_. RIl,h"Bw-er.'i:s liir ~'l:I:lIitisthe Ep'tgr-Si.pb;k .3 .. 1-11. T. l!,,\dOke, Zi!,'~ r {1911:81 315.

C. 'C. T ... .,." J1I.OS· 35 (19!:;'·I~li). '.J, W. 1'. d]l;righ!. J1'08, I> (I~2~).6~.

J. A. M~[l,~, JIlL 2.8, P909J, ~;.

Uga,ri't-mn03:"rn L.s Sh.m>:a, sea poo:t on the north-eenteal Syrian eoast, opp~lSlte ~'ruo; heo!acrtarte rs [0" 'C'ypm:s.llIe&1lpol:!wJ'lls. tmd., and, aatm, rn CtJa.~wise (arid Egypti.an) eomrueree .. " Hero weoo I',>uod, many mylhologieal poems aDd :'it,ualand business lam, 01 ~. 150() e. 0. ... 1n fue local Canaeaita d,;aleei. Th,,;y are miHe1l ,11 a, local ,euII.ei['Q'fQ, coll90Jlantal alphabet.

J'. A .. Mo"tgo",,,,,>, .. wi Z. S. ,iE[am.., TDe ""'" 81>"",,,, l\:F)I1:h.!J>gicaJ Tew, M~o1'f.'s" Amer~e3:D PMloso.llnkaL ;Scic~e!I:'Y3 U:13:5 .... '01. 4 ~ tei:tt-5, g.ramOllu: glo'''''<:1I. iMHJ

H, :~' Gio.ber,g, TIL< Ogarit l=to (B,.m, F"undll.t;o., .1,erDSil.te", I IOOi~ (m ,rnnde:rn ~elf~.~,::- "tie::a:i9,_B:nd ,QaI"l!!'la'liio:Dr Mtes.r ,gll!Is.~J'i-

Haill! .BJ:I~neTl Ole. all'ltal)l;:ti:rehc,u Kei~$clurtfttute '''on_ R,;u Sba.mn. 100:6

(!<x.t). '

W. 8" .. AHbrigJrl. TIL< North C.' ..... lte "pi. "I 4.1.:J"!ll ElI.l ",,0; Mot, Jl\OS 12, (100$) 185·20S.

The Norll], ca,,_oU:e peem e of lIol"J1''' II...!. J:POS 14 (19]41 IH-40. Z:d1il. Yam and "1I'bi(!H: Nahar 'Ill tiL'-8: r;[j]rDoot betWeE:[] B:::c.ad and lbe: -"38-

Jl'(}1'; U 11e\J~J 11·:2011., '

JI.'o"" O& ...... n\to b;~tmriaG a ruII m,J"Ilho\<>gioal iI.1&., B.!.80'11. ~~ ,t'Oct.I936 1 23.;3.'1:.

="nL p:wgte'" ]" WorillCo._"i!e 're search, BllS0R iii ~Ap •. Ul3$)

18·23"

w:u 'Ut. pa:il:ciarob 'l1erab .. c-...n\!ie _·Go,d I BASO:R 1'1 to<~.

lm)3.S411,

J. ];'rie!l1r;<!o. Z'II 0'1"" ob,; ,AIe~h·Z.i.dh~n d es Ree f>bo,on<a ,.Ipba~, ZA 1.931" aIY,5>'s.

IRas ShoLL",,", k o,;~o:te Ll.IX,. J:aar""dd:"t .' ('I93'·S ~ 34n.:s.

9 .. L. Gi""""'j!", Tb.., .i<t&,.,. 'of ·tf1e land g<>iI ""Olr' 'tn ....... god, ,.S':POS 'I.

(lgGo]' 3~7·3S"

l!a'h. 000 :1>;0 b,-oIh",,,. J1'OS .16 0 93~) 13849,

Th. reb«m.,. .,,;J! <l! •. dh 0:1 lJ."to, Oetee ba I; .. fi U~:l.l») 161·S8. B .. 1 &0.<1 ·A ... ~t., O.i.ouJi .. , " (100&1 1~1I.

T\<o N"d:b r OanaaoU .. ·I.tt",,~to'" llgorit, B.!..80R ,,2 I Dee. !.~3B~ 18 I[ef'. :::I::15n "p'- ]3).

.A.. GoJ<,txO, TIl!< I:e<r.,," .. I Uga.iu;o, J'AOS 5$ f1~~S,l, 1l000.;JOO,

c.. GGdo .... A ",.",i.S" <>I ti>o, gOO. i" ()a.ll.il~ ""ytb.oio;gy,. B:!.SOtR O~ (Feb, l~'a'lj 2lI~",

.z. S. If'rei,,,, ,A e<> .... iliAHI.ed ..","d clmllgo! to 1l= S:1uL"''''. J AOS 51 IU37~ '151·1.

'&p' ese L'O.O 01' th" Ca_t'i". in Ugaritio, J,A{lS 5S C 1,938') .~03·11.

B. Ala",! er , A g<lOL ea, lomi"",l. 'l;.~ f",,,, Ru Sha:rn,,,, JP(lS 15 (1'~lfH l,Q·1., J .. 1I .• M@nlgpllJuy. ks 8Jr;a,m,,, :t<'.:tIl 1,'7[, J&.o3 IOO~,,6.

F~ "B;-ctsI!REhid, D~_~. "&:'a:r:a,O,elsf.ieH.M ~m dLen. T:~ben "i'g-c. UzarlE:..Il O.rie:n:la~~:l. 8 (19391 213 .. 37.

:1'". ThW" .. "·'D .. ~,,,. \i' ..... bul~ die, It a, s :Sb.omn;, S,d .. 12 (I,~II ~.-5'tl<l" ,R. .t. V,,,,,. Le cadre ~gv"'l'hiq". du :~ a. Kr!, RB 1~3I. '~B.;(iii.

IIUl2SI;=TI

CiJ. ";00<1["0111, Les tab lett es de !!oJ. Sharasa, Sr"'- I,rn ,~192.9~' ~(I-!·W.

.La ~[I_tte doe, :M.ot,. 6.19 d'ES d~E!.tll. et d~A_l.e.m~ fils; fu= Baa~~ SfTb'L. 12 (rIlJJ) 100-224, 3S~·7,

IIAB, =A; ,.dd """pI.,. ;"''''~ 1>01 .... 1 Uoo'l)1 (IUd!; =13,)

~lBMbl Itg3!,,~ (1004dJ

II AB ."~I'I'" .. .,.0 [19M<J

'iloca.h!a;"" c!~ n... S~_"" 0Ll. lanfl)le 'MO"""". ,bid. 3sg ,~O'. Un ;r!iCIII.V~·I;l.eha:[ilt- dn pmime d"AJ.ein Baal, S:;rriil: 13 (l'Q32~ "'3- IS3.

L" M;;_ nee des di",. ,gn.cie"" ., "~\I" SJTi. I,~ ~ L'9,3H US· M.

:E. Dil",_, Do".K W>1ett.s de la <:amp.gn'l! d~ 11132 .. ibId. :rIs·n. CJ:.. Vi~t;ille:alld, Frft-.::~~~ Num br.aitc ~mci~H de t!MJ,a'p'I!c1J_t_~q;u>e~

·hipJ?<1["&'i'lo.e" 8pio I 0 rl~34l 15'83,

S'" .. 110 ta~le~t. .. ,it.. do dro'!,.e a g<LU<M. ',.id.. I.D~.oj. ]O;ti<l,""!teo, .ibed. IM·~.

1',."lo:mati". d£ Soleg, clI .• ! d~ ~,.~ 1""1', es, ;100. IH·M. Nomi'u_lIl n~OUJ.etlt .an ~me de M.ot If!t d· ... ~te;yalD. B:a;Il!I~ ibid.

~. !:~riU,~",.1I tab1o:t: in p. Z.H 1:0. 1/ .

Thlfle g»tK.~1lt, ibi"~ 2A~-;;1.

,IOO~'I UOO>U.j

(['8.1>; =DJ ~III <ffi; = 1\1 (I:&.>:ia!

(IOOob)

.I ..... ",rut de E· aa l •. Obi._ n5-.3~.

La :. ...... 1~ do. K.,.", oo:ot ee 1h!.&1. Syriia [6' 11!I3~ I' 29-~5 ..

R. :Dlfmia_~d'i Deau- -stoi:hs portant lI!JI~ dew.eu..e a:u dieu IkglIll'L" ill;.! t1'~o.

Ch. Viro[~ea,1J~, SIJ.I" q'uatr'e f.'ra.:.":EIfilts: a.Ephzh@t:i:q'UB kOlI"'~ ~D

L9~, 1hOl. 181-'7_

Los ehaeses. de s....n, .bid, 2.'17-~.

'An ... ot I •. G.!n Isse, Syria 11 n~~ijl 11i<l-'1"3_

H1"'n. pMo",j",. "''' ,die. Nibl et aux d.ESSEI K'"""r.t, ihld.

2119-2B_

,La, d~ ....... '~"'"t 11' ",tie]")" !b'd. 3~54.5.

,[.0 <i<>=" "l1",.t ~~, ,"rif.\ol.,. 'Syri&l!l Il9~'i1 SS.I~, EEafu :uru;ninat.Bf~ et -p-~esOOll)pbi'fil~ WEd.. !5!)1.''j:a:..

!.a me...se "lIl!utt !.l" articl~l .• ibM. 2~!l--la.

Te:!Li~ a.tp:ba~uqllle5 ;P_I!'C'fEm.ult d.e la. n" ca.mP.3.eU:J:I~ ,syd:a; !!ill II.B~6,~ 1Z704L

R. Dhotme,. h~EIJ,ri;:Ue tE!lt[.l'l d'rtr.g;u.tt of'Ill f!crit.u:l"'EI: afph:a.l~tiq~.e. iti" .. H2,-._

(RUI ([V AiB~ (NO,]

IV.il1 IV A.B! (19J.7) WAD) (I~&J

[:0]1 1Jh. Vi_...uea"d. La ~rl. l'be • .ici.,... de 1h""'1 11>!i..a<>. d.

Ro. SlLa"'T., I 19.1'6) .•

IE) l!.a ·14g""d. de K<t !~!Jss,oo, de ftas !ll •• mra n W361_

MeU",d ,o.!ci'~.t'OOl: my!l>s am iilruca!ed 'by tb", initials .,.f tb~ir "hiet cba~"ck[.; all ,,!b~r te,.:ts are imiieat.ooby the yeil:r' '0<1 the j'OIu:naI S:yrill, i,,- wbi"b ~he.l' are pl>bUfilled, the arlides,..i1hln e aclI yea. i>eilJg ma:ll<~d willi com;ermti!'e lettE,ra o<t lh. o.Iphaibe!. Th. ''I''atsil citatio.ns are those used in 1fH.

BjblQs---Gubla, {prolmble l<lool 10.:"" (1.£ the m11ll"), sea port on 'ful! ~,:,n~"l SyrlOW ~InlSG, tmding diieily with EgyI'I." f':"", the begmmng of GY'1l<Stic timlS. F""m tIb.,. ;lllp()rt...nG. eenter come 001II., '!lames in. Idae Egyptian A"htu"gs~rte," many letf.elli in the ,Alihili.n "'lila""" e01'r~D:i:lell"e EA 6S-96, 'Ulil-~',.'" and I>Il.Di.El ne:ml'!i. in Egyptim, Akk:ad.Oacn, alH! ]later G_I>: -to;a~reriI'IiOM_ ae Here, too, have !leen tmmdinro[i~ijoES in fue lOOB!i O:nmomite diale,c,,, ",ritneR in the ,PJIO~!Ilieien alph.al:>o~. -.al!lging f.,,,,,, 1b" 13th !o tb., 1st """,!,u')" 19'_ c,

.AJ1inm i[]~rip--tt-on.~ 13th .::ent!.lT'ii'".

\~3ihiDJ:lj;1J:c: ~~rip'~i);tJ~ i.2·1 Uh Oi!;tur:r~

libilJ.aal ill9crapti(l-lIl.., lOLb oe:a·~llr,r.

:I L 1?ot" tli;e· 'e'ridenoCe or ~be iie:ht"Wl.§S_te::;;:teo. and for filii: iJ~ibl:iogrn.pb:.T'~ sec p. :2'7' bel .. "".

:1:11 [[i":Qr- tn'll ll!'f'ide:r:l}?>e (If t.lN!i Am~mBl. Ie.t·~t's. 31M iiJ'.J" tilt'£!. 'fJihlrogr,ap.b;3l'! :see p. 219, belDw.

H Fot thE! Mi:,v.ici:el!l(:.e, !IIi' the .Em-pti,3.ilJ n.ii[:a ami . .Akk:ad:illlD .r'OOOrds, aDd (tf' the G'rr.ee:k a.'lJld [.Qtio tt3:!Il.SI!r i:l?lio~~ see 'p. 27-S ·below.

I.

IH

Eliliaal m!;.erjp.tlOJl~ Utth (:eillf~w;'j'~

Y~ba:w:milk: j~ripttorl, ~th I!e]lhrr.r.

Batllil'l'~m fusr:i.ipt:io~ ·4tb. ~tu:ry.

iByblo::l bm.::I,i.D msa-.J!'_pt,joJlll" 1st ~[].tm:y. lIiill~phr Dr these ,,"""ri~ti<>n', GP 158'-9"

O!lJerPil!le.nician ciHe;a.--'H'''''' Gf'i:he P,hoenici",,- wo.ms, <speoially n:a:m-:s, in ~t;:.,n, cuneiform (iDduilil\g Amarn. " ,~.ee.k !IIld lAtm tron:ocripiiom;,OOIII' from cities other than 'th,,,,, h~~ed, he_~~. Ftrrrtfu.ernnore, there are some i=rip'ti.orul.from aaspecifiad c~ties.; "",d ""rlain dialectel furms :in. Punic, II'hicil do net seem to be Bybhon or Sia'PEIi.an or T:i-rian, probably .&tl come from these ,ollieI' Phoenician ,~itias.l; ]',.amr-es ot eelenial Pb<)l!:lliciaJ!l, im:lwli:ng Punic; ",hidi d" •• loped wi.thin the oo]""i"",. m C,pros. ~mi;h Allica, ek, a", not eoasidered In the p<lreEle1It .-rudy; ~"-'J" those ·""lm.ial f<l.rms. !l:re lnclnded here 'Whiclt -j1lilieai:e somsthing of the patent "P"l""h ill. P.f1""nicia.

SidOlli,-sea. 1'''.-1; on t.be south I?I!OIm;ciao, (Sip;""') ,,,,,as~e~ _ill

oJOJIstwise I;r.:de, with eoonm.ereioJ eoutaets in tbe n,'<It.rrlami. 1.Dludi!!~ Palestine, In laier time,s ;~; was <),.IIe ,,,i tb" .chief dialeetal ;ai1ln~ of tim w1ol!lial PhQ<;!uician, speech in AltheM, N"~ AfriCil, .. te, Its Amarna IB.lte", are EA 1#-5 ;ll>llJU.s from 's,don lire ireqllentin Egyptian,. enuaifomi, (b ..... k and .La~in iI;r,aIIre-.ipIiQll!lI • Inscriptions from 8i1l_oIl are in the Pb.oeIll.ClaEI all'babllt aad OlDgce hnm -the >lib. century E. e, 00_'"'

T.l"e-wa pwt in south. PhlJ'mici.,u, '",uth of Siid<lIl, eng"geil -(OJ CO'S!:w;1lil oomme:re. ,",IHI in varieus "I'eciallized inrl.""tr;es for exp(>l"t pur'pooe;;" it _ba,d coasiderahle eontaets wi,b Palestine _lm~ "'3>; P,?'b,abll' moot ItCU\'E! 01' I'd] Phoeuieian ;;:i.tie~ ill! eslabluhio,g hadio,g 'p""ts '",,03 ."I.mi"" on all lh~ '!Iedi'terranean ru:or",,-. I Us: ~~ ""'" :pooh",bly !he chi"f pare"," dided u[ col nm, al Pho:emea,,:" III Cyptwanil .North Ai'rjca(PUIl'C}.. The Amarnlilel~n rrom Ty'" OBe. EA 14:5-5.'; ,;, cnamesn,om it and references to lt a,e ll_equeot in Egyvi.ian, euneif .. rm "lid es;p«'i.ally. ?""Bak and Lafin, ""iI.rees_" ItG inseriptinns are in ille l'·r.oerrLf:l""- a!pubet and :ro",ge from the :ltd O!oefl!n.lry {)u.'"

'I'~ fJ1.'Slerip<tLw:s; and li'l'1guis.lio::: ~orm5. fr.O!Jl. 'otf:i& Ph'0l!nl'dsl..n ·c;it.ia~ Tm:til!Il,. ~£ al!i Ql.h'l:'t' m~N'tpti(lns, C'p ~ 59-GCI; PIlIIl1c 'prroEl:QiI]"lJ ~i GP ij:!Il:.ii N;e.o-Punic: !bfithpael GJ.' 42.

'I.lI SidC}JI.la;n IDSI.":rijp·t~o(J!!i.:: GIS, S-4l. Lid;o:.. fj·1Q in G:P ]5'7. ~~ See :iiR.. 1.3-.5_>

U T,ytll'.rJ. ir::Jst::C'ipi!:irrns: C1S l~9. ... !...iiI!;t. i2-~ in GP 1.57.

NOliJl1 iPalsstin~me e'i'iclenee has cmne down frma the ilillanC! traile route ,,\::!>I;j()lI>l anil hom some (It ille smaller eemmunities "r North Palestine. Th e Aluama IEtteU'S include II few' 'fmm Mllgidilo. an impod;snl; trade center (Ell. 24~6, Ril. III (1922) 97), andf~m a few "the. pieces (in<!tudcd in EA !L6:9c28<!' l. S<>me of the placenames in E,gyptian lIodAssyrllID records eeme from N ooth P:alest~e. li'>oon the 9t~ ~e~tury we have a nllJll'ihoel: of b!lsiness inscriptiens from Saman~" then ,capital of lh. Nmth Palestine kingdllm (fsrael); these are writu,n on (ISh-lies, in the Phoenicien alphllibe·t. lAstly, speeeh·furms from NQrth Palestine are [lland in ~'IIriQIlO parts of the. biblicall:erl, ebieily in stories de"fulgwiU, th~t area; they axe recognizable IlJ certain dialectal feat- ... es which dill'ereatial:e them nom .Je"",aJ e m Hebre"'_ S@.m .• , evidence on. the late promUlciaiion. of N:otthe1D Hellrew is probaibly to be :found ill. the d.ifferellce.s heb-een the Babyionian ""a the eemraon Tib~,ian llIllOOretictm.ditiolls of the bible.

&u<.o.1Ill """"""".-

.D. TIhl'inge.r • .Le iscr-:i;~iom± 31:r:rti-co~!:trat{::lJle pBlI~U[J.e:!!Ii 21-'14;" wrth I:dbJ:i.o-

GT·PIty·

G_ A. ReiSD.eJi", C. S~ Fischer, D. Go :Lyou.Ha,:r\l3;t'·IiE:l:~l!a,vatio:rils :a.t: Samari:N W. ];1,. _4iIbrig'M. Tile administrative dhi;'i.m. O[ ~'t:l!el and .r ud"h J1'O~

.[1925' U-M.. •

E. nho:rme. L'a_ToJQ~e(; 'h,ebmu cbns Je orie eons-eule, R:D 39' U9~O] $3 f.

NIlB;lR !P~UfJ.'ILZ'li ,"A.T:~L If.!':' "t1IE B1BE..E'--·

H. Rob:iug.el'". EinJe~hln,g ii:1J den ne-Qteu~b -151-91.

B.w,JffmNll~ :JrASOILII,.-

P .. Kable, lb",reten des O.to=.

J eW!<!IlsID.. This standard hngmtge .is also the ~angoage of the biM.; eud the linguistic evidence of the bible, exooptw~eue it dead)' 'rellocls oi.h" r oiinl...:ts, mll'St be takeII as~,~ttJlg ?-e dlale<:t of Jerusalem ",{ the time when. the. sec.hol>. 111 qaestion was wrilkn. OT edited. The mMm:etic tEoct of the Ilible represents late and. romeotimos eonflictiDg traditions of the pronunCiation of the language at '!he time when :it 'was st.iU spobn..

D_ DiJriDger~ Le l!l:CTinooi 1utieo-4!braieb.e palesunuiJ a-l~lO"~. With

bibli.g;ra·~Oy,.

J&_ Dha=., RB 39 (1930).,1] L B'RG .11'_ 1(1.

'0'mEII£-

Diri:~ge;r 74-9, lOt2.~Wl and seers and !S1AmJIS'~ pas.siDII_ W. Y. allir'ght, JI'OS Ii (192';l 75·11l'!.

LAcm:SBL~

'R. Twuy""', The Lub"'. Leite ... W.n ... me lI:t<b a. ~.giea1. ExpMltion

!19:m,.,

W. 'F. A\1,·,;g'h.~, BASO& ,63 I GeL 19J6l ~6··i; 7£1 \~iml 1938·1 11; n

(P,w. 1ll39J 1\1·21.. .

it L-, GinSber:g! Ohse-r'lr3.W1lS en ,tbe: La'l!ru!lill DocumJ~Il!.9 [m modern

Heb",""" 1!.JI'PES 3 (1935) "o1.:s<1" BASO& n, (0 ... )008) 2'1.

C. Gordo", II.ASOII. 61' [0cL. UOlI ~j); ,0 i Apdl looS) 11. _

E_ ~lJr.c:t.ynfi l A propos. D~E La~hisb.. ~ in anotl.e:rn Hebrew' J BJ PES 3, {19~""1

911·2.

R. YlI.IOll, "KClU!S ,CD the La,elz;'sh 'u;tt:enl (.ill! :mooem B.elr.cew) a :SJPiF.3 .a:

lIn.) 8V·~~. .

'S. Yei'iin,~ Addllifilitlllol!.e.ora (!J,e L:teitmh Do<:umll!ou' (nD -:moo-ero He:hPe:w].

BJI"!lS ,3 t193:>l 96.

'M.itsQe:Cl'1D'l'srt': OF TltE·Bm:t.'6-,]:d':::"(100N : Ooes~ililS' _Ra:ndt".'ort.e:rbkl.cb 1IbEI:

d ae e ~Lt.e Tesb"' .... e, ed. F. :~'"f.d. ! GB J

G ............. , _ius, H<'brliisch. Gra_t;J<, ed, E. K.au~h (28. A"Bago, Igool. E.tglisl> ·!r ans l:a!iau by ·G. (;<Iir,o$, ed. E.l!.,eowl,:!" (-I. ~G.KI

R. Baue; and p~ T.ea.nder ... 'Hisl.o:rii.scll!a-GrallJIlm.Uk doer iJ..ehrii.scheo. Sp:r;a.ch.e.

11922l· liB!..)

G~ Dugsi:rhser.l Heol!'iiis<:b:e IGrs.mme.lik (GesP-oiul3~ 2:!Jt.:b. ed., 1~i'lS·29 ~ ~

(SliGl

Sillla. iBer.g;;~v'3 is linguistically til .. wllna~l and! moot. upto-date of all Ihese gntmJ]l8.Vl, it i used here as 'Ih. slaniEard refer.eme. ·Rer.l'eoee to oiber .grammars .. m 'be Q4:.C3lSiDllal, os the sll.bj.,;:t dJemands; but. ,.,[e'len.ce to Bergs.t~"SI!r will 00 regu:la~, and the au-emp!; ",in be made to correct 1D1~ s~m!m~ ,~neIe thIS is n~iiated bS the new material on Canallnlte whl.ch h!l3 come'

ro' light..

3

J ernsalem=an inland -city inthe hill ~ of central Palestme, [:rom ",.bieh we 'ha,ve several i.et~rs, ill ~he Amru-oa correspondence and whieh became, lit tile beginning oi the li.r:st millennium ll. '~ ..• Hm I."8.pi!::d o,f tbe Sou.fh Palestine k:;"gdom (Judllh}. The A.mar.!!a letters ~nrm J~rusal"m a ea i&A 285·90,; and names fw:m litis city eppear Ul ~e _ll..cbilmgste,deand in other trnDscriptions, Egypwn and ctm:,ifGrnI,. Gr.eel<: and Leti,,!" The.,e are a few inscriptions (ch.teJl.y Slio.am. 700 B. c.jand seals from. JeT""'llelDl,,~""ifteIl. in the Phoenician alpiJabet Later' inscriptions from. other Juo.aean ",it,,,,,, were also ",:dUen l!l tit. dialect 0:1 .Tel11.lsalem. as the official lallgll8g<' of the state.; the 1 a;r:ge.sl OOd!y (Jf these ate the letters 'found at Ibe J udaean fortress ,,11 Laehish, written e. 5S9 1B. 0., just bdOFetbe city fell to the Babylonian armywhi.eh also to!JJk

I I

Devel'opme1Lt oj the Oa:na.anit.e D.ialeeu

So<uth. Pale~tine-SQl!!le erideaee of the peeeb 'of South PnIestinian to'WiIlS olher than JeruesJem is found i", AmMDll. Ietters EA. ~-329. h Ge;:er' there. was 'found -,. ~a1eIld~r [llSIltiptio:a whioib. clearly representa th~ local dialeet,IIot that of J erusalem ; it is of th~ :9lh. ceJli.~ury and is. written In the Phoenician alph;bet.2t Ea 1

1 b.'''''' ., . . I Y

.. P a .... nc mrenptimas .have been :round :iII various Soufil Pale '-

tiniruI ,sites !Jut. ba,': ~{Jt as jet been saljgf"",!mily dedpbernCl; the}: wiU pxes.;"t Ildditioniil infol'lDllii.OOl.in thll speech of this; area. d~r1ng ilie mlddi.e <lithe o;eooll.d millennium K c." BIl'~ b)l the middle 0-1 'tilJe first mi1!etmium, the sbmd a rd, Imgusge of SmIth Pal~", .ha~ eeme to be that 0:[ Jerusalem, the capital c:it;y., SO lhu '1.n..<cnP~OOIS sach as the r.-ac!h.ish let!ers can Dot be considered as repre.sen:[lDg the ]~ speech,

GttlX C.AJ.ERD.&E--

illl. Di:dng'u~ iLe i:acd~ial!li :llntt-co-ll:brak1te 'pa1Ifs.ti:[]ElSm [·201 'With ll-M'

gn.phy.. .' • ,<>-

M: [,id:ro...~ki. ill'~em"'i' '[Ii. '~IIL'~'sclt. Ep;g:r .. phil: 3. $6-43, 169·00- LJ~zha.rsll~ .• 1dacahs~~. Cook; ;J,:l);d oflyeJ':![I in Quuu.ITQ.y Stau.m;ent hlal::in-t!'

ErplorafioD F1l.Ild, 1__ •

II

LiU9UidW Ocmditiom in Sy .. ia,-Palest~l'le

;:onsl!ll!lan[ signs, representing the foUowing e$U!ltl!s in ili6 fol.lowing ,,,,le3:'; [, b g dI h wz I,t \y k ] In .. S • P ~ q r H). ltp<<Jbalaly• illd~~ed! all Ihe cx)DS<Jnanta~ phon'_m~ of the contrai and south~IIlL Pl'toeruc,au c'iies d"rilIlg most 0.£ th ... period. smdied neve." For ')f.!!.'udj we cannot ten .if tnf<9 were not other phonemes, f.or which 1h]s alphabet bad 110 rep'reseIltstioll.. .And in the ease of n.;brew 'we ha ve e·vitl.nee ·ihB.t, al !hOlU",," it "sed !.he Pbo;e,n;"j ... n alphabe:~ without chWgll~, .it had, (luring 8. larg: pout 'If this pe.!lo<li, the phonemes [t I! 'I S:j wllieD 'Were- written wil.h the eharaclers for [li.1). • 5] rE'o1'<!Ctive1y.

Since this alph~ibet ""8$ e'llitirely CX)osommW, lire pn.oonicisn inscriptillM Il"", "'l1i1l:enl'ritimnt any rellt,e6.~JlIat:ioll for the VQwek, except where [y] Jlna! (w] (wltich, as consonants, Wei'" always written) bec:a~ vowe1s in the eourse of <e,,"lilal' sound .haDge.. Re;brew and .Moob,·te, however, ed-ended tim 1IbES of !I ,and. w 'fur origlirullloog vowels, first oaly iin:J w[mi~fi.D"L, later also mediaUy-

Tile orthography ill the irueriptioD.!! seems ·us<la.Uy io represent ·~.e

c".r~~Dt local! l'roOru[l~iatiGn.. The phon~mie chan.coor o:E tlre Il1pllltDet, ptel'!1n.ood it Iroru de~el(J)I'i.D,!l a. oompUeated. and ".La.llV~Y llnch~gi.og .cltibal tradit.iOlIl such as, Ib~re was m Egypb.an and el!llli!lform wO'tiog; among contributing bdo£5, due .~ llie gen.eTal. social drlilcrur,e' 0:1 ~his area, we !Wilf include the facts that the wribol caste 'was Il.ot ItS eeJlLtrabzedi ,and .i'<"mali~ed. and !llid wrili.og WllI! in general more wid~pre<til. _1\5

a J'Esult Qi ~bi$ situation the," _,' e s eY",,,]. changes, QI orlhogra.phy 1:0 conform with .. clJ;anges of prmlUociati[lIl: wlren '!Ib.e ~uf!i>:. 'his' changed I:rom [-a'i1"] to' [-<8Iwl, its spelling in 8yMos w as cballged from ... k.to -w (see eh, ~. 110. 30); when Ihefem.inine "l1l1ix. [-atll wa. ,..,pheW by [.2') Phoenician orlhograpbyihopped tbe -I whIle Hebrew substituted! for it the ,o·iI"'elJ..tter~1l> (fur [-~]; _,ell. 4, no. 33,44). 80m\! cha"ge~ :in the <l'rthogr.apby mo.)', h~w"1i"er; bave been deLal'ed, notiakil1? _ plooe till sowe tim.!! .fter th~. pronunciation liIad cb5l!lgedl: tltm, the wnu.og -!II in !3}'iblos for 6nal (-a)'a] ma~ h" ee coolin.ued. ror" Cl!DtllrJ door [-a.ya.] had changed. to [-il.j _ The writing 'With -!I stiil occurs in the lOth <:entlllry, bwt tho syneepe [If th" I-r-l had prob.bly bken !place sOJllle time bafore ; ollie:rwise nOS- 32.-1 iu cll. -4 ffill.t be later tha" the ,l"tes assigned w them, and this WQuld OOUS'iclexably OO[[l]p1:icate the order of lioguistic ,c!_e .. elap:,m:JIl'i.; in th.e lOth er?oto..ry_ Soch prese ..... atioll of the old s,petliog is m~~ so..rplis.iJJg in royal ill~CJiplions. ",here we maj e"p~t a degree of II.tcilP.iz.ing and 0& im:italiDg H,e style of -past ge"erations and past inserip,tinns. S"mehistorical e;!>"n;"gs, eh;e<Oy- tltooe tlnal maile possillle the' use o[ 2 eoD:So.oa"t.-,ign ~,5, a vowel lette~. were kept perm.anentJj':

"Gl' U-'1.

Development of the Canaanit'f)' Dfulect8

'!I. M!IUlinOO! for .th:. lirst pe!OO'I!l su:ffiU even after it had changed from [-ira] to [-i]; &ID1,,,.I, -w remained £0" [-OJ < [-JJwj, and .e"",wh.,,, -.~ fo: [-0, '. ~a] <: 'f-a.hii, ~aha:J _ In .ti!l.ewmd for • be;"a, the speRing wl!~ .• _ ["I!mliHleiil: lin . P"?"m,oi&.n and Hebrew "1'~11 alter I[ u"liu] cha.ngoo 1:0 [r®S'il]; hut. m PUllI1C tlite form was WTiUen ri, ill oo:[lfot.rnance ",jlh tJ:i.e oo:osooa'o!lal phon.eml!S 0,£ tbe current proD,U'DCin.ti.c:~D.

Th," U garitic all'lutbetwas also consonantal; in addition. to the phonemes .represenied in the Phoenician alphabet it had signs fur [b,t~]. probably b), a HtlrriJMl gJfritale [(iJI, and! a special [s'1- It a;1!D had!. thl,ee SigllS ior ['J, ~ 'fl, aceording io thevllw.L 'ollo,wi:ng the r], or, .If nens fo]llIwed, the ';'<lWe1 preceding. In no, ease are tb.ese ~ree' ~$, or an.)' others, used merely to '.pr«s<;ut """"Is; their presence IS nenrlbel_ of .. alue in determining the voeaiizatiOD o.f many fOirms."

The Arnama correspondence is wrioteo in Bab.J'lo:mian, in tb e cuneiform syllabary. n inclDdes letrer.., Wtjt~ mostly in theseeoud quarter ,oi !he 14th CE~hlTY ~ c., from the jlrioli:e. cof Syria and Palestine, and. tr<>m ~Ilgs oJ oe.ghlFonng s!tat es , to the king of Egypt, and from tbe Egyptian. cO~rl to', them. The letrer,<;from Cauaanfl'e towrus i.Delude many C9nllalliSIM 'n .,yntax~ "mel-forms, Mld choi~e of words; as well as p~re!:l'," CO!G".niteoorms ,,:men. in C'oo.eiEorM as glosses to ezplain Akkai:lum )I1'oIds. The cuueiform "'rl~ingis important ill that it represents "olre>lS, as well as, consonants, bU'~ lh,",fe were seeeral eensonants and vowel p'h"D..m~ in the Canaanite oil.jal.cis whicl:i, the sylLabary oou.ld .Dol well r~preseot. (e.g. the Iary_n?eals and spirallts. and the vowels 0, a), SIld .:he s:!(llalllc forsn "r · .. nting is sometimes dillkult til' inbe'rpret..

J. A.. ~udt:ro:n. 0.. 'WeEJu-, E. Ebi.[~ng~ Die. !(!1-'_:!L.ro:!ilrna-'I'il:ie~JI ('VElnLeT.a:!li:J:tfisr£f::Je

BibJiothek 191o, brls. isansl a eten, notes, gI.ossa')'l .. ~EA~

F. ThtL'l'ea .. ·Dangifl" .N" use JI .. I.ttr ee "·eI-Amo.rca, R.."- 1.9 [192:2) .1l:1.]Oa.

G. Dussin, Ifne nOllv03U~ I.~ltb~ d'.eI--·A.m_:l,'tc,S. .. R...1 31 U:!J341) 125-313 ..

C. ~~::. EigM .cow <u''''''erlIl frogmeo.ts {rom Toll el A",.,ro", JEA. 2:0 ( 19H 1

W .1'. <lJboiglti, The Egwtian <olT1!Spl>ml""". 01 !'!.bimHId •• Pebece 01 Tj"e; JiEA

23 ! 11137] 190-iiOO.

F_ .'I'L Bobljt Die' S,pra.c'IJe d.e.r Am.armlLbr,ide~ Lelp~i;g+er semitisc'be Studien 3.2 (l90i) ..

K -El:J;.eJ_i:n,l$. nas. VE!:librnn d .. er EJ-.AJ;[t.arna-Bdere~ Beitr:8g,e Zll.!r Ass:.friologie: 8.2, (I~Wl S9-111.

The Hebrew hible is written in the Phoenieisn alph"b<>t ",itb. eertain di.aer.i~ical.matks, chid.}· one over the $'si.gn to indicate [,§J, and a. "ery

" Fo-i.edridL,. Z(J'1rG 91. U93T] ~21 f. .• "d. Eo: O~i;",te ·L",., J:.,ulJ,o,;oht 5 (lna'1- 8.1 ~&:7: H.. Baue.,DI!lr Urspmm.1!' des Alphabets JS e, a.l1d Di~ alpiMb.ti>l<: .... K.edscl.u-e[tt.exte: ""tlill R:as Scliamn, ilJ;;5p" ii !Ei&rris" Sm iit.heonian R;epOl't loCli' 193'~ ~ <t90-'l.

lai.e SjStem of ;rowel and .stressmar:!a> based. upon Ue pIonnneiati!lllll "hi.eh had been presersed in lihe reamg of ihe bib.le. "I'h., Tiheria[l, s)'stemot yow-.1a had signs for [j, e, e, a, 0, 1]] all long and oll.oct, and fO'r ['1 (shW!l). Th~ mauy I.",te feature. in the hible neressita:,te co: .. - siderable ca'llmom in do: .. ling with its evidenee, but it remains far. and. away 'lhemos:t .imp.orlant source for 001>< koowl£dge of Call1l.ani.te, The official Jerusalem dilllec~ in w·h:ich. it is l'I'l!'iitE'o l!IIay have di:ff:",,·ed from the actual current speech of tho cily, but.ils 'IJ.Se in contelDl,P'lrat_y Hehle", inscxi.pti.oIBs, and it. si:rnilautyto Mo..bite and othe. dialecis, show that :lI'l1y ""uell dilfe-rence muslhaFe been. small. At a]l lel'enls, jt was, II standard lan.~2g., not, as sum. have sapposed, lin arlifiei:al litem". language.

01lJl.80'!e place-names, pe"'(>on! JlaII!les"anil loan words appear in transerjption in :>e,·eral f'Qre'gTI sources, T.be earliest of til."" are the Egyrt,all Aehtung;o.tecm, of We latter pad of the 1Lth diynasty, c. :WOO 8. c., which give (J'wa aa nit" nsmes in the ceusonantal orthography of E'igyplhll..

~ Setb~D'iei ,A.cht.tujI,g; feSndlicbe.f Filrst.e:n;" \f.olkfi :tI.na Ui_nge auf "21H.igyptisc;hI:JQ "rongef~-helitle:n. 'Illes: ·Mi~teDE:n Reiehea, Abb-undJWJgeD_ di. preass, Akademit: do. W;""""""bafl en , I'liLiI.·hirt. .Nf esse .1925, Nr, 15; espee",ny p .. ~3·59.

iV. F. _Alllrig.ht. '[be Egyptian eeepire 10 A&i.a in tb.e 21sf.. l!e:l"lrury .8" ri:" .. , J"POS, 8 {Ioo.l1)2'!;;3·;6.

M.any other Canaanite forms appeltr ill ihe Iists of eaptnred, fuwm anoliJlJ 'l'anOlillS Egyptiau literary aonrees, '!I'he lists :range from the ti_ "f Th(Jl:m~ nI, ,~l:todaJr after lSOiJ n, c., and on; the .. f,.r·ena;;s La lire.ar! lOO'U'~e8 begin several esnburies eartier, Most of there tra",,,,,riptio"s, are in the ~tia.a gjllllhic orfhography. used for foreign names, whic1J gives oomeindicallmll "I the 'i~wels. ~·h. Egyptian traoscriptieus ':L'e p"rlic"llld J valaable bseause tbo;y CIlIl represent ac<cu.al-ely ..:tmost all the @mphatjl)S, spirants, siiJilaoi.;; and. laryngsals of the CoolWIil:e dialects.

W_ 'F. A1brigllt, T ue Vocalmtion cl lb. Eg:rpti:u Syl1abi. OrUlogn.~h~ IHJoJ4).

(Yoo.1

M. BuroCh&Y'·dt, 'Die .alblWlniiisclten :Fre:md:vtoJrfe 'I'lOO Eiige.illfl~.en. 'in :4g_yp.t~lJ.

P~mDl.

Jr. Bim. ..... a:.n<tboo.k 10,' lb a a I·ud; of Egypt; .. " ·topogrnl'ltica'! li~ts rel"'in;g to W os .. '" ,\,.l:. (l.il3,?). " .. lh b;'liDgTO.phy. (BTL)

Transcriptions 'M Caoa:mite M1!I!Ie!> and other worcls occur ill larions, c"ne.iform reeords, especially ill the ,tl.l!SyOao .royal annals and in N eoIl!loyloniao leUer.s. \\Thile sitbjed 10 tbecoHectiolllS noted •. Il"". f~r ~h. Amar!!!! material, they are partiCl]laxiy "woo,bl,,, f ..... tb. represemation 0:11 "owel".

The mosl iurportantscurcea are fhose n.t>W in. OP 4 fn, lB.

The many I"te mnser] pticns in Greek md L&ti:a sources ate also "",Inable l'hi.fly in tbat ,ow.is. are indicated. Parlic.uhrlyinuruslin,g are. the.arl.}' Iean-words, espeeiaUy the names of the ':Iphalbet signs which. were ]lEobably take» into, Greek before tbe lOth CeOW)lll. C .. (see cb .. 4, no. 31" and in. "'~).

'I'lle mosf im.p<Jrlaut sources are those noted:in OP 5, in. 20 and GP 3 m. 13; also transcriptions in the Sepmagint translation of the bible andthe !;rltDscription of the Hebrew lJibiied text into Greek: by O •. igeu·:

,K A.. :Spe.lse:r~ Tb,f;! p:ro:llumciaUQTJ, 'Of Hebrew ~ i&iid,Y gn thE: ltrn.n9<1UeratiO:r.J8I

in ilt, lIen.pla., J'QR ie U126) 343.s1!, 2:3 (193:>1 233C65, U (l9~3,) 941>.

A. ~rf.te:r~ ffe'b:re:w 'ba;s00! UPOili G~eek: a'o.d Latb;;1. kauscr_i;pt~llUls,. He:b:re.w Union

Ooll_ A:OlDu:al 193·7 ·S. :1'QS·2!!l.

H_ M. O<l"."")". TbE eelumnar order ., th.o 1Iu"i.'lR. J'QR ~. I( illJ51 1.31411.

. The fute'rpretalioD of these traascripticns is on safer grllUIld than in. the other eases, for the comleropmary pmnuneiatieu of !:b.ll Greek and Latin, and 'llie phcnefievalues of Ihe Ietters of thei ... alphabets, are much oofte:r knOll'll: ef .. K H_ Stllrte~llnt, Pronunciatioa of 'lireek and Lafin ; R. G_ Kent, the Sounds of' Latin. '

CJliAPTER 4

t.rsr OF LINGmS'I'JIC C1IAN'GES

WDere Ya:nil!i :is DQhpeciJicaRy e'''''"'pteil, "pnoemc;IlJiI." is here UDde:r~ Stoodtol inCiIl"'" it as oortain,if evi.den.,. from. Ya'udi is given, or as probable, if !;here is no ,,"OR evidence, fLlwever, m. the absence of I)vidm:me, the similarity of Ya 'udi and Phoenlcian in .IID)! pa:,ticular feature can IL"~ be bd..-en as certain. The, same bold" fm' ." Rebrew" as, p..abably inclnWng Nod'h and Soult. Palestine unless lliese are .pecili,cally dislingttished.

Tbe <lat..,,; 115(f1} sod 13£5 are Its.OO as diclre date« 1m' evidence based np<J1l. the Ugarilic "",d .AmuD.8.malerial. ~ti:,~ly.

To .• Insenptions and ol6ier ier~ from "hleh tbe ".]de~_ is 0'.8."11 lire citOO. here :

EA.-AmarIl!a let.-f.i!rs in Knudt:zo:n. see eh, 3:~5. (SjT;l:l, and P'.a.1esiine. c:.1!3fi:i,) G=r _.0:_ • .,., en dar, see <h. 3.4 under SOllth Pa]""t;ne (So"tb P,.I"'ti ne 9th·

lOth eent.]

Ilamat-Zo.kk .tel_. see co. 3_~. (Hia.m.t.La·a;' IIlli """f..)

Hebrew words ELm roraas ~ muo:cd:ic: Ux:l of 'bible'. (J~ CD i: see eh. .3.4. La.ehi!>h-~ letter' ..... oh.3.4 ",,<I .. Jen=lem. IJ~usal~Ol Vu. "",,1.) Moab - MeSa &1<:1<. see cll. 3A. (Moa.lI 9t:b eenb.]

Ph~i~Ut'El ~nd Y:s.."12m.~ WO'l'ds :1100 ~(Incs. -:II:!i given in th_~ Pb.oentei=:m Glo:9SEL~Y

in 'GP; see, clio it::L. •

:S~m.:afi:l- &:wa.d:ili. ootr.o.c.a. to TI j'ri.!rlgcr. .see cja, 3.4 und.J!a' Nl!ir.tb PalestillLe

(No,th hl""ti.llo O!.J, eerd.I

SuliJ18.m _ SiT.oal!ll! l:Jlsc:ripti(J;]l. eee ~b. 3.41 ulI,d-er J"aCI.9aJe:m (Je:rosatem TOOl Ogaiit-oilations 01 fe,,,, as I.,ate<! ;0 ch, 3.4> (Up;' lii.!.h·];tith ",.1..1 Ya"uJii- R.il"", .. i=;(>t;'"o, ae e eb, 3.~. I' .. · .... i. Sth <-.)

For furlliler aiibr,e,';atioDs, useil £01: books ceutaining Canaanite 1~"Uis!ic maleria.l, see p. 101-2 below,

1. [ay]>[el; [IIW],> [iil.

PWCGl!: Ugari·Rc-q.~ [q~!o] < [qay~Ii.]1 'summer' (D 4 j 5) ;b! [Mm-] < [bItytu-] 'h~QSe (est.) , (rrAB • n; iI.1 aOO, IIAB i .. 62) ; yl}!1 [J"illUil] < [yubnal'J (ju.ss.J 'let there he 'built' (HAB iv 62).

Phoeoici:m~t PI~tU] (Ya'ndi 16) ;g;-~-"i [~i] < [q"y~] (!E!rhloo HA.13I.15); "'.11'91 [wall')yiglil] (ill.$-J 'and if heuncover" (By-

List of .L-inguistic CMngelJ'

bios; 13th cent.] ; I b! I(Bybb Ulb cent); .• ~ ........ w ['onaJYll'] < ['«j1llLJja], my eyes' (Sid.on iJ!!A 144..n).

N~Tth Pale&tin_!("'.JI pel] < [lajJ] 'nigbl.' (no~ ost; M:egiddo Ell.. 243.13); bl i'r (est.] 'Be~h-sUn' (yO<!.. VI. B 7, 17 IS. 15th cent.); .S'" [yen.] < [j>lynuJ. ' ..... ine" (Samaria; although of unknown. !lri.g:in [yayau] i.s the Dilly form from which b<>th. tllii anill H."bre .. [y,;yin] oo,,]d develop, if, IlS is probable, tb.ey go baek to OIle form in early Canaanite).

SGuth Palestine-'n [<eum] <. E'aJllu] ',,'ell' and b! [hern J [esl.] in Eg.lisfll (Voc. V B., VI .B 6" 8, ETL 1 U3) ;q~ [q~.] [absolute; Geoer 7)_

Moabite-1L\ [lila] 'a~ nighl' (15); ",,'t .. [mi'at~n] < [mi'llU.J'll3J 'I:wo li'llDd,ed.' (:20); ~!>Uh. e in IIi. h,nlre' ('l'), but bi> yth (2-5) and i'ryh 'ils gates' (22; y' hr.egulllr plene spelling fot [e]/).

Dm.rent flOOdit;ioM m -Ieru sa l.em Hebrew____..."" helow.

co!lS()lJanfs were reduced: [ta_] > [ta ..... ] 'mark; [i).anJ > I[li}!ay] , ali.ve.'· 1m J ernaalem th.e eme .. I[ -a J] _" treated like other wphthongs: dipthollgd '.,,]'1,,,, accented, reiuced ... hen unaeeented, thns JlJ.iI:y], [!:ve]." Tfu" new [,-aw], however, _l1Ii.S to have bee.n p~e<erl'ed. in all ooudiI.iClIllS" both in Rebr._ and Phoenician, as in [tllW], [qaw] 'lIiia e, '

T."" oooliD'lled. mOD.oplitbo.ngiz.lioIl '0;( II""" ·wphthongs "'Oll derermrlled !by the ph.anelic S<rOlclu:re of Canaanite: since diphthongs dill not e .. ist in these dildecls, new "".es "",,",.~ te duoed as Ihe)' arose, Tbe preser",,-tion ·of the last-m~dioned. g;onp ,of [-awl -diphthongs seems therefore ro in'l'ohe a lObar-g. In Ibis Iul;ure uf tne phcD.tie ,l;mcl:ll.re.

Dl:'iERllENT OoNiiITIONS.: In Je,-usalem. Hehrew, unaccented il:ipbthon.gs we .. " mouephthongized as fhrcughoet Canaanite, but aceented, diphthongs TEmained.: [baybt], but ""L [bob.]; ["fuu!'}'ID3.] < ('apciyma] 'eyes'; [ml.wtu], bot C6't. [m.atu] '·dea.th'; [hM,iba] < [bawSlbt!] 'he restorad (whell·the second rowel was .[1] and tberefore stressed]. Wben th" slr ess.s hift rook place, diphthongs whichIcst the stress were moaephthougized: [miiwliy.] > rm.atiya] > [mo~f].. In the llifu! ""rh, the mO!llOp.hUlOo.gi.mli()o toJruld not l.ak. plses DIll.tilthe verb stress &hiit: [oaooa1a.j > [Ilawda'] > [Dtawdii<] > [oo!!a'] 'it """,,me known.' 'rhi; wasalso bme. of those hili! •• rb forms w hieb (lid. not have I[i] in. the second, syllahle, e. g., tn.e :iuliniti.ve .iJoo'h.te: the Assyrian E.ranscriptiQD a-!L-s&;:' (Dl ItawlmooD 10.2.23) [h:iwsi'J, later > [bil~"], shows the lorm. before the verb stress ~hift, Dr in liny evoot bdore tne reduetien of the diphthong.' ThiS will ex;pl~in the biblical ,Hebrew IormJl, e"'''''Jill fo,! tbe ahsCllute nuuns {If t;ype [~.eq] "bosom,' [yam] 'day,' wliich maT 00 due to analogy of the C>1l""trucl. forms,ar to bo.rrowing frOID. Hell ... ·'" dialects ",bne tne OlQoopllthangwtiom had been complete (ci. tit" possibly !lialedal [I~l] InJes, 21.11, v:rr~lIln.l to [iayl) 'nigbi&.'

Latex, alle>: final .bo·rlvow" wer" dropped, and the media! diphU,ongs came fa be in doubly closed, syllables, til"}' were pronouneed as wosyll.abl.e5; [bart] > [b:iri~]; ['~nltym] > [~ayiro); [mam] > [rruhn:UThis was part of the late general tend""cy to break final consonanf clusters bj anapty",tic .," segQl.ate") -v"wels. Fi:11Il1 diphthongs 'r"",ailted : [mii1&Y] 'when!'

Berggrn.weF'S ,ellmplicahed al!COolmt (It the J erasa lam Hehrew ecnditioos

TIKII:: Be:fo]e 1M!) a, o, since :it appears in the Ugaritic, texts, a .... 1 in ,(luI}, E:gyptian tzsuseriptions.

, See DO. 30 bel_.

'. See H>G,_ 35.

:l'See :00, 59 .

• To ""y lhat [!l":I'J i •• boW1u'" """ LlJ-) oocslnJ<-.t ....,...ital"" lb. osonmplio" oJ aD an:a.1ogic exten.9!I!ID. of [bay] 'E:,e[on;: d~'~ini: n;e.m-'e--5 'Wo 8.Ce:cucit. For U:t.-e .o.lts:r-.a· lion ill the"'ll)(Lwrelk: lJibli-c31 led. 1111 an,. case, [I.~J arose in 'U!lildressed pQ.Sit,ioll!. C£. 1>1. Wi, GB.

To~iII.-o.51.

CQNIlrrroNs, rD. ''''''iIy Semiti~, diphl:ij,oogs were p'honologic:ally vowel + syUal1le-elosmg [yJ Or '[ IV] ; as such they were a! ways either tinal or fol.lowed by the eoasonant which began th"l!Iut- ",jUab!,,: [b:l:l'tu.]. Since eve., syllable ill early S"mil;ic 'bol!gll"- with. .. consonant, intervocalic [)oj and [w] must be cJ![l!Iside.l'eil! phGD.Qlogicallj' as Mllero-syllabic, nOll Iml.'king a d.ijlbU.ong, but ruth ... begi(Ul'ing the next sl'lliible:. [ha.yt]J'L] 'of mJl house," In Canaanite, dipbth,mgs were mono pihl"-ongized in aU positions, aeeented and lIMcce'oted, medial and IiMI, ezeept when another [j] or [>I'] iQ.l!Qwed; IhlliS [~.YJi}'m] 'life,' [~::rye] 'Iii. {Cill:.);' ~ taw] < [f;aWWlil.] 'mad;:,' all remained in Ph"""ki:em and Hebrew. Tbe diphthongs [iy]!, [ll"'] .in med.iaJ position hail been mOflophlllumgized in Ine-Gau2.:mite times (BaG 1 17 d) ..

New diphthongs 1!.'0Si! later in final positioa, all of which, 'witli the eJ.~.tian OI th .• lasf group, we'e later mooophthClngiU!d: "I when [it] was elided In be 3rc! person suffires in Heb!ew. B'JbIQs, ,mil; Jftaabite: [-ahU] > [-"",], $omewhat bier> ["'];' D) when [y) w .. ~ elided betw..En shorb unstressed ;llwels, and the 3rd person m... sg .• uJIk of Pboenician, .e "eludillg lByMos, changed: [-iyiJ> [iy](?), llkW > [-e](?);' c) when final .Imd vowels weea dropped, and [-i J'l Jand [-OWl! 1, the. 'O)oly eases who,.. b] and [wJ between shout ,.('wets had eob been elided. became [-iy] and [-awl, tare, [-i] and [-il];' d) when final dc""Dl.

ret tlris ehange, and his C<laside:rllbI(> ~QJo1;t rs e. to la,te[ oo.alOgi.(l ilio·I"J!DlII·tions, is ·tendered uaaeeessary as roon as the change is. considered. iin wrrru; of th~ eouditionswbich omb.iDed at the tim" ;.& occurred, namely whenfinal short vowels we~e stilli proneuaeed," He lists this change as !:akiiogplace aIlie .. Amam& times. 1m!; the.e is, direct eric!~o("tha.t it was before Amarna. and befere 1500.

It IlBl; been suggesud that this ,ilivergen.ee of J erusslem Hebrew is II! later development,tllat Jerusaleai h .. CI origi:nal!iy gone with. 'the .Tcst ·or ean aa nik;"but that Iater .foreign influenees caused a r,estoratiion of the iliphthongs 'in some cases.' Such ne .. formations, exlendin.g ioom.I"OIIl' wards which might !nan com .. 00 ,Jerusalem from a olialec~ w!tere di]lh.tfu>ngs bad been presersed, 'wowd in.deed be pessible, RO'we'er, ·the fad ·that ;th. di,bilion.g d_, no,t oocu."in sowe special gIIQ"J' ·of "'om 0)" i:o.mn~, :1iIl.Drphl>logic class, but can be esplained lIS bu:ieg beenpreserved m Ulne phonetic eovuoolll,mJ (8b:~), a~gues for angular pb'lne!ie d,e""lopment Tbe·prebe.bility is therefClre that ",J:ll"" this change fix,st spread in CaD&allii:e therawere SODlli'll'-, specifi.cally Je1'1JSa:,lem, in which stress W,I!S II. decid.ing factor' for its occurrence,

1>'1o:n;,: In fhe accompanying ehart, 13 refers to, the mcnophtbongisadon 0'£ unsheswl dipbtbongll, lib 00 tbe ml)Dopht:boogization of stressed! dipbthongs.

p, 53; .A!brigM, J:POS, 8 (19Z8) 234, '3f7; Vo-c:. 7 m. il3). U.,bre-w bas prem:voo a few forms with [-:am] (.BL 529 j, where ilie suggested connection ... iilt Ih~ droppi.l!Ig 'Of. esse endirlgs must be rejeeled on eheonr.>logieal goounds}. It is tbe.~fore clear that mimation WII5 dropped, within the history .01 Canaanite, aodthlit Ihe time was aile. 1&00 < Eg .. transcriptions; .,boITe} and before 1500 (IT gaiitie wm)_

2_ Dropping af mimafien,

P[ACE: U gm-iti~ ~m does DIIt .appear ill imde:fiilaHe singular noune ; the occaaional nen-plurel -m whi.:'h 0080 appea.t is '!lS1IIIn.ly !.he eonjunetiDn [-moe], wruch also 0<!ClID3. afte ...... bs and pronouns : 11"$11"" I.Ml,1 , aad l'te elIOt tens 0:1 IlaouSll;o.ds" (IIAB j i'-B-.!l') ; .oU-m ~~ , and lha] of gold' ([lAB vi 3'1-3; MH 101).

Phoemeian-« -m in 'tl:l~ siagula .. dGe.> 1I0t appear:: 'm ',sarmp'lul,g-as '; ",,!.I; bm.ik", 'aD] kiiug, a. ki .. g am c ng kings' {Oath Byblos 13tb ceut.].

PsJJ1Stb"e-no regul ar mi.m"tioa in the Am.a!Ina letters, the Egyptiail ani! AkkadJmu nanscri.ptions Clf 119ll'I:~. or the bililical text (but see below).

Moali~o mimatio n,

TUlB: The earHes~ Egyp~illn transeriptions chow- mimation in Con.omrre names: "".i~m lor U ruSaliwWll, later [:i'ctllal;m] (Achhln.g.sl,exl-e f 1S

• :B'HG'I Ll" g, h_ nt, c1~ ''llilablec is rea, Ily a ,r .. "lJly closed ,s.yU .. bte ~.Ltl_.t er

.,.1 [1] O~ I"'J + ("UOW'"S: cr"3,ntl; hut Ill'''' did! not ort,. till long .tt.>r

[,wI:> [~J bod bLk.." ·pt.., 00 is Ire"!>e. ;ueJ.o..:aot 00 tb a ,t cbaege,

1':lBL 22.-S~

3 .. New fonnation IIf Iw--like preterite, j'l!ISSin, and imperative of Mk_ PLACE;: Ugariti _1--l1k < they flowled' ([AS iii '7); loU, 'that I may go.' (D 1.194) ; lk 'gp' (D 3 i 1'/) ; bulltil: 'they are gone" (K 9<l) ..

Hebre.w-[IEiIj-] 'go'; bu.t (bii.l~] 'he weDt.' Moobite----& • go' (14) ,,'.

Tam rBefore 15~O. Tilis is a eommcn Cacttll1lllit.e "bang.,1Iot fmmd in Aramaic; it roay have liaken place ill. iJ;ese. o:ia1.eets before they came to S,yria-Palesfure_ The :new farms Wm",U[ [bl spread through theilld v e rbal elasses : preterite, i"ESi .e, imperafi .... , and infinitive; b1l,t they did net 'spread 00 U.ep.d~t.whio:h al that tiro. was not closely assoeiatsd wilh. the oonses:, being 3:5 :re,t II nominal cOlllju:gation. Later, when asimilar new formation sp<esd in U.garitic and 'Phoenician thWllgb the preformative tenses of the root "tn, the .ne'" form spread also to the perfeet, which m:w;t by Uw.t time have !:Jeen mueh closer to the tense group.

CONDITIONS' The conditions ... hieh led. to the new [i:r.trultion ot the f()fms "':itho"-t [h], .a.nd t!l the. replarement hI' fhem 0)[ fbe ,ald forms, lire as Jilt unkD"W1I_ The comm.only accepted eKp"'Rlllti(1D. gi .. en by Praetorius, ZAW 2 (1831) BUI-,., that i n the hifil. the ItJk forms wereo $imilliI 1.0 the ]w verbs ([ha.lt~] < [h~.ka.) < [Mhlakat 1, similar to, . [hL~s1.!l] < [M.w1a'ba]), and 1.11Q1 the analogy spread ~m tF>"~ pc>int, is

now in a dmisslble ; fo. tbi> D.ew (,ormati.on aofed"tes [ .. ] > (11), and rOIl ITgaritie the causativa <II: IDl!:' cOlllld not hase bad [a], willIe' the causative Ilf :Ii!'l .erh. did.

4'., Merging: 'of [sJ with [51·

PL"'GB: IJga:rltic----5ll!lll.e alphabetic sign [Olt eqmologiC8!l [s] and [s]: !f$m" <he hesrd (UAB i .. S), smmJi 'h"" .. enward ' (SS 38; e~mologieal [S)l ;.id ' fi.eld.' {lAB ii 31)), $ 'Shee,!, ' (PAB, i 14), .fm./l '.he rejoiced.' (lAB iii 14; etymological [!i)).

Ph,oenician aad 'JlI<Tb ofFales~in~me alphabetic sign: im' ''boor,' ,§mm " b""~,,lJS ' ; ld ' Gelcl: i ' sheep.' Eorly Egyptian Iriln'8Cript~oDS ~bows for et:lmologieal [s]: 'wmw ["a.bi-siml1} (!BJtilos c. 1,SI}[I),"

" .. lliri,ght. JroS, S p.92S I 226.

Development of the Ga.rnmm'l;e: Dialects

8!o.d fur elJIllological (is] : '&.B [':aIlT -s.mrn J (if it is Phoenieian; .5tn. dynASty)." Late'< Eg')'pbi= ~raDrer]l'tiIJnEl also have t for etymolqgi<:lll [8 I 'lriJ (qadiiOu] [Barehardt 953; E'CL I 1, Co U75.; XXX:ilI H" c. 'I'lli ~en~. ) ; but a dear case Ilf Ph. ·etymological [il] 'is LlC'lriug. The Arnama tr..nscriptiIJ.IlS too ha~e $ for Ph, , e ty'I!w1ogi""[ [a]l: io-t;;' hour ' (Byblos EA 138. 76), $,0·",;".1 •• I besrd " (ByhlO!l, RA Hl (1922) si. ;;), ia- __ """ ''''''''''.'0:.' (S. Pal. EA 2ii4!. 16), Ia-~i-s; 'lad}i.,,' (8. Pal. EA :>35.10), ; but Ulere is no' cl"Ar case of etymologi.a! I[ s j ...

Nolin Jeru.salem-&rliest Egyptian t ... ",scriI'Do.!>s a re lJ.ud W interjpfit 00 ;t;his seere: l";;",~. ,. Jerusalem' (Ach,tun.g)ite:de f ]8) wh_e~·e later Jerusalem Hebrew bad .s;, s!'nto (ib·id... Albright: 'Cleaver,' from u.t<!r Hebrew root Ss'V' The AmaT.nll, leU.r .. from J"ernlllllem ilitve 6 f,o'l" etymoiogical [is]: ""rn··SI]·ti:m' J erusalem ' lEA 287. 25, 239. 14 J, biI-.slt-4-ni ' B-e.h-s!b.an' (EA 289. 20), la·ki-6i ' Lacbish ' (EA 2813.43) ;, but they .~.ve s' for etymological [Ii]: ...... i.~Il" Ii~!d ' rEA 2B7. 56), perhaps ";e-e .. .-i 'Sail" (EA 288. 26). Late. Eg}'!ptian trll'llsc r iptions have s lor etymological ,[s]': p'r' brae!' (V<>e. II] B 3), SIlc'",-..-,,-ta • hair' (Vee. V A 13)." Fi ... e.lly, the masoretie .cIistilil.dioD of the j .. ~igtl. as reprassnti .. ,g varlo~slj two I ate .Jim:usal·em ]!bonel:ll<'S [Ii] and [.],.an{l the occasionaiIate W!I]llsions 0.] speE.ing· ·be.tween s (iiirl) and is (samek'),"-' a oonfusicn wiIll"'" uever arises in. wordswith ["], show.: !.hrut [50] (later> [$]) ami [S] ""me disl; net ill Jeruwem.

35

Pheeoielan before the borrowipg @f the alphabet by !he Greeks {at ,,'-hieh time it had 110 s-sign},alld -probably W<m. the Am"""" period, The.e is no ",·.idenee that tb" Pbooncia.n. or Ugaritie ~habel;" eger had a sign

fur [ilJ."

(}oNIlITlONS: IL is difficult to determine -what were thephoaetic facl:s oj this Oh'Ulge,. and the qualities of tbe two sibilants. Bu fhe ,evidenee , .. 00"'. suffices ba show that the two I'bo-neJ'l'lBS <>Dio~idoo througho1'.l mod of the Ca!la8!ni~.a,e3, while in Je;ru.sa:lt.m (and oihe] parts III the area?) tbey remained dis~i"ct,. the [51 e'le:nt.....u:y ~;I}ci~~ :with ~he [~1 (,ElI.n;ek). The .AmlU'11a e .. idsuee .hows t:h&t t!m dlSEmcile .. <!IJsteili .m ,J'erllsal"m be.fm·e tlte eeming of the Hahira, and at II time when. the rest Q,f ClInaauite bad a1Tea.dy but one pheneme for tbe two.

·'lifLlO-Her, j,n'AG 191.2 mx. 3., ... 6'2; :l.1b~i.ghl;, JFijg B (lg2B] 205 '!n, UNote 4i.-:nro.-a:i-qa 'IDamascilt31 ~BJ'ldos E.:\. 107.2S't alw E'A. 53.6-3" i91.'2,IJ't where bibliw HeI>row ""s, "au.lll' ~U.J I, 0."" (A..n ... J. 12)1 i·. 11"",,, ••• , the a.1gtl. '!:IS also has the value ,~S' ~ .fi'. T.b:u"~ c..'D;:n,gin ... Le i!,yUSlbaun a,ccad.1-1:lR ~ Ul.ztJ;j 00. IGii.

,., JPOS 13 ~ L9!5~ 24S. Al1>ri~t·' •• uggesfion "th.~ Hle 11'l'["~ ,,:I J •. rusatem .. p~rs here not in the Jeru.sa.loem proDlDne.ia.tixmi mf the s,ib~I:m~ but in tile ,ge'lleral Canaanite, is .",thor dilli""lt to ....,.pl:. It .,h<luh! .lurlb",,· "" n."ted tlul tho etymQl'logy 'IlI( :r1~i1-'" js, lllI[!II!]T.taan~ E_gypliB.ft ~ [!!IT taler Hebnew [s E ::lI[lipea:r'!f al_~(io Kn ·.:5'q~P'ID ~ . .!sea~DD ,I {Adhlungde:rte f 1:5,. but tihiiSi is rwt: s,peci..maltly fra.m J1(!£US!.l!em, and the: otigiillal ,s5hiia:Qt in tae 'Dame' is \lJllkoo'll'lJ.

u: &el B'l,lr-e'b.&i-(I!t il(1i j:{Jor pesslble addlitnonal eeses. The "Va.r~:l-t~oo 0.1' f.r.oJ.: [ElTI. 1. 67, n~1> ""ot.1 and "k (&'IT. xxxre 38" 10th "".q. both p,<I!K.,l"~y b~bliC3:t l.s~t;{'1. ea..tlnot he ILJ.Soed Bere beeause tEn!! ,et,.rna!rngr is Url~R't)'w.n:1 a.nd beeause of tho wf ~.riiam>n.

11 BRG. 1 fi S~. BL 1 ],-1-6. Tn PlliDt.,.idam ~he ~l:ld.iica:Li'l)I1S, .3..N that Iilie: .f-lii.gc .I_ys .'.pre,,,,!.e" I_I !GP 221.

ff. Me, .. ging Or (~l with [~].

PL!..C;B: Ugarit-i.;....a,r§ ['a~-] < ['ru:'~-] 'eartb' (lAB iii 9); root ~q < g~q 'glad' (lAB iii 16); y¢ < root w~' 'CQme oul > (~ Sou h Ari'ilio,Ethiopi~; oeI. Aram ... "'wq'., 11'; mAB 6,. D l!. '1' a ). B·ut Ugaritic mit BH W!l"'.'!ies the :r8flex of [~] 'll'ithtlhe sig"- for m: !fl'!oq (RR i 12) ; ~. [imv, t. sg. ,oOot wf; IIH i 14, 19) .; 1I]y">~ , aDd h~ iOMd' (BH i 31, ii 51-?; probably same root as 1Il! ym;s. llA~

'" 5).

Paoenieian (including Ya'Udi}-'1"§ [:a<%.]; '.If.

Hebr;w-[,Er"'l]; [#] (no- evidence for d.i~tincl Hl fromEg.

trnnseripti'lD~ I·

"rrME: 'I'ihe Phoenician and Hell"" .... evidence fQr W\ltd6 ",<H, et.l'mologieal [~1 is not very early; however, in th. abseace 'Di indications to tlte roll .. ' trary. WI! m.y assume that !It least in Phnsnieian t.ru: ehauge took ]JIBe» at about the Slime time as in UgariEe. 'The wmailGR 10 text BH probably i:ndica!:esthat the merging of the two phouemes in lJ ga.ri";c was recent; in any case th.·write. of BH seems to .ha~·, .rome Irom "n "rea "f speakers "'mongo whom th,. 'pllOn.me [~]I slll1 eKasle!! ami was, for lack ofa sign, repr"""nted by tho sig;oc tor I[~]. to

1.i'''I!'be ~m~ic(11 tihB:_t t3!e- UgaIl'H:e. s~ i mp:rE:S'li:lIJ-ted [s] ~'Il tiJlIe SEmitic. texlt<!: ]';01.1" n<I ·,;o;l!Lfif.s, .••• IIa.rr:ils. JAOS 5. n~35l 91. G "",in<'~ in ~"" l'9 ,[ ~ 9.3 .. 8 I 39-40 rtllives tll'~s. su~Lion with p['~Hedty 00 ~d.m~9Ib~@ ,e:ty.m.ologte:s. rn ~ts

"_rl. S.., .. 1"" .n ... 13. .'

", ne alee", .. ti." ~'l't."-,,~,o,, ",o-u'ld lie that '" the' dulect (If !Iff too t~e

lih",,""" [~i "c l~oger u.is!.ed, 'buL ·~b .. t &~r" it ilad o>ex;g,d "'llh [~l.

TilMK: H- ',~s: is Phoenjcian, thell the shiU is perna]>. before the second .millennium. In. any ease, it took place in Ugaritie before 1501), and in

6" Jl[ergi.1Ig of [~J witlil [ill

['UCE: U garitic----d [dBi] < [i!:O] "the one who, the one of' in d-ml~ (BAB iii 9) d-Um' (1933.2.17; see in 'G~berg, TIiI.e Ilgarit

36

Deve!<>pment 01 the Canaanite Dioleets

'irrurts; and Ii'ffi" gl~LJ') j, dll~ < root iJ~'~ 'S8exifuJ.' (.IIAJB ]44) j, .t1b < root .~ 'make' (LA..E ]i ~2)._ InU'gariti", text Nk (which uoostloe Hl"Sign for m U) the god-name a dpid is written if ipid !with ilhe HU'rian, Ii1l'ricare-si,gn ;; "')_ li, as ill proha;b!e" iI:ilJ.is d represeuts ~be ,elativ,o (' < [~,fi J)., the N,k w"iti"gw~"'ii! .indieate that in rome p.rt 01 the U garitic area the spiranl, [g.]1I'3S "till a liepa,rate phoneme whichwas hela rejJf,e![oo!eilJ by z, sinGe &1A".dard Ugaritic, n0t baving the pil<lDeme, b,d ,no sign for it.. The case is sim:il.~ 00 thal of [0

Nllt i.n 1Jt.e rest of known Oanaallil:e----see ~low.

Trull: Before the U'garitie texts, hutperha:p3, on the evidence ahove, very little before fhat time,

37

9. 'N ew £o(flIDat~a" of rot" fo,>1!1ls -tram .. ,,, 'give."

PLACE: Ugariti1J-----dln 'I slJaJIl give' (K 206, Nk 22) j, y,€nl • I have

given' (IAB vi 15)_ _

ll'hoen.ieian-p ... Eerile a.rul juss-;'l,e ia-.dH." -( Ell 1 os. 1l5), yot-J.."fI (B-l'bloo EA lIB" 3,21, yiedi'rrni {Sidon EA 144" 261 all for Pli. [yatin-] ;ytn 'be ga"a" (Cypru~ 9th cen.t_, Sid.on 4th); also m Y.tudi .ytn, if it is in th e perfect (GP HIS)_ . _ __

Not :ill P."!B!!tio~i-id-a.~ (Nortb Palestiaa EA US .. 11); t1-l!d--a~ m-M (Meoiilr:lo EAUl_ 19) ; hut ya-a:;:"'1 in) (SouID Palestine EA 337_13); ::4" 11_ pr, i ... the Samari a <>straca (45), "n.d in Palestine seals (Diringa- 191-2) ; :root nlf~ in biblka[ Hebrew.

TI~: Tile change _s completed in Ug:ant before HmO, and in I1Ioenieila before the Amam& period. (Amam •. bas o"IJ fh e gJrelerii.e-imperiEedo; there is no early e .. idence iv, the pedoot. whe-rn ym forms may ~ot. hsve developed till ~mne",hat later )1- The fact thal the !fin fOFlllah~mI' _tile.. eloped also, w_ the perfect imp1i1lS that the pe;rf<)et bad by tim time hemme more elosely 3SS.00ei,,-t.ed, with the 'Verb forms (see nc, 3),

CO'''DITI()N''S: The 'lrigmal iwm !If the roo'l in PhOOll!ician was nt .. , as Is seen in the noun [m"-tt,jo] < [maatana], ep, Latintranscriptlons such. as Muttu',~ (GP g1ossao:y, under yt.n). The Iyw forms are Iherefor,., n~~ ·fomlatiol!ls •. and probtlbly arese upon the analogy 01 I w verbs. Tin. !l,mlog)' is b.ased upon tine si ..... ilari.ty of the imper~ti,.-e ~ In lIn~: ]'1" ;arbs:. For the regular .imper.ative 01 nln 'Wl!S [tiDj" as the iJ!lIperaU,e of ~g8' "apprcach ' !ip'. [yiggaS]) OW"" [gas] (ERG n 25 e}, 'Fbe l!Jll1'",,:u.e of I ... verbwilh [i]-imperfeot w:as similsr : nib] 'sit' to ipt [ya~lbu] and jJf. [y&j!lbal TIle new rpL and ]if. forms of "tn; ~Wil have ari:en OIl' !hi. allalog} [~IJ,J: [ya!;ibQ.]: [yay,1a]:: [tin]: [yatimu} 0( ttpla~~ng [y,.thnlll) < [y.n lin" J).: [yalana]l ("ep],lClng [uatana ~ ); ~h_efo~m!l"?~ of this D,E,'" pleterite-.i'mperlf!l!i: [yalinll] may !lave been taCihta.ted by l~ similarity to the .I'honeticallyreguiar [yaj;tj<ln] in whose place it arose, Til.""" Ilew £(mnatiolls "'ere fa"o!'e-el 0""" the cld, and! fuurllY""l'lacecl them, because they felll in with !I more ~a[ 'Oa:J:llauitep~ttt:rn, 1ls ~ result of i.he recessiee eharaeter of the [iJl-~o"'''1 m preter,i;e-Impedect, nfn had remained the onliy In. verb (creae oE veIy :few) with [t) in im~ee~ and imp.retive.. '][Ihus [yallill"] bad ~m~ to be, d~,ipt;v~ly, an i1:: n e,gll.lu lOIm"lll ill tb,e langcrage, snd tbe_ relation "f an ''''peratr.,e like L till.] wifh fu :iOtIllS like [natalia Jwas """Clue, wh.~:as when related I" Iyw forms «(ylltaQll:]) it was a member of "'. type ""hum WlIS ;regural!",

since in Iyw "e,bs the: [ij-ireperfeets had remained (GP 44)_ . _

It shl)uld b~ noted that these DeW fon1l'!t did. not spread 00 Palestiae, although the same conditiens pncvailed tII:rm-. !IS .. ill.

7, M:ergmg <If [~J 'lrit:IJ. [.],

_P'r.,!.!)!!: Pboonician-z [zii] < [gii] 'the one who' (Byblos 13th-11th cenl):; ,.0[' < lOOt !lli~ 'sacrifice_'

EebTew-[zii] 'the one whkh'; [ztbaJ;L] 'sae:ri6.ce" (!iL!> e.idElllC» £0',

(i:[,;tillet [~] from it.e E.g;. tranoo';'ptioI13). '1I$oo.bite---z'1 (6), tram a Semitic form wilJJ [oJ].

TrME: T.bis change m.,y ·hav. taken place at about the same time as lIgar:iitie [oJ] > [d], or perhaps, e:spedaUy in. Palestine, wm.ew'hat Iatur, 'l'.b~Fe W8JS. rhus !t. 1,,<8 of the ['!.]plo"'eme I.hro"gl'to"t ·Ib.e Cll:Oa.:ruOO area" lmt its, mergiug \VaS, di_gellt ill Ugaritie as comparee! wi!b the Ie3t oflbe area,

s, [-al'-] > [-e'-].

PLACE: 'Uga'dlic-T# 1[*;5"] < fm'S] 'h~d' (]'" !ffi vi Hi); ,1i!:J It.; 'Iro! 11 J < [!8'lrnlu] 'she ate,' (lAB ii 3:;)0 ;, but [yi'lr"~] (yqTG), [.ra'a5tmllJ (m§m), [~ISaa'Il]' {tro) <e:maineillHlchanged.

N<lt in l'h.~niciall.llnd Hebrew-[ -2'] remaiasd, ancllater clum_geiI to

[ii.H> [3JI whee sb .. sed'; see ne. 1.'1) ..

TlllE: Before the ilJgaritietexts_

(N!ITJiIT£GNS: Wi:te:[1 the t] was of tine sam • .syUable as the V<lwel, lind ill media! position (Hau'8, A C(IIIdii;i()ned sound change in Res Sltamra, JA08 57 (1937) 1Ii[-'1'; Goetz... 1 aQ.S 5:8 (1938) 302-3) ..

.111 See D.O. 12:..

"·'Q.;:n.\>eTg and Maisler, Semiti>ed iElm"ians. J!POS It (lIlJ() 24.4 Ii'.; R .... rfa, A H,mia,,, A:fI',;",,!>e, JAOS S-o 1'I1!.'1S) 9,-100; Friedrioh, AnoJeofa O';.~o.ta.Li& 12 UD~51 US 1_; Sp~l"'T, JJ;QS 58 ~ I ~3S ~ 115-93_

explllfi1!l the He'brell' altemltliou on this basls ean Itaroly 'be. aeeepted, In any <!"~Il.l, !hei. orogg",,-tiOol1 th a t nouns in t'he '"ono~met alw"'rs ltad the [- .. t] [om" since they D"var had C3£2-endi;rngs" is untenable .• because tI~e lJgaritie evi(!ellce ShO,W5 ibn!> eul, Canaanite bad. case""ndiugs in

Ib~ ""ostmct."

11. AssimilatIon of ;g.d-·!'lldicaI [n] in ~rbs.

P'l.&o:l;' :I"b""nician Imdudillg Ya:'l:!di.}-kt [kaltl] < (klmti1 'I WltS' (Ya"i;J;di); "r;ll [mattatt] < [rnla'nlanlr] 'g][~' [Tlr "lh ee n t.); lilt ~llmm) < [yatrmti] 'J(ga".' ('OJ'P'LlS S,d eeni.').

'Not ill, l(Jg:arit--1{t,,! [ya.lauU I 'I gave' (lAB,i liD).

N otm Heilrew-[yliSiillti]_ 'I slept,' el<:. [natal",] 'I ga".' is the onlj """E' "I' ""d!: ,,,,",;milatio" in Heb,,,'w, hul here ;l m""~ he " special di;s:imilat;"n from tho lst-tII,diw £0], intlependeul 0:1 the "lh,e;< Il.In roots, Such 0 s]le.:.i.1I.1 ch!lj]])g~ wO'lIld not <1001< in the !1m root in l':bOl(mieian and, Ug~ritic,. !II' he ee ths,.,. is ue tsi:-r,uli ea l [111].

Tn,,:: U it is III reslcH,,,,ti,,,,, of ,9ss'imlilate<i [nJ in U,garitie aDd. Kelln"" it rnnst be be-i<lre 150m., 11 it is an assimilB.tcooinPhoenicia:E1 01 an OIiginaU]" unessi milal.ea [D.], i~ mu;,;t ha .. "l>eEn OOfme the !It'h: ce:otur}, bat 'wms '(,."haps 'iIS eady "'" the orig."",l aso;imilJlti.m <II [n] ln, ProbeOmaalllite. ~ In 'In" Iatter ease, if j:,was a. la,l.e!' asstm:i!ali<lo, it may M,W" spread 111 U g:l.l'tt after' ison, "Ed theretore _"ld m,l "I'I'BaT '" oar l:exlll.)

C')",!:m'moNs: Tiosr'O , ... e I;wo dilli€<e"t chaine 0:1 linguu.tic " .. euts .. hid, maf b. =",m.d, in, ".(1,,,, to aeooo·"t :1m, thil; d,ile<e!lce in treatm~t o&E .3".J!-radi~i1 [Xl] hi "'erlr.l. The one, "'niall, is 'pe,'b.ap' .;mpler, is m assume tina!. the p,Qoo.c-..anite a'$ilmilELti"~ DE [n] to, luU"""i,ng COOl&mani;" !>OOIl" ... ed .. hf!,e""," eOt"'& one ~"nd,itioll WII:; '!lotisn..l, hence ilso ill S,d-yadi ea ] [01]. Later, 'b.n1f.ve,', the ~~ibfl.l lonm with a~imih.red ,3rn,.radial, [n}we[ele;pb, ee a by 0.0'" formati,l'I)s .. i,th, restored [0.], (>n the en3il.og:Y ~! ether [urms of the Ir<MI't :in whichl"", [1'1] had not _imilated (e. g. [yafut"tfl ".placet! by b8'~Dti] OIl i'n.: 1Itl310lg)! ol [yal&n·]l· Such a.1!lalogit! ~ep'18tl1'meats, must have 'OCI)UHed be:!ore :10;1}(1, since they appear rn 11 gari!;. They ",.,,,,r spread t~ l'ba«uiciam" which 001 this eJ<Pbn .. tieu .. ,,,uM rem;,!! 'the, diir<cl r'"ite~f!3 of the ~""lo-Caru!l"ite assimttared. [on"'" The, other pow<ih!e chain \.Il",01l":8 the 1tSSU1l'l1l't'i'O:ll that whell m P~ol;o.·Cane.so.i!e [n] wa;; assimila,bzil t<> [oiilowing C<lUOODJlJllts. tba~ cl\atlg" did not oeeur in 3rd.-!"d:im\pos~tion in •• rtv..; .it ls, It"we .. e~, bard to,...,. ",hatl'iTI.,mellie peouli:aiity I.Iwre was to this sU:lII'-il[J)J!! ~ition

I

I

I

which ]Ii:evented [u] iII til;.!!. one pesifien from .ssim;Lo1iug· ... hen oUll etiJer pest-coasonental [n] did. At.o1I events, :if fuiswas the eare,tlbe forms of U.garilic and Hebrew would go back to this !llllt8SimiJateill [n] in Prooo-C'maam:iL:., 'il'hi~e inPhoenician Ul. assimilacioa ",o",ld havetakea Illllo. in the 3·;d-radicall of verbs also, either at the same time as the Prote-Caaaanite asaimilatiolil (the dilferellt Ireatment of ard-radieal [n] fmllling "11 Isogioss then), or cl!;e as a special ehanga ,,( 3rd-ndiea1 [n I some time lster but before tbe 9th. ceilhLry.

~2~ iMergmg of m with [~J-

.E'um.: Pliloelli.ciaiD.-!4r < Q.~1" 'c[}1Jrly",d' ,( for this lrD"~ M against ~~r 'vi]!"ge' see Orli=l,J', .fADS .59 (1929) 22-37); .. ~r < '*

'guard.' ..

Heb re w-q~ < ~ "summer ,. in Gezer calendar, ['1ayi.s;,] in bibljeal

]leln:rew; [~l:] 'oouriyanJ.'; [ni<;lir] 'he guarded.'

TmE: Perhapa not long atm' 1000.. 'While the Phoenician and R.ehrew erudence for wo"Cds willt [~] does not happen to he Baily, it is probable that the loss lof phonemic distto.t:ioll of [H (by mergi:llg with [§H ooeurred not "very 10llZ after the analogons loss Qf the [OJ! j JihQlleme. UglIIHic still has a .s8J1'11rate ,!(ign Em fthfuph,meme in 15\10.: MT 'courtyard' (nAB v 63)" \If ' summer' (D 4 i .5, Nk 2, 11') ; but io' (me text, m,this sig". is used booth :iO'<m and m: !lr.rm 'I'llre' INk: 2,1), elsewhere ¢hrm (IIAB 1{ 31). This may O'I! eMence Gf lUI ineipieal or dialectal me.gmg -af m aDm. m (compare U ga.ritic: me[ging of [~J 'With [e1]; but [~] with [~] 10 Uguitie.). If the Phoeaieian, Dame [.or] , TyTe' eentainad .. an miginal. BJ, tha.t sound 1l1~]" hue e:dsled. l a te enough to be .eRecited. ill the Gc;ek T'"!,,,<, lIndmiMedly taken o~er at <I very .arll' lime; howe"~<., u. .. [t] of th" Gr ... k form 'may be the sirEd of a non-Semific i..e:ngusge throug,k ·which. the name of Tyte fir.t reached the Gre.~ (see Friedi<i.eb., ZS :I. (1!l22) 1~~;, G P 20 .m. 3).

IS. Me.rging of [!:] 'With Is] ,. [I]] with [",.], [-y] with ['].

PLACE: Phoenieian (iDellldiing Ya'lldi)-msp1 I rule' < Sern. :rooi !p~ Bl'bloo 13th ,oeut.), ys~ 'sit' < &'m. IOO~ wtll (Ya'udi), cpo Sm.' 'b~ar" < Sem, root ir:r,'; "t> 'bl1othet' < Sem. 'Ij 'IByhloo 13Ihce".t .. r Ya 'Qdi), ~p. ~,. 'courl' SelliL. l>~"'; 'j'mt ., girl' < S;em. root :rIm (Ya'u<li.j-, ep, 8m·' ahore,

Not ill Hebrew (PalEStine) till :lUuClIlaoor, see 00. 39 below. Distinet phonemes ]Il Ugari.tic ,,,f 1500: m!p! 'rule' ~IA.B "j 29), 6-1>1' 'bea:r" (DAB vi 4); "~ "htoiber' (HI..E il l.2), Mr 'ooud' (lIAB .. 631; lim 'youth, Ser9aTht> {lAB vi 81. ere:, ry~, 'be,

\

1

1

I

41

hungrj " (Heb. r'D; lIA.B iv 33)" 'Two eases of Uga:ritiA: ell for SeIl1itic b] mal' be special diss:nmil!ations beC4us",,[ (r] :, 'ib 'enter' (SS f>2; 1929 .. 9 .. 9; so alsa South Arabic) < S.m. yrh, !J'.,-' hw:,,:' (llAB iv 16) < Bern. b'll'. The y-si-gu also .. ep~ts the Uganbc reD"" oI a Semitic so-uti wlnieh appe!U"S in Arabie as [?] (:S_. and. gar. m also ®ppear in Arabic 115 [~]) : ~}'T 'gua:~d' (88 68, 1938b 8) = .Arab. ,,~.

TD!B;: J!!Jter 1500, at Ieastfor Ugarit, and before 13th centurJ. r.:. view of the lack of earfier PMeDie;a" eVidenoe, We cannot t.;.U ii it may D~·t have DW!lrrOO in Phoenicia ,even before 15flo., with.lIlIt reaching UgMlt tiD Iater, It is alse quite j)<lGsible that the change of [GmAY bave begun .arlie! than tile oth""s, [n may b .. xe chauged t<J a voiC<!le..'5 8~b~rrt (some sound .o~ [i]-type) not much ;lIfter [~] ~h"Dged to th" 1'OH!ed ~,il:>i!anl ['ill (see no. 't 0110".). Howe .... r, ... en if the two, changed ~getih&,.tihe phonemic .ff~ were cot the same, for ... !:too [in> [zl, it C{llncid"d with 1he ["J phOl'lOllle, whereas the sibilant rdex Olf BJ remained a: sellanite phoneme (difi:erent :f.'OID Sem. l.,]I), and O)uI,: later l afOOt ~500} > [Il] ana 0.0 coillcideil with that phO:>MPl2_ ".

140.. Dri>pping of Caire end'llgs lin the construct state,

PLACE: l'bD<l:nieiall-M<A.o<ap/J' fma1l.Ji;irt] -< [malk-qarti] < [m.U:u

'!Iirti] .e King OJ! tbe dty,: .. di.iDa titie. ,.". , ,

Hebrew-[b€~mael;-] < [Mt-millti] < [bli.yin maLk:i~ . k:i[]g'~, ~Dme. Case endings illl the coastrucs w""e &tiU p',,,"oun,,,,a m iJ (lant In the 15th ce~j;ory~nllm:inat;ve: k..<1J_ fblh [1.."'ll.-"38.'U :!;ibtih.il] 'the throne

" 0" "'hi en be sits (ur:A.B .. iii U), ... n !i>d [13.ni'u. b.s.rll.d.>] 'the o!Ile:!lly of Haddn ' (llil Yii :«i) ; llioou:sati~e: !S'h.p.~ k;!lt ... Ud.: [lnyahpuku l"'tlS'sa'l! mitlkil<ii] 'be wiU .are1y o.erWrn yom rojal ilnoue' IlAB vi 2B) ; genitive : lk;rih. [liku ssa ·ibii1 :~<)m h~ .iJ>r""": (IIlAB:12,)' ~.Mt 'M [binaSii.'i 'enilifii] 'at the Tft!.Smg '(11 his e~ (~~ i] 12, j[) 1. '16, 120); see Friedrich, Z.A 41 ('1933) 309-10, 'Gm~berg,

Tarbi. 4 (1933) ssa.

TIME: There is no certain e..:ideJlCe. tha·t.case ,endings .... e'~ drop'ped ]n the ecmauud slat.. earlier WI'[ in the allwlute.; the Phoenician IIDd H~brew evidence m.er.ly SO(]!W that they .... ere lost ;0 botb pesitions, '1'l:te Amarna ieUers han ease endings in the a bsolate ill Canaanite 11I0IlIlS;, '"

.• bilt U,ne is no ""..tam ~riil.eDoe there fell nouns ill oonstruet s~te: so that comparison eanaob be made, Hcwever, Egyptian trnnsCriptio",; (of the 19fu d.yn.lI:sly) sbow .00 inllication~ of 6]>31 .owel after ·¢on~tl'1lcl

.. Cp. Frr.driol>, ZS 1 (192:3) 2-;; an ~ t i!-

"Dhoo:rmo, R8 I] (1914,) J~j·S.

Lin of Li:nguistic (Jhange.s

43

nouns whereas !.bey oiW]l do, after ab,<;..,lute nouns [Burchardt § 1";13) ; this mllly ,""elIl show !.Ita,]. case ending;. in. 1ft" COtlrnn.ct had already bee" d.rllflFeiI belove thfu time. Akkadian furnishes a j>II.l1allel,ha,flng lost them in i.heConstrllct much earlier tMn in the .. bsolute, Bergshii:sser'. aplanation of {he ossimi!at~on of ['] In forms llike [",'Sol] (see D<I. H' below) presupposes the dmppi,ng of ease ending i.n the CIlDStrn~t eiIIrlier than in. the a!bso!ul:e _d ""rl.ie, than 106.'i. Howe~"r, his .,ttri!>utton <If this 1_ in the oono;.tmdto the Proto-Northwest Semitic peri.<>d~' is wroog, since Ugaritic s~iI had theen.dings.

OcrY!lI<WN'S: This, cha.ngeslI"u1d 00 understood as the dropl'iog of short vowcls inI a $peeific positioll. namely Itt IIDe end. o:i '!.h.e first clem.n~ of compound (single-stres.<-nni'!) words, In He;' it dm;'r.: from the eoaditiens III the dropping oiliinal short vowels (indu.ding esse endings in Illite absolute), wh.ich. """kplace later."" The .a[gum~nt of Bauer and Leander (Br. 523,. e) that there were no ease endings in the construct aa fur hade as l'roto-ilewitie and tllat th.i. presence in. Arabi. is a late ,eKlensi"n. is controverted bJ! the eristenoe of these eDditiigs ill liJga:citle; !1<lte a!so traces .,,[ case endings in the cow;tr",ct in Hebrew (GK 2'51-4; B.L 525-6).

'The lare form ba-·-ii ..... -·-ri.. a Phoerrieian place-name in Assycianbanscription '\ 9th. eenturj}, !!leWJ.S 10 rep re sent a .mall. diaiect in whicili ['J had not ye~ assimilated in '!>his positill.ll (GP 9ID. 31),

CO!l:Dl<IONB: Ber,gsba.s...·r's ""planation (BRG 11;0 b) is that ["] w,as assimilated to the preceding vowel ill the doubly closed s'l'llabl.swhich we,. iOImoo .... hen -these 00'''6 W tlite con,ttuct state. l"s~ 1ibeir ease e:ndings;" on tne ... "a1ogy "f these (.] -less coastructs, e, g." [tOil] < [fa'!], !lew {"mIlS arose e~wheve, e. g.. ahaolu!a [~su] (lNlJllacing [ra'~11 Jl. This aoole,gic Il.e;w ,for_tio"_. ... ow.d .•. eeouat 1m Amama [§<Irm]1 II!'LO [ro5ll.nfi1 above, W'h'l'l0 there "'as 0" doubly elOISeil s},&ble'. Some $ucllcompli.cated reecnslruetien is neeess sa ry, for [,,] was not lost in ,other poo.tiO'J}s at this ]Jerioo."

15. [Ca·C]> [CiC].

PLAC)'l: Pboen;~illll-[ roo) < [:rM] < [ra's] "head,' early spelHng FS, later (Punic) rio

Hebrew-[mil]., as abo;-e, spelled "'$; rt&·.fu-ftu [rosuna] "our .Ilead' (EA 264. U!) ;w.-u-n.. [l;3ou] 'sbrep' (EA 263. U; both I~,tters born Palestine).

E,gypciau treuseripi::ion.s from Palestin ..... S,yria have r$ in ·the placename riga.!' {early 15th cent. and. ear.l:j1' 12'i:b eent.: Voc. X IC' '9~ !BTL, [ ·!is, KXV.II lOS:}; but also r'igri8. ""pl.!Wteil by Albright as a Canaanite back-formation I[ m'oS] on the analogy of tlte p.lllIal wher e Iili., tJ hadramained ! 13th eent.: Voc. III E sj.

TllllE: Before 1~6.'i" ~jl}ce jt uuieF lies the two Amll!l!I.a forms; before tiJe change ·of' ra] > [a],r. .... hieh is &00 w.,,,lved im. these two forms'; bnt., if Ber.~"t~"SeI'S e:xp.l:a:natioo. holds; (see belo\\'}, a fter the dropping of case endiaga 10 eonatruet nouns, Tbl! 'E1lJ'l'tian ".idauoo wmilil iimi.i-. ~te that ~t occurred before 1475, bliii it may weI.! have taken place at ~i.fferen bmes, and .perh«JIS indepeQd<rntly. in di1lerent areas ; ia garit Jt p .... bably nner eceurrsd, ill "iew .. I lb." [a'] > 1[,,'] "'in. thes.. furms.

16:. Syncope of b J in ['iyan].

Pl.liCR: Jerusalem (lInO: throughout H,;h"el!"?)-['e~], '[:e>t]aeell.S!l'li're element; ['o~i] c me: etc.; 'I ill. LachiSb letters (2 .. 2, etc.). l[oabite-'t 'f bo"k .~ Y'~ , be buill, Y-' 18-11,).

N!>t in PlJoouiei""'-'yl ['iJ!~t] < ['i.yati] fBrb100 lith ~JJ.t., ete.), as l\giIiost 'I [':ilt j < [illi] assoeiatiee elemeat (Hyblas 5th eent., etc.); see OP 63 ..

N 01;. En. Hamat-wD'ng! 'yi . , . 'ani! I ImiU ... ' ,(10'1,.

TruE: Perhaps before eli] >[3]: ['i.!'~ti-] > (iti-] > [ .. ~ti.]; oertai:ruj' before the 9th. centurJ {1IIQaoite}_

OoNDiTUlNS: The history of eiision 01 [y. w] between vowels ;'5. noL :yet ,e·oti.e]y c1""lt. [t is U;e.ref"re hB,d to tell "'hellier or JlQt we ban here -some "I'ec:l.1 developmeaf in the list'lry,of tilli word, III anJ ease, the' [y] was preserved in the north; in tile "",,1ft the chaoge inthla wo~d.

may have been 'part O[ the M.dy el.isi~n 01 [1, 'W] .n.,r short, vowels and Wore long ~Q'wels (BRG .1 ]'1' m). This a.ccusati.-epa:riicle was pro'oohly stressed before (obiBeti~e) preneraiual $llffixes, unstressed 'lJ,efo·re aouns, L~,!:"" on, the S<D,,~bern ['·iUi [ was reduced in proelitic [unstressed] positioll, e .. enma.l[y yi~lding ["~~l

lZ. [~J>{~]-"

P"-(CR: Phoo:ni.eum--,/j ... ·""""" .. iu, ~';-r .. -I .. (eady 15th cent. Bud on: V De.

XG4,5),"'OHU-u>(EA 10l_2.5) (hi"rot-.] < [hi'raru] 'Beirnq'it. wells)', ~U-'",,"lu [t)6mitul < (1)imjinJJ '~'alI' [Beirut BA tiL

"BKCIIlI e, IJI See [;1(1'. ,J::ii.

:r.I1See D.O. 17.

;111 See na, 7 above,

~-. See '[I~'. lA! :!I,'bove..

:":1 S~, Jar eJ:.H:mple;. n'(t. 53 'Oeara,w.

n lJ .• sl),....,d. [il] dId not .~aDge, .Kob. [g-.l.lil,~ 1< IglilDluJ ... il.._. See IWo 2.;'.

M; cp, Moolljte /<mJ 'mU' 21); tits Gr.eek alpnabetic :name ".. [r,;):;;] < (rM] < [ra's-] 'head,' Punic rus, !he crthography 'l"s ~efi e cting the .a-.:Ii.... [-a'-]; ;ruf.t [.a.l'~n < £<ipi~ < [~pi~uJ "ruler,"

Hel'.>Nw_~-n.l-'U1l-n" ['llJ;rr3n-] < ['ali,lriin-] 'hst" (Megirlkl.o EA 24ii. 1.0) ; ..... -.3u· nu and. '1.1"'-"''' ooe under no, 1.5 abc.,,;, .·,.._,bi-,,' [,s<lki ... i.] < [~] 'agent' (EA.25;S_ 9);. §to-pH>- [~pj'.l < [.iipiI] 'ser.ibe' t19th dynMty: Voc.VlI A 14) ; participle Iona [q3!-81] < ['li~C1] .in biblical Hebrew.

This change had not taken pIa"" iu Ugarit by the IS·th. ee:ntury: e. g_ :!;;tat [l"ssa'atu] 'thr.o]les' (IIAB wi 52}. Howe"er, the fo].owing possible nidence may indieate 'tbat the change did take 'place there a::ijer tire time 'Cl~ these texts; Tbe, form b·r-.q.",.I""~ 'B,,'1 "f SIlP"IIJ (N{ldl1)' (in..All>cight's s},1I8,b:tC o;rthllgraphj' ~ead.ing.VI!lC. VIII JEl6) occurs (Ill au Egyptian .stele foondlin Ug3Crit and d!1IIf;ed at the end of the 18th er beginning ofth. 19th dynasty {Hch-13ili 001'11;.; Syria, 12 (J93]) 1'0-1 andpL VI}; the mouatain Ira-'-!i-~a~, between Lebanon and A:m8DU~ (8th eent., 'I'iiglath Pileser m 3.21) is I"mbably the Ugaritic morno.ta.in ~pn (UAB v H 7, etc., cp. esp...:."Uy ID~ doily ".~ ~l'" [ha'Iu ¥i~"i] 1929. 9. 13). Bolh hanst:nptiol1S illdicate a later Ugoriti.c prcnuacjafisn [.apil"u].. AIlbough the etymoJ.(>gy ~f~hi$ II'Qro, is uncertain, ills, [OITIL in. earl}' 'Caru!;an[!.e and m Ugaritic o.f lb.e' 15th centu r y was, prebably [""l'~!lll ]. a, reccnstructieu based upon Hebrew [?lipS,,], Phoeuician [:l'I~n] (za-PIHW, 1..~v), late 'Phoenloian _P[IlI1111icilitiOD. [~p1in] (in lI.",,,,,,,,*,,,,,, GP Vl.J" laO, as'); Reb re ", [{;], Phoenician [1>]; lale Plit., pronunclation [11]" ,811, d!e~~l<lp..J. ·from ,ea:<!y Semifie 00.11 Canaanite [a], a.s: ill Reb. :il!&m, late Ph. p,(mullciaiion ['Iltim] (0:"1.",,,,,< GiP 133), fmm ["a1:amul 'ete.mity' (Selin A.rabic).

T1L"': Before 1365 (AmaIna; so' also EHG I 25 b)" prob"bJ.y hefere tbe ,ea,rly 15th, rentury, at lo.ast in orne of the eeasta] cities (Beirnt}. Ptobably after 1500, readhillg l]'garit IIJfrer the time of our terls. Afler the seWng of !ill .. Rebr.,,' sndPhoeeieiaa orthogr!lphJ"~ wbkli. u!!' resented [ ... ,~,,] (Sal' it, L9nguage nil (n931) 330).

Co'NDIT'ION,s : 'ft,t$ chauge bas bEen widely regaril.ol1i ,~ the eha ra cl.er.;slie phonetic development. of Cll.ll:J1ll.ll:ite, having gained thjs repulation becanse it is .0010 of the few changes which spread over all (or moot) of 'the Cana.anU!:<l area withQtlJ being paralleled. elsewhere (e."<Cl!pt in modern Mem). It is alse regaI<l!ed as having 00,,, among !.he, eadiesL 0'£ Cauaauite cll:om:lges.lIo .. e ... r, there [S, :1l0!:hillg whieh WOQtd lead 11£ to place it in a class aparc from the m""y ol".or changes which took

- 1

place dU.fing this l'~riOO. There is no ""ideMe that it had begun bei~,re the [Ca'CJI > [caG] change," IIlthonglt it may hase dene sc, Praei<>rills' wideiy-"""epted sub.trdum &p:landion for this ch.age: (ZDMG 551(1901) 36,9'), is. possible but not necessary; somewhat similaT chl'illgl'S took place in later Hebrew and Aramai.c dialects 0:1 Palestine·s,rria ,( OJ?' 35'), hut !hot esnnot IJe dir..,tly relaled to ihepre~Oana.aurite sub.la-atl]m which no louger existed 'fueL The S!ll~.tra,bum of ~pea,kers of O&IlQa.nite, who had [8J and [5] but no, [a,], ,ani:! wno ehsaged 00 Aramaic speech in tbe early ceatuzies cf the first millennium .Il. c., may have led to fhe change OE [;;.,] > {ti] in. Syriall Aramaie. Bul we cannot gin an. snalogous eIl'lan.8MIl for the esdi",,' change in Caneanite it.elf" since we ilo not !:now whether Of' ]lot the Janguege which preceded Canaa.nite iOl, Sym. 1Jad [iV'

1.8. Development of 'I.,atala, l'e'rfect active form..

PUCE: Phoel1Li<iall.-Sa-,pa.-r<l- (Syria RA 65. 7), i~-pa-<l" (1Jil.e,irnt E.A. 14L18} 'heseot'; la.-qa 'betook' (B}'b~ EA1l40.13); l.:!i..sa.-a,I:-t' C I reacb.a' (Ilj'blos EA. 138. 80). Note the formation of lit Cs[l8!arute Jl"'1'Ieci""tive II-pi""" 'b~ aid' (B)iblos EA, 11.3,.10, nZ.32), from, am Akkadian Joot.

Heb.ew~d 'he 11"" Iearned (Et'!. 19G,.31l1; "a-M.-!.arl"l'i 'be tool!;; me' (J'erusa.le;m EA 288.2.5); 54"",1 'he 'q"e.tioned' (Je:rnsalem EA Z~91.10) ~ [qitA1]l'er!ect active form,;ot biblical Hebrew.

Beeause of the CQIloonantal ".tho,graph y, evi<knoe 'is l .. cking, for' the second vowel of this stem in. Ya,~d!i, Hamat, Moabite, etc, Rowe,e" the "id. West-&roiti" f8.]lge <If this for m , a nd the :facl. that tl,e!'>!! ,l.'alec!,s, all II:!. .. " an "",ti~e peThet (instoail of lP,reterite) makes it JiractiO!&lly eerbain tha Ii they Ired the qil!tala 10rnl: Ya'lIdi-p'! 'he djd' (3), ysllt 'I sal' (9); Harna.t--'m • he sei up' ( a 1), 1l>!l'W • they et,ected.' (a 16) ; Moabite-gsp!g C I a dded ' (29), krly '1 'cd' (~5}.

In U gari,tic ''If the 15th. ,century the 'pedeet is used ~lm(d eC'<cllmsively 001' stativ"verbo, in [qati/nl .. ] iorm (Goetze, .JAOS 53 (19'38) 26,8- 89, esp, 2S5-~} ; some " er 00 in the pedect seen' to 1e actise tran .. iti ''''. perhaps with the form [OJ_aj:ala] I see G-oof:ze's list: ibid. 210, e, p,. ~m)eS).

Tnn~: BefoTe 1.365, since tbe form is ia full nse in the Amuna letters (Ebeting 116~1, Rob! 43-7). After l~OO, since it is not yet developed iII the Ugarilic texts, although some 'q~Wa forms may ~lr<!ady ha'l~ been created by lliis, time.

Develcpment of the Caoolinite Diakc-ts

CaI"DUIVNlS; 'J!"he CClIIlmO]) Semitic nann form (,,1 slativ" action) (qa15l-/ q.:tul-J, had w,'velopeli as II D<lrninal senfsnce form, with the ,;ubjoct ,expre;;sed in persenal slllfuee. Thi> is lhe permansive oE A,kkadialL and, wilL somewba~ diifer""l keatm~t ,g,f the personal suffix86-, the "tali ... perfect of "Vest-Semitic. In lhe course of time, all kn""'ll West~&emitie I~guag~ <ll"Eend,ed tlW ii!lfl"<::tioIl on lb& hllSl! of 3 noun form ,(of translk". BcttOn) [qa!al-]; Iater .rogos ,00: this exte""ion, ani! the iormati<ln of It [qa~-] D~mirulil sentenes, we:Jre illde".ndent 1n the various Ianguages, The [q.,j;i/<tl-] fo:"", may be seea in M-~-I<J; f you are PMtefted, safe' (EA U:~.,9), I'a-ti-ki 'it is eeptared." (root lkd, Ebeling 58; Ell. 274_15); Sirm.i-J", <l beam' (A:marn a BA 19 (1.922) 91. 5l,~dtt,-UIJ' . it is .ight' (EA 2I>i'. 32)_

Tlnis rnomimil.fo,mrwith ~nru snlii:!:es W>1$g:radua!ll used mora and mON! in verbal position, firutlly fllnctiomng as a verb in the !leded aspect, The develC)pmellt is .efleeled in the difi'exence between the e x densiens cf llew .erilal formatiens in the roots,},Ii< ooJi mn.; in the earlier case tile :new ",orb oorm:a;lioDs did not emnd to the Ol,omil>91 (I'erf:e~t) ; in the later :=e "Ihey d.icl_" . Late. Ute [qa1al-] fo.rrn was edendoo, :Depladng thl! [,q;a~i/t!l- ~ ierm III many VErw: e. g. Heb .. hiidaqJ 'he is righl'

~bjss.r, writ,ng bel01e the discovery of Ugaril.ic, ",plained Ihe formation of [qa!;al-] (,oil subsequent ",,~balformat;ans) by j)Qluity, inverse analogy to other vethal forms (BII!G II 3 i) ; bolTil'ever, "[lclJ, an arrangement of the related Io=s does ,Dot e"'jl];EIin tileiT origin" and d.oes not constitute the best statement of tlieirrels:ti.IfD (ree Speiser, Th. I'itfalls of Polarity, Language ]4 (193$) lS1-2112,~p. 196).

but A.kk.C1ian preteri!:es with. 'C',,"aaniu Ir-l prefix (en ttl,e analogy of tile SId person [y-] prefir of tli. Oaua.8nite ,present). That the peJdee~ .... d a range of meaning dill.rent from, the Akbdi~n forms j,g,dear'ly shown in yi-ntHi-Si j...Hi,sa-e 'he ra'ised; the ~~[Id be.ing the CitInaanite gloss g1liing a perlsct fmm to explaia the Akbdiall. present, Ol the same roo] ('rhureau-Dang1n, A:"laroa !iA 19 (1922) 99. 13).

CONDI"r<ONS;, The ,."terite "lIS II ccmmon Somitio: form wrucb in til", eeurse of time .MI into disuse in all \Vest-Semitic languages, lea",,;ng traces sneh as the ., imperfect with waw consecutive" 01: Bebrew and " imperfect w'ith ]am. », of A.rlibi,c. ~ ]its use began to be init&j,uent die'. jhe actin perfect was developed" lor the pur~Ct cam" to be useill i<l,[ aci:iolls in J'9'St tim~_ See chapter 5. ,A3.

19. Disuse (If yaqtulll1preteriite form.

PLAC!!: ~ Phoenieian (including Ya'udij and Hebrew, !I ... d in Hamaf" ll.{~blte, IIII.d aU other Cana.allile materialwifu the eJ:uptioo. of Ugaritic, theJ:e is no regular preterUEdorm, in !be ve,rb; its apprlll,i. IllAta fUDction ;s 6Ueil by Ilre perfect aspeet,

U gari tie in HmO has a Ngltl,la,r preterite: vsm' , he halted.' (IIA,B i .. !!) ;

!fSU [yiSSa'u] <I're raised:' (K 99; GGetze, JAOS 5:8 (1938) 2.89-94).

TrW!: After 1500, at lease in the area oi U~i.t. :Before 136S (over OiIQSt or an Ule Canun~re area), 8. Iru!1 De jilldged from the'D'Se in fn. Amama letters of perfecL forms 'wb.&re il,re,tvites "'mil.1i have been used before, and ,e;;peciaIil,)' from {he, rew eonfla fioll!S of ~o\.kk.di"D, p[1!teriles with OaWlrmiie ~rfeet suffixes, which sIlggest that [h. preterile WlLS IrO, longer used in Canaanite:. ,..;oo..,s",l. 'I am' IE,,,," l1}6, M) . F"rms lilm ,yi-m1H.li" 'he saw' (EiL l37. 20) are probably not Oa'WIanite preteritee,

20. Disuse of ya.qtul sh.Grt ,p,retedte form.

PJ.ACI!; Phoenician, (indttding -Ya'odi.)-no reeorded ooeurrenee of a 'verbal la,rm with peFS<l.lIi1prelixe<; In preterite Il!lf1lning.

Net in Bamat--IVi""Y '""d he aasweroo m.' (ll, €te.).,

,Not ill HebreW-lilY!""'" 'anil they 60wed' (Silowm 4) ; the lila" o,f the " imperfect" r:Orm with. preterite meaning in many construetious in biblieal Hebrew, especiaU}' ,in the" ,impeded with ",a"lll" eonsecurive," the regular "uxa1ii". pJeterite oi b]o]lC811 Hehrew. ,[,h" Laclrish lett<lJ;;s. (begianing ur 6th century 1 h"." this :fo'[w only once: IWII!J'Ji'a'l~hfi] 'and he has brought Ilim up' (<t.:1'); otherwi~ tho ,eded; is used. This indicates a "later Hebr .... deellne .m f,equ.,ney o,f tlris form, especially outside 01' fl>1:malua:r,aii,e tityle; inthe .IasJt ,smges of spoken Hebrew' (a5 rell.eded ill thf' M.is:hua) i:! was no, longer "sOO.·~

Not in, j),ioabite__""lm 'and I built' (9) ; kg y'rop < fur he was angry" (5).

Not, ill Ugaritie of 15CJIl-w!/", [,,'a(y}ya"ne] < [wa{y)ya:nay! 'ann be answ'erOO' (fAll i 49) ; however" 1ihe evidence fet this, .110111; 'preted Ie in If gillit .is unelear ; tb~", a coo mll!ll y oeeurreuees 0:1 (WilI'- ] , aad " feUowed by the foil pr,derite yaq,tulu, aud it is as yet imI'GJoS£ible to di!fine the uses of ll'rE sbor~ preterit,,_

'rnlB: Mter 15(10; bllt the Amama leUers provide nel "vidence. The disuse ,(If this form, in Phoenicia ... ma}' haC\!e 00.,,, associated. with the aiso~e (If the loll preterite and contemporary with it; or it IIIay hJJ"", blkenp'laoe somewbat Iater;

"

301;Sfle'rul. ::3.

Ui See uo, 20 'bl!::low.

>OM. Bi. ~l, A Gr ..... m.r ,01 Mlo1llOa;,,' lEI~,., '1'2.

• '!

C"NE'[TIONS:: Pr<>oo-Wesl-S.mil:ie appermtlj" ba,d, in addition b !M preterite _yaqluln, " short preterite Y"'1tol used in na:rrati"" sequence after [ R'll,] '&illd,' [tl-] '",ben,;' [I (II?} -] 'indeed[' (Harria .J.AOS 5'7 (1937) 152, n, ll). Tne uses of !.bis lCiJliI! as against itbe. Mil p,rcl.e:rite an jig yel; nol dcli:aed, bu~ the evidence from U,ga~it su.ffi""" to ~how' its <!xist"nee. I tsIatar b.iowry dm'llllS from Ilmt G[ lbe full :preiedt.e, fm its loss WItS con6nedto Phoenicia alene (ol ail the 8"."" "for wbjch we have e~idence 0:1 this period] ,. whereas the disusa of the fuUpreterite spread over the wbole.!I.!ea. AX'" bie, .. :bieh shill lost tlte full pret.e:rilal" :has lUll IlJIlalogllus preservation (}f the short preieriite )'aqtm after [Ism] , Dot_' 10. those Ca..,"aIlite ereas where Ill" short p~el,efite remained, it WlIS u.BiII as Ihe regulae n.u.:ti¥e I:eose.

tinaes in tbe va .. jollS Can8.llmre dialacll;,. iilClucling 1J gariP' After the disuse of the pretelile :yaqtulu, anew form y<l!qtulu w&s deseleped in the Canaanite dialects, probably as a Illodifi:cation. (If llie jussive, with more gen'!il1!limperfect, aspectual 'tn~nillg ~ chl.J1r boos sndpresent time,. The [-"'] of the new form maJ bllve been on ilia amlliogy of tile final 'Vowel of tha 'presellt; and the de"el".i'men~ ef this fona "'.as :l'ooba.IJly iscilitntOO by the earlier disuse "f !;he pretm;te. See ol]j'pter 5 .. AK'"

'22. Disuse ·of the y"qataIu present form,

PL.!CB; l!I Phoenician (inclu.d'og Ya.'Ulli) and RebTew, and i:n Hamat and Mo-abite and all other CrumaiO.ite materia! willi the, !ll~ejltjon of Ugaritie '~I!ld. the AmUnli. lettEl:r,s thare is no present foOrm oi: the .,","b. In many imscriptions it is impossible to tell whether a .... erbal form is in the present or imperiect, beeanse fhe eonsonanta] orthography does not :slir1J.\' directly the J111e5enee or absence of a 'i'0)'W'cl :tf~,.[ the firol radi.caL "rile imperiectfo,rm. is revealed, bo .. e ... r, by some eases of assimdation (see under no'. 20 a'itove) ; and the use of tbe p.idO!ci ~ rather than the preterite i ndieates in gsneral a syslem. (Iii subjective rather than obj.cH." aspects, and so ]>Oint:; to tile existence ~f an imperfe.,l rath •• thaa a present,

Not in Ugaritic of th.11) 1Mb. century, ..,l1eoo the present is apparently jll regular 1USe; Goelz., .JAOS 58 {]938} 296-a.o9'.

Not in the A:m~;rna letters {early PhOO:[lid"E1 ani! Hd";""'l ",he',,, th. yrqatalu forms represent j>y{lbab!y a CilIlll.:mile pnseILt (rllt,her thaD an Akkadian-Canaanite h.ybrldl): yi-q .. ~ou. < he SIIYS ,. (Byblo:s EA 122.9') ,_ Dhorme, IilB 1.0 (19]3) 3S1!, Efuelmg 50', L

'j["n4ll: Aft er 13'65·, since it is still in use in the Amarna Ie tern. Oo:.!,wITloO!-l'B: The prea.enii: was a Pro·OO-S.miti.e form ",h feb in Hue, course of t~me tell fufu disuse Jn most IV est-Semitic Jangusges. Wh.en tile imperfect was ifevlllClped as a ed.osion of the jussive, it was used in some O'f the eoastrueticns .. here the !I1:<!S"..D!& had.been used before, Gr.ad ua Uy the imp".fed gaiced. in b.qll{!ll()j, and Ihs present declined, uatil tbe present was no lQllger used, This ·p a rallels lb. dere!ojJm,e:at of the peritct active and the disuae {1f lil" preterite,

Betgstrasser (BRG n :I d) reg"rae~ the present and iml'.rfeet as parallel East- and West-Semitic dev,e1opment> from a single Peete.. Semitic preterite; tru. new evitlieDOJe :hom Ugari!;:ic, however, indi ea les '"that lhepreseot 000 was Proto-Semitic, "",I the impa:fect a. special We!!f-.sem.itL~ developmen.t; ..

t •

21. Develojlmenl of }'aqtmu imp<lrfect f<ltnl.

1'ucES Phoeajcian (inclwiing Y,,·udi)-wy..q '_d be w.ill mjue' (root =q.l ; ., fpltl 'jOU (will.) open '; y[!l 'he sh8J1 tak,e' (root I'll<-; tlhe as,muial.iollll 01 []I J and [.1] Suo "'s libal there ·"'.BS no vowel after Ihefirst radical, lIence' this is not the Fresent tense}.

lIpmat-'~l!; <} shall sam you' fHI. Hebooll'-[y;q!-6!'J aDd !'elated im.poe;~red forms, Ma&bile-~nw <I will ".mid;' (6)i ..

Not ill Uglt-riti" of 1500, where "Ppa.entl~' tcln", present (willh twoO stern 'vowelS)o is used when. the impedec,t wOllld bter ha oe bee" ased : 'Goo~, ;TAOS ,,8 (19391 296"309_

TIID;;_ AEter 1500,. sin{:C~g:aritic does Dot yel have it. Probably ·ilD. p'r~. ·of development dUflllg th.EI 14th. eenturj, for whilathe il..marna, Iefters do .[I~[. h~,e a regular im:~rfeet wit" the fu""tion.. <l£ the la.rev W-:st-Semrrl£ ]1'1 .. , the;; do have a nUmber oOf J"l'ltul" forms w'ilh "'''linings whIch 81'e of t~e .. l!IIIpExfeet rathu than j1ES;"~ order': t:t-iq-lii "}'OU say' ~EA 83. (5), !H!-;t", '_the]' ta~!l' (EA 84.32), tHitA 'they b~IV' (EA 1~a.3ti), !<>-du·hs.-",,, J(lU ~<lll !IS' lall from Byblo.s EA 138.4G-1). ~"~-ka 'he ~oes' (M~jdd" RA 19 (1922) 92.27)_ Rumples of th; ~lilSS'~ j'a-q~~l, ~re !I"'<lO-~ , lIlay he ",.em1!m~·' (M. 228. 19), yi-i3-.aJ

let him ass (EA 60. :iH). l'Iowe.er, the d'1.fI'erenCl! i:1l mrm. ootwoon Ja'l~"fll ~d ya~!"ul cannot. b .. adduced from t&ese letters, l'"~tll' because the ,,:y!!a!nc l'intm~ 0.1 'cuD'el.fo:rm ofl;e,,- !1.ce..<sHaies fina] nwcls e'eIl,.. hen they do net exist m speech (see Ebeling 46 66)_ ODe form h

b ~ .e • • ,. li}~ ;J .owever".

n:"! , e Dp~_. r.~th e r than J"s.:'v~, Ilof (lnRy ilD. mea:rung but also in "'t.m'

h,·.t-..-u_na-s6 Y" WIll ta".'e ,t' "D"bloo EA U764) .. the f .

!-' \ " "', Sllruee' .e J'fl!&lIVe

wou l!J not have the [-na] suflixedlo the [-.il] sWlh.. ;

OoI.lD]'F!om;,; Prow-West-Semitic had a J'U=iVA 'orm ,»nt'l 'b' I

' ._ - ..... ][ J ..... ' 1:1. ~ 'Vi ]C B. ,con ...

n See cl"'l'pte;r 2,3, •. A3.

"II Fol' the fa.vonng Qof lI:his. .form o"n:iC' tC(! 'preserd:" eee ac, 2.2. " See obapt.rr 2.. 6, 5. A3.

50

.!i1

.. Se. : .... U.

·-·.Albrigb:t lVoe.. 2.0) p'rese.Dt.s all. BgJ'pt.13.t1 LWIl-""Ol"d from CaIJa..auuite. the. fortIl. of 'w"h:ich uggests {bat. the Call1:l1clt.e vmrdl was. etreseed on lfu!: ante-penult (1[mB:T'kl:bata.1 ':(:'tI.ariot.·~; this mll.f represent Iili!Ql stl'a5I in D,(h'lJlI.3 willi feQ-II. [-::dal.] -su:lIi'x, or a. sbge ill u..e :e:b.in Df the steass 00 ~_uJ.t 'po!liJion.

24. lR.ed.O"tiO:D ~f 'YilWe'as befiore ·2nd. J'<o""":I suffixes:.

PUCll: :Hohrew-[["!!il!lsem] < [lioobuknmll] I [.kimall' 'your ~m. pI.) heart"; [yiqt(>llstm] <:{YaJllululromli] ([.hom]) ipf .• erb "'illi2-n,d per.oon m. pl. suffix; [d.~1!a~] < [dabarnl.:a] , jOur (m. sg.) won!. ; biqto1l.;ll] < [ysqtu.luk&] ipL with 2 m, sg_ suffix.

Phoenieian-e-no e .. idence.

TI:M:Il; ..!.fre< the dropping' c~ CIIS<l endi~ in. the eIIllJsl:rnet and a~r the stress iliiit in th e . BOlIO;, be;fere vowel reduction, en the asscmptien of the condifiotrs .tateil. below.

CO~"DlTlQNs: ill th"g>1,,-erai. shess shift, the stress in f"mls wi th pass es - 5i •. e IIIl.d.objecli ... e suffixes eamejo be (J)]J the 'vowel! preeeding the suffix, except in the ease of ~Jild per.5.0D pl, su!ll'ixes: [bWlb\i] 'his honse. ! """.J ' bu~ [bi!tali'mn .. ] 'your (m .. pL) house," The unstressed .ow·el b.e!ore !he [-!dimUJ] was them ... dlllced. . Tbi. wm; p:robably on the tll!lalogJ {If (!OIIstrlld MIUI3, which had. I",t their case endings; fur afte.. tne stress shift tbese forms were slmilar to 00llJ3t",ct nouns w form. (the n"~ stem bem .. u:nstresseil !IIId proclitio to U1.e tollewing element) aocl. m grammati~ eoastruction (genitive): [libabukiimtl] > [I.ibab·kfunu lIn. tile 2 01., sg. this analogy did not hold, for the ~ Wa'O not s~~~; liM vowel p:rooediIl(g it o:emained: ['i:!t.uJrn.] 'jour wik, l!atel > ['l.attJ,a,], ~lIlrukii] 'he 'will guard yO]],' JZIsr [yi1im'rtta]. Later, hc,we'cr, neil!' :f".matil)~ with stressed suffix, arose here 1;00, on Ute analogy (Ii th~ forms with pL. suffix: ['i~~!iA], [Y"nno.~], [dab:orlsa], later > [d'gm:"!;1 ]'4' Tbe l!lew form OO::mne the m.0Te. oommo_n_one, a~!houglt the Did one did Ollt iall. entirely Into disuse, ,,,mamUlgcb:leftyas "psussl "im11l.. This reduct;"n eccurred <JnJy' in st.IJ1"Jirullshorl i1mrels; in the ease erutill.gs of sg. nouns and .'''"r~ .fina.! .owe1o <:>i.erb 1?tIllS_

'rh.is ~.f.atelllBllt O'f the de~elopllle"-t is not the onLy Qnewh",b ca:'" !<lItiBfy Ihe ",Vide-nee but in. anyease .anal'ogy m<lS~ beroeoort.eil 00 to :.xplailil these forms '(cpo the dilk<ent slal:l!m"nt in BL 26'1, 29j', 481:').

25. ExtellSion. of IU)!' -a O.lIIS by [-t] suffix •.

PUCE:. PhQeni"ian~ml"'l [mal:lnelu] 'camp' I root {!.ny Byhlos 13th. oent.).; ",1 ... 1 [lil.i~D.l1 '{lO'rutrootiO'Il' (root hJi) ..

lHamat.--mh,d,

Nl;lt in U~rit~m,\:s [mill ... ] '.:<I .. r' (root ,\:soy, HAB ii .5) ; m'd I[ma'nekal 'Y"'iIr 8:nswet' (1933.2.1a; mt" [mi~e] • repetition' (I~i 2.0)_

23. Shift a:f tl!!El stress,

PU.CE: Phoe.uieiarr---A..p •• [la~~!l1 < [laM-Dl .. ] < [laoon'a]; ~-.IU-fl.1 [-yat5n] < [-yaIADu]1 (,:-yatanu] (vern form all part (If a 1lO1!l!ll compl.,x. in proper names}, etc. (GP 25-S),.

Hebr.e_[a:i~b] < [dabem] < [dab",ru]; pl!aC<!· of stress .indica.Ueii both by stross-Iengthening of the s econd va·wel, as in lb." Phoonicl'8I1 ",oro: nbc ... ," and ily masoretie marks in the bibfieal ·text.

TmB: .Mte.: ![i1 > [6], since o'ig:i",,1 I[i] ",n'.0h Toot the stress tn this shilt had alJI~dy become .1[<1]: late Pit .. ;swet I[sape;], Beb, [oop.~] < [56p']1:!J < [ropitu] < [sapi!uJ e ruler,' Before the dropping Q~ final shod vowels, a.t which tinie the pe.n:v1l 'Vowels, bei.ng stresso<i, became lengthened.

C~NIl]TJQNS: '['he str,.;s in Prof.o·Sem.it:ic Wa6 apparenl!.y 001 tb" Jalll long sylbiJle (excluding IU1ClljlS) O~, in Urn abaen.ce j)·f long SJillables, en tb~ .Iirs~ 's}'lIa'ble, of tbe form, Within. Canaanitafhe stress ..nuledl .at Uri. time '00 itte penult .in all [OEmS l nOUIl, finite .. " ... forms haria.!: consonantal snffu:es) e£c.ept finite verbs withoul consonantal suffixes and in:fi.ni.ti .. e verbs (with or wit.bout such suffixea: see no. 51).. Tbe pbonelic basis for the ",,"'pi;ion of these latter forms "from tbis sh.ift is Dot clear as. j'l!t; it was perhaps """"""ted .. it'" !.he pesitien 1)£ tll_ £crms 'within tb~ sentence (n.ouns and salfu::ed verbs w'e"re mere lre!JIllenU,y llit the ends ·01' l'Iu"rnnees).

ThaI: the penuit stress "E "'hr Canaanite dialects is net the original stress mllY be seen, f()r example, in the fact tb:at iatee C""a:anite had some unaccented [<i] < Semitic [a] "nd SOme "' .... eeented [a] < Semitic [0.]. Til" i1ii1iereuoe, bet"",en these two ,,,£ ... xes "f Semiti." 1[".] o:a>II he ~>lplaiiled oD]yby l18Sumill.g that these wbich "eM now [1>] had onee been .b-=-'<ed, and so bad porlicil'"teii :ill. [ill > [oil, bn1t had t1Jeo lost the stress, whereas lib .. others had ... e .. er I:>ew stressed: Heb .. participle [q6t.e!] < [q~tiilul as ag;a'usll'.wisfm.] < lWtfUIUll] 'triP"~I:it.e. musical instrnmoot.'This erid .• nee seeerds cl<lSely .... il!!. ttle sb>tement of. the stresswiJt by Bergstresser (BH'G [ 21 f" 2;; a, b); cpo tbe diffeTent csia*mmt given by Bauer and. Leander (BL 176-&4.) and Broekelmaeu (eva 100-1) ,""

1

52

Not in SOUle pmo~lliciooJ. dillleciE, <1<' no,! W ,oo:m,e, WQro:s, throu;g,h<lQf P1iooni.€tIlll-mk..' [D1i~~] "O)<JIver' {root k:$y; Punie]:

Not to Heblew-[mal;l·.D~l 'camp' (£em. in some late eo;s.as); [m.i!JII~

• ecostroctdon ' i [milfs~] '""YO,."; ere. (1DlLS~.).

Ton:: Before 13th century since the let] form Ilppeal113 ill the . .Ah:iram inseripticn (If Bybles ; i.t 1WI Y .1m ve been ronsidaab]y eadier.,

OoNlJlTIONS' The fG~mswith [-L] may have started {)D oome analogy with a femmine, noun of a Illy IOClt; they ileemne more ,ireqlJlent than the older lomas (without 1[-tJll beean se the synoope of [y] in these forms bad I"ff; them shorter lhll-n oifle:r nouns of tI:tat eonatruction" and hence irregular i(lr tlleLnngua~e.

2el" .U,xlCai specializations In various paris, 'o,f the Canaantte area, '00 b.'.: [lilu]'-lP'heeIlici'am (i:eclcndillg Ya'ud:i); other :furrns of this root oeenr in Hebrew,

hyy--Hebrew (hgAin SiJO>!LJ1l 11,

'to make', p'lr-Phol!llician (incluillillg Ya"ndi l. mJlTe speeialized

Illea!limg in Hebrew., -

"&w-1hbrew" Mo.bit e (3, 23), perhaps late Ph. (GP 13~) ..

'goLd': ,~"'_Ugar.il, .Phoenieian (including Ya·lldi),rareiy in Heb. (poetic, ete.].

.hl! « gh.b)-HebrelV.

'maD.·· both '<1m and \i OOCm; ;n all djaioot;s; 'but [OJ biblical Hehrew the pln ta I o:f' 'dm does no t eeeur, and ·i and its plural are more eommon, In Phoeruclam '., is used. cbi<dl.y in compllIIIDds; Nama! uses '''.

TIME': N "thing delimit .. can be ",,;<3, of the ti_ of these Ieaieal specialliatiO"5, eKcep~ Ull!.t they generally antedate tile iIlSCl"iptions (II 'tile urious iallg<i"ges which we .h~""-

COl:<lllTIONS' An these roots O<:ClI.I in. other S.emilie la;ngllage~ !UI well. The di£feDenoes of ire,qnency !tOld occurrenee of these roofs in the vari'1us dialects is the result of local, fuvoring of one form ove' another. Of each DiE the ai)Gv,e pairs efroots, I.he fir.t one 'is the more :f-r.equent "uhid.e Canaanite. It is significant that Phoenician usage is generally eleser to tlnat ,of otber Semitic ialilglllag;es, whereas HeineI';" s'oows moee dive'rge..'~ local devel<rpments :in the use of words, These are but a lew of the more o!b.i<>us dillleeta:! wll'erenoea; in marry <!BSe3 we cen !lot roll wgeU,er ,8. w~rd 'Wlllel:! eeeurs ill. 8.t1irnscxipl'ou is reall J common fOT that ml!3l1mg tQ, tne speooh "I t!uit dialect, and, whether it has '~bl! same Ia'oge of meanings "b~b it has io Bebrew.

N 1l'I!&: Jn !.he """"mpa1lr]iIlg chad, 26'3, re'p'esJln.b the ~ favmed in Phoeaieia, 26b those !a.oood ill Palestine,

27. Morpbol.o~ extensions i10 biradi,ca,1 roets, ['itu] 'god '-regular in Phoenician, B;ebrew, ete,

['iI,Qbima], and its <!g., l["i.lO'h] 'god' se<X>ndarily f<>=ed-in Hebrew, H=t (b 1l~ 25) ;. also in Ammaic, Arabi.e.

til '..1"", '-Phoenician, rare in He!;re ... ([du sOPiipiy] Psalms 14L 3). dlkl---ederndoo. plural form in Phoenician. -

[daltu] {wilb e:x;l:ension by f.em. suffix, ep, no .. 2;;)~me Ph. dialect (a!phabet'ic name &;>"' .. ), Hebrew [dEn..:~, pl Id'I"'~~l

'TIllE: Some of these special fo~.ma:ti.CI.M SIe pre-Oanaanite, the dfife,cnee.s between Plloenidm lind Hehre,11l dialects ibeillg merely in the par~i0mla~ l'IIv(),ringsoi' one iorm DW' Itr:",tbar in e9eh loeality., Othey fOl'tIlilItions tlllli}' ha.ve arfsen witihin the sereral dialects.

CoI>TIl17la1NS: Ell".n of those new £crms of the sm.()!t roots must m.ve beeu Iormed 01l !he analogy of some existing forms, as ,.,as -the case "'ilh {hose in no. 2~., '111. WIt!! probably anl>1rl! West-Semitic formatialtl, since it also 'Q4!CUl1S in Arabie; it!: Tegnlarization in Hebr .... ' Inti; !lot in Phoeniclan was p'I<iba.1Jly the_ult of d,ilI:erent lav'Ollngs of ['un:l and ['ilO'hl in !he ...... ieus areas of Canaanite, These 8:1'. j IlSl Q few .oot-extensions of whicih we happen to have reeordj how many others ~he<e were" and how ...'.dely tltey were spread, we do not hww"

26 .. Favuing of [hUwa,], [blya] o¥er [buwa:tu], [nitiyati] 'he, she,' l'L..!,CE: PllO'llilaciafr-'\{ [ru.l'lLj, Later > [h.1l.·] > [bill, 'be" (Bl'bl~i 1~!h - C€1lt); Ir: Ebl] < [hi.'] < [hl'a] 'she ";bl!lt amI [h!l/imal(i)] 'tbey' (Ya'udi, P.h.,J-

!IIebrew-hw' (hU] < [hu'a], he': hy" [bi] < [hra] 'slit.'; but [h.OmJl.] < [himat] < (b.;mlllii] 'they,' laler [Mm] < [himo] more f'requ.ent.

MGal'li~h·(6).

Not in Uga'f;t of the 15th centu~---hwl [hl>l1llib] 'he' (D 1..129) ; Ityt [hiya.!i] 'she' (n 1.138); lim-I [hnmati] <they' (D L WI; all gen.).

''l'n.I.i;: ~f{lre la1h cenb rr , in Bybloo, since the short I:ClJ:m ap'pl!:llrll fhe", a,t that time.

CoN1D.ITHms: There is 'DO proll! thd Pheenieian ,!inil He'IIJI.BW had Qr;gi· ually had the for", witl> deictic [.t], but the [!td that tb."" forms w~:re regll!la. in Ugari]; and Ihc e:t1stenoo III the d.nciio:: [-&] {arm ,in the,

pl.uralpT()Do!lIl, _:Ires it proh~!e that w.r;;t of CanaAnite had hail! the [-tu] form MOt., mDgl1Jar pF"D~uns~ '!'he fuvormg of too Milner .:fODlll <l&ll he scaa jn 'p:r<llOelS!l to the co!DdJetition of [b.e,mi\,] _d [bem1 ,I< neb:rew."

2.9. Ass:imibt;oOl of [.h-] 00 [.y .. ] afler [~ eJ ""'wels., a!loll th,. '!I3alogio ".pt.du.g ,,,f i[ -h·-] by [-y- J. ill other3rd persoa sgc suffixes.

II':u.a::Il:Piul>enici>Ul, except fur Byblo~ fb,,< including Ya'uili)-I'd .. y 'foOl: '''is I,,,d '; ~"'''·'Y [liminu.a;~y[] 'from. bils, j'aulh om' (Y a 'u<:li); 'dly 'her Lady';. "'yHl!g [waj'~Sabmillii] 'and 'We oam~.cI Jum 1:0 dwell' (GP 4'7-9),

No!; in Hamal:, Bjblcs, Hebnw, }.I,()!!bj~ wher<! th""e sufrUes litaV"

[-h.-] >I see DlI.30).

'I'nm, Probably l:>eJ'o.e synlXlpe 'ali [-b-] [0 <ira persen 2uffi.J!es, 6illl)e' olba-wIse tlJat synoop.a, ,.,h:icl> 81'"",d to iByblw, wo:mlelprob..bly ha VI! e:d~Iilil'erI fuoollg:hout Phoenician. Tille 1lESi:mi1iia.tion or [-'~.-) t1J [-y-]] ~, [i] o:od [e J 'had i:a.lreD place a I;; tiIJe b·te&t 1rE:!'.,re the S,u. c~nt01ry,. since it app!?MS.En Ya'QdL

OoN'[JJTTDNS : Thea",,!; q1t"",I;i()n that. aris ... , is : does this y iadicafe " flruil diph.thODg, '" ia it wurvoo&liJ:,. lik!! the [-Jr-] in lhe earlier :lmrn! In vi .. ", ruf th., ,tb'''''<>e ,,( y,ol\le1~letbots in eorJyP""",Olici.;o. or!hogra.phy, th" WYi.Hus: willli 'J indicates that n" 3re! :I'er:soll sodihes, had .. C!Jinso:",,~.1;a1 [-J'~l (8.Qd iIlLO [-h-D·· The "rt~ogr.~p!ly iII Punic, wn!ch contains v()'IPel-· Jetters, shows ·that .1<110,< short vow,.r. the [-y-1 ,["ad later been ~!i:aed, but tbll.t drer ICing vl)",o·l. i~ Mel rellJ1l"nod: 'II',. 'lo, [qOl~ J 'his "a,ice.' < earl:l' Callaallite ,[ qoililrfc].; '1>.1 ea~'{l'ij]{?) r his (other' < ['ahlbi,], pny Ip~e:yU]f?1 'hils l'a.c.' < [~.n~hil], b'ny' [ba[l~jlil] 'titer roilS! < [bani!;,iill ((H? 51-2). It ",mild f:hElS "Jlp.ellJ;' th,,~ [-1-]1 In th.~e suffl ze s bad the sam. bisiGr.l' as it hltd between vo,""Is in Phoenician.," aed .it 'i.e tbe,rdOO'(!: sale tasuppese that here lOG :it was Jnterrbealic. IO.i1l11t case ... ' must reeenstruet I[IDiOaiyii] ([-yi]?) 'his wnl: ('aclati,a] 'her Lad],' de.; and wemllS,t!lSSl!l.ffie thtat lbe i[ -r-l t""k thepla"",oHh e [-ll:t-]. A 1_ p~it>l"'ai!e:math., vie,w would be that thl! [-b.-] bad been elirl)eil in the ~lli'fu:.,.. aa it had elsewhere in {la"""""I:e," and IiMt i." the resnltmg ,owea eoomlbinati.oms iljphtbCl[lgS willi [_y] Ilo.d been forl!)Jld, 'Ilhis ile'ieiopm.eIlt wou.ld h.!L'!'e ,i~liI.d finial [-y] TIlth.,. t'dul" int .... oealic [_yo], .• "d Wl)tild !lot satisfy the P,n:tic"]J'!lilings.

U is quits j>Ilssibl" that befcre tltis assimilatlon [-hu] h.d ch8J1g,ed to [-hiJafwr' [i,e] ""owel. r(ass.i",.ilAti(>D OfthB 1[-uJt.. the pr~ing

"I

56

Deve./zypment oj the Canrumite Dialect.B

cit.] mnst have <eooill"'Se. ·00 a lara .. number- of .,-<-_ .n_' . .. •

f' 00 . .. m"""'~~'~gre Ilew".o~ma-

l~ns_. ~ aceoonr for the, many "restorations" of [_h_] .. [_ - II _] [-elm] In ~e 'ifero [-ib] "'. ' . > e.g. u u,

,em.. A ne _<lIId. leaves a smaller bot uall

unaeec. ". nlahle residue iu Sj'Ucope of [-Il-] a" _ I e<J. .,

< r-e.R!-] - '. . . '''', S(}me oag vowels: [-awl ~ .11 III nOUDS In tbapll'lral, ,[-lw] < [-5'hilJ ,(with [-ti,-] . free al ... ~nant or a diareet"d fu~m). u as a

31. [-aw] > [-6],

PU'CII:: H~mat, :~ebrew, Moobite--see "vidence under no, 30.

InO~,ophthollgu:aIii.on i'fobahly look pJa<>e 1lih<!,~.ver the [~aw] .:; a" .. do.ped.

B)J:iIQs-no e~.itl!e!lC:e, but ·PTOoo.'bIe.

Tn~ll: 13efC>ta. ihe reci:'1di,O)D. of fi_l Clmnble '~oosnoa[]'" f- Lt. ...

final [ ] l\' t. .>. '. "', .~. ,"""' D~w-

. . . ... ww' .,.c .. were ... eail),med s~emedtCl 'lwv"l'e~.'ln-"" B"-

the 9th··t "rr . . . -~ t>U!. "",re

. ""'" liry on. JU"mat aoil. ?fowh. In J erllS31em, f,l..e -~t' . . ,,,

-III m Ihe Silo . ". . ",. •.• "BE; WI ....

. am .Inscnptioll m.y r~pre.sent [-aw]" Ln> . • .'L u ,

had ' d els It ' ,,~,"> ""'ce .tle cnange

't . ~~.rre :<!,. ere .c>~e centuries, before, it is more probaJ;>Ie that

:b' .""'8.5 "".ady [-5], the or!nog;c.apny of tJ1.e eJ3.die, fOrnll of th" ,ru''''_

em" retained o. ,·t· . 'b·b·li al ., ""'" .. ": ' _IS In Ie' ,orthography. ~he wY:iting -h in

LnChlS~ .represent:; merely a.D"tbar orlho&""{lhic tnditioll whicib retained !b" Wilting of tae original [-hoJI throughout the dUUlg':' in w<mil.' .

CONDI:J:WN'S; This chalJ!re was in 1:.' 'tL th. .

( Ca ite a, , . • ~ . el'mg WI .. , e phollehc strueture

o ~aa:nl, wlueh did not ha¥e IlJphtbolD~, althOllgh Je:rusalcm had them 10 areented positicrn." The fact tb t .' . . ehaa ed th . - .' . a .m some pJIlCB;3 the scrnlJes

g . e 'Wrltiog <U !he ,BlEIli:! fu)]]] E -JhJ to [~,..] ino!i-eates that the new [-a:-:] < [~ahu] WlIS .DOt prc>nouDced [-OJ au:oomaticall

as the d,,,bthcmg d i -" .. t 'L y, .8S seen

'. . .r. ...~ ~~"'" uu t .. at for II t.ime the d:iphlhon<r r-aw]

er.lsOOci ui the pr()nuIlCl8.r;!O:~. <> t

32. SYllcope of [y, wj betwooD Short uustressed \fowers. P:r....'a~: !~·UW-{I. .. [I.,,'::a] < ,[~Iiza~] '.h" saw' (11).

Ph~c,aD----b~ [~nD] < [bina)'ll] 'he boil!' (Sidon 4th eent.)

W1:1ttell ~.~.' In Neo-Punic. '

H"brew-hy;' [hayo:]." he was,' I(Siloam 1) - '." Ii<.~~] < [._~_ 1

'he did" . . ' .ro t·~ """wa,j,

H ~ (Laehlsh 4. 3) ; I>imillar fl>rms of 1Uj'w ,.arbs in biblical

eurew (BHG II 3(l).

Moabite-/m,k [baDa] 'nil built' ('I8) ..

Trlnl: A£.hlr Hib <lenmry at l.ea.ilt· B '.1 L .• __

. .'. ' , , In 1~·OS, """->1USl!! the Y ahimiik

mscnptlOn has by I[ba:na')'ll] 'he built' alld hw" [ha~",,] n.. .

• J _ ~W~_ ,~~e-

"See D_O. l~ p. ~Ll,

I,

stored '; p'robab~y ,after lOth ~ntU',.y, ill view ttl thll written !I In <Iy [<alayll-] 'Olfet:" [Blibaal .inse. B}'blos, 10th ""Il.t.). All tlru<! _itiggs with if oo·U!d be histoeiea] spellings maintained eieIl ,,,fur the pmnll!E.cill.· tion had ehanged, bui more probaib1:v rel!ec~ tb~ ClItteJ:>t speech.'" Ugarit still . .bad [-31-, -ill-] .in th~, positions: !f~oty [ym~JllDi:J'U] he repeated' (IIAB vii 30). Thi.s syncope must have oeeurred site. thoe 'replacing 01: [-h-] by [-J-] in the Srd person sufiires 01 Phow;.cian.:" It must hase :isken place before the dropping olf find short vowels, for if 3nl! radical Ir JI and [w] llJId .,till beellprCID01lDted at that time, they WQuli! have fO)~med oliphthongswiIl,h !he prooe<iing "Q<I'ci, which. wO'nldl ita.ve )'ielded eotire'l]! dmeieut vowels in Hebrew and PlIJl:ic from tame whi.4::h we lind. The .syurope .ml!lst have spread OJ,,,.eT m<LSt ,)I': all OIl th.e ClI'llM.Dite area, before tb~ '9th eent.1iITj', hi inscriptional e'iidnce of y,,'mti and Moab_

CoNDITIONS: Inte.rvoealic ['1'-" -w-J haB! been ellided. in Prote-Seeaitic iII Qe~l:al" Dl>miitioos: 5 [lie] < [Sayu] 'slLeep , (Ugil'rit"YII'tllIi, Pheenieian, Hebrew [si]); u, srJ;-,k·e [Sade] < [;§aday" ] 'field' (Ugarit, AmanUl" Phoenieian, Hebrew [s.;,~i]). The eviJieJ:J1!e from 'IJ garit ana 'early B,j'bles ,&how£, howeve<, iba~ in al'ieral po&itiow the. sJllcope of [y, w] di.d not take place until considerably later, within the oisl(>ry of Canaanita, T:h .. old dating "r thesyocope of h', 'IV] {except in (-iya, -OiI.wa]) in the Proto-Semitic period (OvG 138" BL 229-30) must now be .eied~; 'Be:r¢~l!If!l"s tdIltemel1t (IlKG I 1'1 i)" whicb dales t"fle syncope :;11 certain p<lSitil>ll" as pre-Hebrew (because it also Jl1Ppe&rs ill Aramaic) musbalse he revi9ld.

The Ugaritic maleriil, which bas eonsonantal lx, 1iI'] in III:yw verbs, :but none In I1yw verbs, shows that ..". most. ncoruhllci tha_~ lwot::;pes d!lIl\e:rI!llU!i'" tht" JJ[yw forms being deoi .. OO: from Prote-Samitie forms with <lrd. ,..adi<:al: [r, w], and the "lIyw" fOi:ms hei.Dg derinble di:reelly Qnl)' from Preto-Semitic forms w,th "tW'(l radical eensonauts and a ~ong "o,wel be~"''''il1 [hem ('0 Dandsbe:rger" OLZ 29 (1926) 974.-.5; Bergstrasser, OLZ 26 (1923) 480-1, BHG II 30 T; lIS a".....mst o-o 605,8; 'ilL 406, 41°1_

.Douhle [yy, wwJ were not elided, hence forms Iike ~ajJl!l]' Iiving,' [tawwu] 'm.n,k' W1lamed., later becoming [ilta!f)'J > [II",.], [tawwl. > [taw]."

,33.. [-at] replaced by [oa], [R 3 1. sg. sum of pi; verb stems,

PL.\OE:: Phoel1ician-p', [pa'<.l5]1 < [pa~alil.l ' she made s , but [,,,HI rewains when it is not fioal: p'lm.,. [pa:~!atn'i] < s],e maa. me-,' (botb BJo]os 5[h century).

IA See. 00. 3~~ 59.

58

Hebrew_-[-a] form of the suJfu: {writteD h.) in bihlirol Hemrew, [-at.]

rEm3.tn:iag '",heD non-final,

TIIIII: A:Uer 11500 (U garitle 4",1 "sha is completed' Ss. 61, y.,a.! ';s],. bas come ou ~' D' R 1. 36); and afwr 1365 (a-~.a-da-al Cal!laanite gloss 'she is lost' Jr erusale-Ill EA. 2B8. 62). After el!i&Oil Q E [y, 11'] between oDstxeesecl short ~owds:, fa,. only 50 CD weerplain the specia] history of tHis suJlh n. myw "e~b. in Hebrew [seeno, 34).

[:0 Ph~erri~ian this cealllg<! look place ill '!he &rrEtlx of the ~erlJ .jiruy, .:1113. no I'D the fem •• uili!: G( the noUB."· It is ihemf'Qte lIle~y to assnme ·that the clmnge OCCI:Irred in the verb su.lli.x at 8 time wbeD tile noua sllffu: <Ii.IIered f:r~m it aucl ~o was not ailee.tei!;, j. e., .it",.r before the droPFiog of flnal short vowels, while tbe n()UD suff'u; .. as not )'~t final bu.t 'W>I!S followed by CBs<> ""lilm.gs, or be:fore the stress s!tift ia the verb, while the ver!:> mIfu: was .tillll!Ilsl:resscd 3l!liI the !JJ.l)lID .,u!Ii.;;; was shessed. In Palesmelher,. were mo "hang"": .first, in th e 'feib suffix: at the same time asl!Je Phoenician ,ella".ge;, and later, in. ilia noun ."ffix, whe" the droQ[>pillg of w.l shor] vowels jj~d.eda Dew group ,of fina] (-at] « [·!>tuJ). The difference between Hebrew and Phoeaician could also be eIplai'leil IlIO the iLESUml'lion iba1, the. ,c'b"'Jlgll oJ [·at] > [.1i.] diil. not reach H.btew until. l"te~, dter !Jie o!ropping cf lin"l shor], vowels; it would then halie operated in Hebrew not only in the verb su:lIix as it (lid in Pheeaieian, but also illl the "",n. £uifu::, .,.bj~" W"-'! new ':I~ 6.rwd. This !l.5Sl>lllptiOD, howevel!', does DDt ""pili'" ... 'hy th e [-at] of [haylltJ did "{It change (see no, 3'1-, 4.<lJ.

'GuNJlITlO'NS.;, [~ lS !lot !menm whether fhfs WII3 pu.relj'1l phMrii1: change, or wb.e.tlter It .nvolved some aDalogi(! exp,nsioll. 1", .a.n)\' ease it ...... cl=ly limi.ted 1:0:0 l·at] in flnal po..ition, ha,1{ing efi'.ecl; ])~itEte. in ""0" iDal OCCUDEIl()eS of the v, er bal suffix, nor in the uoua .. herB ease endings follo,weo ..

'Tile I~tler ~ w:ith ",'hich tbe Dew [,l] .uffi.!: is written in Hebrew is probably merely a. spelling IorIhe "",wel, -k being naed for find [-a] in other ease. too (e. g:. for (-a] < [-a.l'lIj. iII Siloam, see DII. 32). Had there Deer> lIn [b]' ill the pro:nuncialiQDOf the suffix we sbor!i!l.d apool tor find it written in. Phoenician.

34.. [·at]reptaoedbj' [·a] m 3 f .. sg; sl1ffi:t afpt .. Vl:Tbstems.. PL.l.QJl: Phoen.ician-?u.' [I:l~..sJ < i[~wi] < ['!.>awAL] < [~j""'}I'at] ' .. fte i.i"OO' (Neo·Punic; earlier •• idenee does net occur ill known Phoonici;llDt,exts),.

59

Not in Hebrew-I.!!! [ba)'at] • she ,..~.' (Siloalll 31 ; I["un 'sh9 did,' [ha-fit], .~., dialectal {"froS p res e!."l'ed In the hilille (Lev. 25.21, 216.,34. 2 K 9 .. 37, Jer. Jl3.19, Ez.e. 24. 1'2); this mud also, be assutaed as tha 'undlll"ly:ing form ,of tbe Iater ['as>!;§], [hii~], eW. 01' biblical. (Jerc:salem) Ifeb~ew ,(BHO IIS:() r) ....

'!rIME: Same time as 00. $3, in iPhoenieian. Afmr S!{'U!Op. o~ '[y" w] ill these forms, ~]nee ilws::; the long "c .... el .e&ulting from the SJIll!ope that excepM tlris grllup from the ehange to [-a] in Re.b""w.

O>ND!lTiON8: In Phoeukfua, thls ~iIAnge "'as wl.ilmibkdly associateill wifh no. 33; both ()()nditions togelher milk. one eluwge,l:he replacing 'ot ["'IItj.§.t] by [4].. In Hebrew, ho ... "' •• , sho:rmess of th .• """'Ill COIl"tituied a s;go.ili.ean~ eQIlditioo for til" "hanga in Illyw verbs the suffix bOO a long vowel and 'wes, :lilot Included ill 'llie change.

35. EIi:sioD- IIf nita! short vowelS.

Pu.C',,": Phoe.ru"i8~ [y5d I < (Jlidu.] 'bruJd ' U; !luh!d',m [g"'gullin] < i[gtibUJim,,] 'boundar;es' !llld m • .IIY Q!.her lr.BIllSl'rip!ioDs ~ib<l,wi.l\g 0Cl iliDal vowels (GP 36).

Hebr."'-.Mosoroeti" <!~li.""ti<ln sho ... mg DD 6nal ""wel. awl. sn.owing phonetic changes, which took plaee 1I."ly .!!floe. 10"; of final vowels: [,iJla~] < [<'lebam] 'word'; [D!lrit] < [Mytu] "houre'; I[be!l] < [b~li)'] < [OOIil'a] 'oi. my bouse..' Fo'rb8.<leS IJiI 'ellJrly ease ""dings, see BL 52Z-30, GK 2-514.

Moo.bire-io.dired ,erode:uce (If loss cd' final shllr~ ?owe];s is eentained in !he uS<! of y as ,owelletter for Ii.llM [~1], as tu ~Plty [banhj] 'I built' {2,Z}. The letter y eeme iC) stand 100' :Iinal [-i] when the 1 .g. possessire :su.ffu: [.iya] 'my' ("ner geu. and, E!.CC_)'" !i1~r:ul,bm with Y. cllangeillj:o [-iy] (with 1005 of fi.o.al sho:rt ,owel.,), the:IlJ > [4]. The ... se of y for [.t] which had thus arisen was ih.~:Il extended m olh •• cases "f final [.tt wbieh. boA hithexl:o:o nol, beea i1lillielli.ed in the C01l5l1Dlmtal orthDgraphy.

''rUI:,El: After WOO, since these vowels are .till wrllte.1l in Ugayit: !1m [y;.ssa·uJ' h. raised' (E*AB .. i 2.2), mm [m.ari"a,] 'iat"ng' (aec. llAB v 107). Af,rer 1365, .sinee they are written im th.e C8ll38.m;t., :I",rllls lind glooses ln the Amarna letteIs, not me:rrell' !IS mechanical fe.at'llt,e; ·of .~om.ei!onn odbogrep.b.l' but .ten w here t!wIt Grlbography did not require them: z, ... l-" .. gloss to §e .. u '.nee])' (E.A 263. t2);. the various ease .noings are not confused (DIl'mme, RB 11 (.1.91'1) 3"'7·-8),. alt.er ~he :period {)or the 18th lind 19th dyoaaties in Egyp!, since th.·re ale illdil:;!l:~i,,1lS

.. See no. 58.

"·See na, 3~, ;17 .

of ease ."dings in tim Egjpf:ian ·tr..ll5C1'ipl;io:os of Oanaani'" place names (.B.uchardt .p- 56, § 17'3; Voc. 18-9). An"r the :synCOlpe·1ll [j, wJ lie. m.en uastressed short 'i'lJ1li"~l.s. since fin~1 sbGJ:~ V1111'W; were WYOh8d in most 0'£ tbOO2 syn""l''''':: [banaya] > [b",,!] 'he bllilt!.. Beiore the 6~ress Jengthe.oimg of penult mwe]", whi,ch followed immeil:iateIy upen thE dropping of fiual short 1'IIwe1s." Be.forethe ilE.vel!.opman~ oftihe [-11] form 'Gf the femiuin", ""ffix in the noun in H-ehl'!)w.·' Before the redaction of double consonanjs ""hicll becsma final after l.hls change .• ·•

.Friedrich's unportant diseOlSSion, (Der Sc.hwund kurzer Endvokale jm .N ".d..,. es tremi Iaw.en, ZS 1 (11:92"")< 3-14) .....agms, the late ilde e:f <lM B. O. for tliis crurnge; hut the chain of linguistic erenls neeessitates an earlier dare, aad, tlae oriltoJi:"'ap'bi"" O1[101d "illicit Friei!riciJ rests shculd, perhaps 00 understood as historieal, i, e., C3rriedo.er from preceding peri.oil.l!.

C<ll'mlTIO~.: &ideeee :from the i§mtiall ~,yllaihic traJll!5eriptillJos seems 00 shOl .. roniusioo of .final short. vowels:l'or' some ,time before tIh.ey were ihoppeil. It is 'prall"Me lbat IJJ,,,,,. v'o ... els "",ere Jirs~ all ud'tlCedJ to an Ilndillermtiated shwa '''''tel, duriD,gwilkb tiime ease eJl.di.r!gs weore no I.o..ger dill'er,eotiatOO., and owy later compietely dropped, rm.rvre.3ilic [y, <1'] in fi:osl [-i},a, -uwa] had not be." elid!ed,and now, w;U, thf dropping of final sh{}rt "ow8Is, formed diphthongs wmelL were Iater m"Dopbth()Dgi2ed to [t, Ii]: [betiya J .> [Mlly J > [betl] 'Illy .llIJUSIl

(gen.).' '" -

36. Stnss:lengtn:elling.

PLACH: . PboeOJiciao_", [y&cI] < [:r~d] < [y<idu] 'Iaand.'; ""'jet [S3pet] < [MipituJ < rule •. .'

Hebrew-[y,"4] < [railu]; [S6~] < [oopi'~Il].

TIJil:B: &nne time as the droppiElg 'of !inal short ... &we!s; see below. 'Before [it] > LOi] in Ph"""i.,.i:mi see no. 3'7.

CoNDI'l:']ON's: Thisl.ngtbelliog did not occur in all shessed ,shurt v"" .. els but OIl\)' in those w'bien had been in 'penult open syUaJ:,I", followed by ; ~j[ open 'syllable mth a short voweL Stressed vowels !If hicl:J md. been In_dQs:~~y~bl.es were Me lengthened:. [1ta.yyu] > [1taYJ 1, later > [tu<,] Imng; nor were those lengthened W:h;c!b. hadbeen in open but uor penTIilt syl1a"I~: [,q8~a1aJ > [qJii[;all, only kl:er > [qii\il] in lh" pf. ".~b s~m. SlDOB ~ is l<:nglbenin.g thus took plane Qnly ill Opell syU"bl.s whIch booame closed WheD the final. shod vowels which loUowed

IUl See 'Do. 32. .H See ac, 36. $!IIISee no, 44..

· .. ·s .. · ua, :;;~, •• See .DO'. ]!..

• I

61

lhemwere d""'P'pe.!" weare !o".""a 1:0 """"",!a:teth. t<I!,CI ehanges ; tlh" lengthening must lIa.e: developed as the iirlal shor~ vowels WIlee being dropped [cp, ~HG I 211:; GE ,'J~ a.uil fn, 38; and, 'for a dill:ermot statement, :BL 232) ..

111. [~]> [5J.

Pf..4(}l:' Phoenicirun. - eerr " [y:id] < [yiid] <: [:rada]; ""-{JOY '[I"~[l] < [Iabl.Il.] < [labsnn] 'wb.i.te,!

Not in Hebrew-Tr3.lIscriptioDs in Akkailian, G.reek, etc, show that thB 'b~g Li] (11[1.01 [aJ) re "re&enW by qOIn"" in. the maso ... itie vocaliza,tion bad the [ a] ql!lality flIT perhaps as long 8:9 Hebrew was a aati \'Ely spoken language: see :00. Sac..

Ho,t in Moabire-"'1t-'...:-lia. {A=rbanipa'l 'T.1M), '''''-'-''0 (Esa.r.

haddon" <>6) [mii'ibJ < [mo'allu].

"lI'nm; lUi.r the dropping of ]in.al ,hort vowels and C'OllCl:)miiant lellgt:!leoimg of p""c-eamg stressed '\Ionls in open syllables:. Before the borrowing b']i the Q"",.ks of the Pboenieian "ames for tile l.tte," of the atphabet, since the .hal!lge appears in _........ The change may ha,,., ta~eu place earlier, io Iba liliDsire.."SIld [a] ('which had not ehsnged > '[0]) and iII! [a] < [-::)'aJ (see no. 32).

(lONDIUONS: This chaJllge ~as i.o }weping wlith the ,oo~l!ldl patl:em of Oana:aml!.e in whiCh, sin~ [3.] > [0], there had !been no stressed leng [a], lhe v'Gw~l Iii]oonfigmratiog asthe long eounterp a rt of ..t:ce,<ied [:1:]. The change probably tonk place immediately as D .•. W long ,[a] vowels lI'eoo K!,ealedi, and ecnfinned 10 apply te> all .. lIew [a] ","wels, app a ,.nUy throughout the existence of oontinel!lW Phoerrieian ; in. Ibe later La:] ;> I[:ftc] > [5J of [IULG!;I]'" and. probaIDly in lib!! mueh later [Ii'] > [a] > [5J of [h>.l], the 1,,!ef(l'm! {If [ba~'1] 'lord' wru~ll is seen in the borrowed Palmyrene divine name fj<M, bw.l ('GP' 31-2'). Ho .... ever, this change III 'l tl~1i~y did oct ~ntiU1Ie in tlle Punic d~aleets "lithe Niw-th .African colonies, where t"i~ .. · •. ry fortn develepedtndependeutlj . [U'I] > ["~l] ;ID. H,.""i/J"I n,lIJl!libiq (OP 34-5)_ This lasqlletis par. ticularly ;ntE.e,[;llg in riew I)·ftb" geogra.phic lim.imtio,nof [113 > [0]."

n is noteworthy that this change ill quality did not take plaee in.

,. Tb.. d... "I the G,..,I.: ""rrowiD~ or the .. Iph.ret names is "en impodant lor- OaruuLC1i't,.e 'L[ngu~:st;il! .re0:lnstruet:~IlJl 'Since t'hr;lin:ges. :sucll: as [11.] ') {5~.~ streee -l~gt.h:e.nin.g, e:m:f!. tb-e ,(L-g.ppiJ1~ 01 thE fiCl3l shod tiO\I,<-els. m::u.y· be dated in [eret'en>c~ tn it. See UII=n, Do" <lId is tb. G~.oI: All'habetl~ M!i.. ~8 {lrot) 3l59.:tlI,who d' .. tes i~ jot !Jle l~th-l Ub ee .. tU<}'; eee a 1,.. iDa.rp""t<r" .AJA:. 3', ~ 1933) 8·29; s.ti.]· w~l.l. i~id. 00.;·10; BLo,,«en. AJ.'l. 311 [12341 2NI; .}Darland, i~id. 8II·g2:.

'", See ne, 53... uSee DD. 117 ri

63

Hebrew Or ]doa:"ife·, .. oltho:oug'b. !be 'D.u:oiil'al.fum in ~hl$ l:iI:S"e~t had '00..11. the same >l!S ill Phoeeician, M 1l«ili Ider "the.., was a Heilmew c"""~e of all. 1[&] > [;;] (rull. 650).

This [a] in Phcenlelan (and ~!te m!l~h ~I" Fi] in Hebrew) was p'ho.""m;cal!.l' iliBtilIDt (r<lm I;h" "",rife. [;;] <, raJ (whiclL~ a d beeill ideo.tical with [3] «; [awl I. Phoenician [01 Wll:S a. ,>oumd..a vowel whieb Q!"i'elopeci toward I[a] in Lille Phoenician !L!ld PUDic, while the (:5] 'FEmaJia.oo a. roIai;i"cly epen .. o .... l :·O,,~. [,,,15IIi] <: ("oJ1mu] <. ['Blam,,] " EfmJlity '; d,,_th ["a:u;"i5U < [·~!mi.!u] 'Fdesses'; ""to [TIip1;] <, [rapi'TIl] 'plly;;icim'; J.",,,,,,,, .. psM,a] < [laSillll.] '··tongue '; 'ro$ [l'i5i] < [r .. ""] ., he .. d '.; as agaill~t ~p;,. [llIJF,[I] < [[laM"lil') 'white,'·'

289. 23;, .m·to·, [""de] < :liieid' EA 287. 5S}. In the Eg]1l',tiaa mmser.iptiooris Palestine (Heb.) [~] linn [8] are bt:rtiJ1..".ittao s: 'strt ['llitad;u] 'As!arle' (BIl.",banU 285),./Ids! !)tail",! .. to] 'N"e",· ('ww.ml" fBlIrehaIdl; '1~·7,. Voo.XII A 5); hilt. PaJi.6f,tim .. [il] is ·.,.,.i£ten " thus slJ.ow.ing that HJ and [ .. ] .. eea nihren,t;, qdi .[qws(n)] 'Kadem' (Bu.rclla«Lt 9.5:B·, In man,list., d. wrLJ. In tile 12,'ib. om11.i[l"j' we TIIiI.a m wriUen.l: :!a·'a,.ro' gate" < (~:rrl1] (Itam_ IlL: Bnreheedt 331, VQC:. VA 14).. If this is from Plroenieia, it. ios 1l00t surp"m"g; but if i.t is from P:alerline ;! wou.M indiati:a m > [ii], h] > ['].'" In .IEIE:bre:w of tne !.:i,m" of the w<itt<ln bihle, ILH aUlI. [s] had merged, bath. n..ing "",iUe" s.

[til is disii:nJ:ct f'<oECl [l;t] inthe E,gy;pti an b- an seriptiona :iromPal~s!in" (B.ueb."rdt § 1-92"); brut in th.e! S1h~shenq list (c. 950»" [!l.] seems to .half" mergl>i! wiUJ [i).j: .H I> {w)",. 'Be·th ru~"'n' (pwbahlr 'W;~h. e·tymologieal [!~]; }tum...'I'dt 38'1'). TIIi" m.ergi.ng :~s a]"0 seen ill biiJrticall H.b"ew, [1:>] :represeuiliDg fhe .r efl""es ·~f buill ·", u nd s,

[y] ;.,di.tincl; fJOOom [.] ill tilt" Egn>iian trame.i:l'lwILl! (Burclt"Nlic §, l~;;, Voc. TIll .Ii S, XVI A il}; blit Ril. :f91TIt iia-'lH'(k a:b~.e ",,,".ld mdicote thae It bad m".;ged w11:h [0] by -[hat fun., aa jt is seen to .have dome irubi!:>lieal. Hebre"" ",h"r" < re'p~e'"n.b the reffel""5. of 00-111.

Tno::g;: On. the '''lO'7 ·IlDcerte.im oyidenos. of ]U1." E'!lJ1>u...u transcei ptiOOl.s, the nrergllllg ef there sets lit phoIJ.eIDIOS 'Iaay 'ha"'e taken. ;~lar;e during the lUh d>" lO!'h ""urn .. )\ !El~~rasseT (BHG 160,.1:) aad o& ... sd .. te the mel'giDg ill the 4tB riimtu:ry E. c .. , GEl the argument that ·the ,;,.Iar spj"mflil vere· ,still "":remembered'" iII ~h.e S~.ptuagiD.t ttanscnptiens. HQ,,~·vet, pho:mem.~ .8.1:1) not reml!lllberod "nile .. hllY eease to e::<utm a oli9Iectj there :is ""0 satisfadOTJ .videu"" tJ:r.t these p·b", .. telD.05. emted in P"iestiru. at the fun. oj' tb<! 8e.piu.giot o.:fo. ""oera! i'£!Rhr,ie,,; eaelier, T.". Sepl:uagiat trnn~r.i.pli"l13 wiM> :;( _d. 1f eaanct be ~8d 'k> pr<>'\le [1!] a'lld. [11'] phcnemss, .co. fuey are !;oo frequEotly used. in ... ords wl:!ilib had at",..,. rogicil [1:>] anil. ['] (ep., e. g. Ro'izic"ka, ZA. 21 (19(18) 2.94-3M). The Sepl:nagii:l!lt 'variation IIf ;(, V with zern p'"'loohlji' represent merely the atrem:"t.d 'irilillicriptioDS of the ~~g" {If acirnallz",tioJIhs {Ii tail [!:t] and [.] phoJIhemes.

·38- Disuse of til e [t }refle·me of the simple veTilOJ! stem,

PUOl>, Perhsps jn. Pbceaiciau, woore tibar·saxe tw(), """lJ]<,~,,<e;; from l<llb. reIl!l1l.<yByblD6: £h!pl<' may there 00 ovex<turnea.; !/o!.sp , may it be "~"Iren '; bllt .Do."~. in~h" knewn . .li"guislie remains atter the: nth century,

H",bl'.ew-w:he.e it does Ilut 00I:1;I[' in u,,, boibli<JaE material exrept in. a. 11e'w ead]' Pale;s!imimplJloe· nam as ,,~d. !'r<l.b.My in the 'l'll(l'~ pqa; ['~"I], etc. (BRG U IS i; BL 2&, 285,GK 1M) ..

Not in MoiB.bit:e----hl!/lm 'fight (imv.) 'root, j'!l<m. t 32).

TllIm; If the absenee o.f tbis lltel'l1 in UIS rea:nly""ilwrial we h,a,ve indicaEe.li that it was n." IODg€T wed jin Phoemcian, Ibis deeli .. " in neq""".c:Y "I 1:!:;e must lila"" taken 1'10£., at leost in Bybl% lifter fh. IS'ol:t century, poeir~ps il@~ tii.1 considerably ali!e. ihell. La U garitie of the 15th. 1'Illlfury :iL is ,,"dely used: Ur!; "L shall go<abou~ ,. (I.A13 'i5), !mlW • yoo will figh" (TAB .. i ""4-;; }.. In thaAm. rna lette." it '" still !!still.: ~,i-iS.~1 'let. him ask.' {EA 28IU;;; Ebeliug 651. 11l. J ernsalem Hebrew ,t had pmbably 1'811.= into, disll$e hefere tke' 1m" cent ... ,]', b"fo,[.e <he early :no.~e"":!l compositioos ... ,,-[eb we. :b.<l fa lb." !nible.

3~. Mergmg (j,f [lJ with [s.J, [lJ] wiitli [~T. h] wi.t:!! t].

PLACE' lP..:I.est"i"_H] is "tin 8 disti""t 1'''''''£''''' i .. J """,.lera of the Am arna letoo,,", ",be:"" Je<ucsalsm [!i].;' WdtblII oS 11a.-~'" Eli. 288. 4;'l}, while Jerusalem Ull mil! [ii] are both wf.itl:ell. $, although they eould no<t hs-e' been the same ph,,,,eme in~;r emsalem sill.re th.ey had diB' .. ent i.;stor,ie8 bleT' (ia-ak-m.i 'Sacbem' if it had. RJ" Eli£<

615~ '\l'oc, XlV' .AJ5- ~ aon.[l. -w_it'h i U,p, 'tbe m~:NIt~1: [.e~; Ollt,' [~J ·~tdd ha:~ ;t"l>"'r~ in "otb. .tbe;;. I~""'_

'" II biblical {'i.bl!,jj'~J • 51<0 ..... ' :b ...... "..,log:ie'l ~]. { ...... It ... ':0')., !.ben. "'. ""''''' .. notb€, "urnp!" or [t]) [iiI in & Egw~"'n ka"""'ii'~''''' it"p.obabl!i' ~ sC:ram_ ~ 'in Shlll:iliemql!.s [li;:j~;I ETL XXXTIl 1~~ T~.

.. 0" the rilia;'ilitr o:i ,no SIl ........ 01 ~i5" ,eo· Allixi_gM,. ';.I'OS 4 ~ (924) 14;;;, 8.gmiJ!!lS,.. :ETL 101.

.. IThe phi!ln-emi<: d'io:slinef;ilJn h~tv;'"e:.el:l these t.~ .s.oUl[Jds W.B;S, :priitl.t.E":Jdl ,ou;l!: W me b'y Ji)r .. s,.pk..

n 'Thi~ :D.&m~ ,IIUcs.t be.~umed 10 :Cave: ha.d iDliial ~'~]i (ep. S&'Ila-eaJlJ !~m. i -c:u:ry;ll} ~~ it i.'.'i 'iWitf:e:Q. Yifrrth ~ in ~ Egy(IIli1ian :IT~~ECT.l,ptiOOEl, (:But¢ha.:.riU

Deoelopment: oj the Canaanite Dialects·

lUI See ne, i1.3.

time WE,.. ·still slt~ed <Ill the iilrst s]i'II!lbl.e): <I"iI1' [nad"r'iil.

< [nad"rilJ < [n9.darii] 'they "owoo..' •

Hebrew-Bcl'me.lh.e s!Tess:. [y'liiglim] < [yah.dtma.] 'chl[dmlli.' AII>-.r the str"",,: [qiWh'i] < [qWlii] < [q:!.¥tlii] 3 pl. pi. ve.-," imm. So thrcughout Hdorew ilil positions stated bclow.

Tum: After the stress shift in the noun .. and verb forms with. eenso'!];Qllfu!i .sulli::!oo; mild befure the stresa &.bill in verll forms without eousonental, s.ufIil:es !IIId in the infinitive .. e~b. 'forms; u,,, 1J!lJifi..<L ststement 01 "0.",.1 .. eduction assumes tb" stress 100, have I!een in. the positions in which it WlIS "my during this one period. Bergs!;[~"l1:'s l".~ d"te (BUG I 2c 1 p» :must theTeforo ~e re.ie.d_ After the dropping of inlll .hcmtww€1s, sinee forms ·",hicll Itoil origril'l1ll.\y had fin'! ~(I).t n·",.1s deTeloped aiffererrtly from those whieh bad final long (aaceps) vowels: [qa.W] < earlier (qatah.] ,.emainoo, but {qii.taliil:> [qi\:t"lii]; ''''B must therefore assume that the final short .. owels bad "tready been <iI(JP]l"'iI by this time.

C'UND!lTnlNl3: A short vowel in open s.yUab!e ",asreduCI'd belore the dress when between it ,end ~he strossed .yllable, or the next reduced 'l'owel, there were OM O! more syllables of which only the la:s~ Or no"" W.BS an. open syllable 'willi .a 5h~rt '""wel; "",d aRe. the st._s whell it fo!.lomd imm:edliatelyllfte,· fhe st:resreGi .s)I'Uab\e.

It is possible to SIll' iha·e there were two ''''parate processes of reduettOll, eue b<!-fo,., ne s,,"e;ss, and IIDle dte, it. :Both "(lulel. have bsd to take place within this period. :lied"ction before the ~:: after the ·1l.01LIl ~ilte:;s shift (but not neeessaril y after the dropp';ng of bal sh"rt 110,_ls.), andbefOl1e the verb "bess shift (since it w:as .nol operative in

.. verb JQI1I1S 'witi1{lu~ consonantal 'lIIftims); post-stress reduction: after the droppillg 01 fiDaJi sl",rt ,"o,,",,1s (0;; lLoo,ve), and befOllldhe "edJ. stress shift.

Tb",""suits of '!hese OO1ldit'oIl9. may be Mea iII tlte masoeetievoealisatioIl of Hebrew, and prnOOli~y alE.o in the Phosnieian material, wmch <Ill tnis .oro ... is rather unclear, b. Hebrew the reduced ."we1 boeome ["], tile q"alitj' of the origirull short vowel luling IlO IODgeT JlFes:en~ excapt in eertain, cases, d.ieily·in the elD.vhonment of bryngea1s. In Pboonicilm the origin'" q""my S~ to hall!! beell p oeser.e.:!. (hence the "mal £rall.re<iptions 0.1 reilliced vowel. 2S a, i. <!),. bon these redllced. Ca. ' •. iI] could alternate with ['J Bolli in Hebrew and i~. Phoenician [.] ()fIu lecei .. ed. the quality of the following vowel (!!S in g.a.,,.lim- above] .

.oDe analcgic :red1!ldjQ~ of .0w.1s seems to have, taken. place before thisehaage; the reduction of short ",}wei£ preceding the 2n.d person pl. and m. sg.!IOSEeBSive and objedive s"m..~·es (no. 2"'). We must a~om e

C-O'NIIJ."l'H)NS: 'Phese spi!.ant..,VIli""less dental j)m.d voiced all.d vo;eeless 'l'elar" !mil. merged 'with the Slime :sillilant and l!aryngeaI phouemes it! Phoenicia much earlier .... ' 'i'.be runpllatic spiranta and the ~oiCl!d de:n;lal I>pirantsliad mergeil with sibilaats boOth in. Phoenician and in p.oI"",tiAe at au ev,,'" earber time:"

40. Diatectal deRIGIDmeiILt of ~b.e [!!:] phonem·& (retention of H] phoneme?).

PL&CE: Epluslm ilie1""l "f Hebrew-the pr<lllU!Dciaii:icn [sibb6l£l] Nocorded in the Bible as 'lgaimt (Siliblilet J. 'stream" for the rest of Hebrew {J'u .. L2. 6).

},tot ill-Gilead (and Jero.salem'?) diruects cf Heooe"", by ·the J!Iarure.

of the s~"'Y in J II. 12. 6.

TIME' Tbis hlL of linguislic irrf<)[l!Iu!\ou prooobly goes back w preDaridic times in Pal es line, and Ums r",,~ls. a dialectal peculiarity which e-xi.tea :ill . ..001l't the nth o;2iJltory.

CONIlITlONS" 'Dh ere , !JAve bean · .. arying ioi;a[jlreiat:loru; of thisbibl.ical ~ts!em""l The ]Ilrm bm; ~ e"pbilled (M!l1"I!'IUIrt ZAW 8 (188~) 151)1 as. huing ('IIDl eentaiaed the [~] phonem .• at a tim.e when it had abeady mergi1d with [ii] hi. the re&t o.f Pal es ti...... The word [sibMIl3t] '.tre8.ffi' lJe.rusalem (Si1>MI~], as in. Po. 69.16); 13 gl~eill an elym€ilagy ,,<i.fll ill.itial [U; i.E Ephraim stm ~ronoun~ BJ at thi$ time Ih.. !iiblical writi"g with 8' would serve lIS an approximate representation, indicoiting its, ditIllrence from tihe [~] w.bie&. Oneall then pronounced in th"t word. However, the dislaetal dififereilfe lIr1ticl> this dolY ~ElretiLs may ha'ffl heel!! merelj: a difference in libe pronunciaEion ofthe [s] phoneme.

·11. Vo,wel reduction,

PUO~: Phoenicia:tl- Before the. stress: g1>bt.:iim [g'~afun] < [g"buHilla] 'bouudarie<;'; the evidence for Pboenieiau ;s highly uncertain because it is .moo11y hom peoper names, in ,,;h,ell vmi<nl.s special a.ulcgi~ changes mllY haye taken place, SClm.e transcriptions and Punic spellings would seem 1>0 indicate tbat sbod vowels were reduced imm.ediaWy before the sbress hut goo. ethet inte-rl'r"btiOl!l :may be necessary he.." StD."'" the weight o' ,evidmce points rather to reallclian in Ihe seoonoI ]I<e-3tr""" syllllilll" (OF 36).

After tit.· stressr the.'!!· is only iocHrt!cl 'Evidence" in that Punie s pellOGgS, ... Ii ich include "'llWe! letters, [lever sbClw !t. "."w"" lIfter the seeond radical of rub forms wi~h final kmg vowel {which at tbis

Development. of the Ccmaanite Diaieets

6'7

1h1 these two f"',l)JJl.t;ieoo, [liha!b'llim]' &lid [dabar"ka] ,I the latkr lUI al~IDamt to [dalHtrika]), e>:;slerli at fhe time Ilf tho. gensrel "lruw'el reductiQIl stated. above, fort!b.i5 redaetion opemW in theseforms II;!! elsewhere.

Bergstriisser"s statement (ERG 1. 21 i) omits one tJP'l' of "yllable before whidl reduciioD may occur i open syllable with loug l'OWei, as in [da1ra!re-Si:r] > [di~re-;fu) 'words 'oI oong •. ' A ~Qmewba·t diffe$61iItststemwt IS given in. B[' 2c39-41_

o:ftbe re<i"cOO! ·""'0'01. 'were eUideilJ,. ~Dt the ,~p'i.va"tizOO .. P~"·w. .. cj ati"" remained. If we are [13 oonli.l!Il1" e'ien ai!er this hi COnIDileF' !he ~iranl.s as poshoca1ic positienel .ariaJlls of the stops, we most then. ccnsider these elid~ vowels as .. ero vari&llts of the O<"iginai vOWE11'11oDemes which. had been there_

TbiS is in ess.:ntia! aecord with. I:h~ positi~n presented by Sievers, aud SCC<lpted iill principle by others (!BRG [ 2il .,., BL ll-09-11l), that spirantizati.lln liIad taken place bafore the syn~o~ 01' u",d.c "F.'he di!lIicullies in .:Jat-ing wb.ich =mpnniilil this .lew are ooviatetl if the S)'l!loope (If wwels is DeCOgnlzed as being 3 .~par"'" ch""ge, De~rill' later th&ll the vowo[ 'reduction_

42. Spira.o.ti2ation.

PLA.CE;; ~h()e":;cian-1"IIfe [rop~] < [dpi'u]'bealer'; wfd [&8p~] < [6:8pi~o] rular "; SafO'tis [Sap5~] < [MpatuJ <He h.a:s judgOO!' inominal fO'rm of "arb in p~c;~r -name); A!1icllu:wr [,a!!d!k.a.s5r] (OP 129);, Au&.a'j1«_ ['!l!!d·a!iladJ (GP 130, but ep, O • ..s....rr"':P' GP' 86) ; ':9'1> ili [Zi1!] ,. 'denliml. willi. the mlmth-1!l13.rne [siw] 1 K:i. 6.. ] •. However, lin the la<ge ma.joritYIl[ tr8.l!lreripti()Os them is IW indi()9- !JullnC spiltaJ!lt1211lioD ; L&t:iu p,. ph rather than [, is usuJIIly WTitten jor' Punic [p] even w'ltenif was poshoealic and hence spirantized.·'

Hebr.w--{diiQir] < [dabaru], and &0 thnmgih()u'~biblica] Hebrew.

TL!llN: Probably after the eJlrly ~1] > [z] and ihe Iater m > (8), I[!!.] > [h], bJ > [<], siaee Iltere are 110 traces ef eenfusiou betweeu meoo spirants a nd Ute undm,.bl:edlj' very similar pestvccalie .pi rantized prcnunciafiens [d,!o. ",~]; [pJ had ... o earlier eeunterpad, s:!la [Q]'Wll'II hardly e,'ep eonfussd 1!O"ith the semiY~wel [w] (BlIG 1 G m] _ Before !lJ.e .ynrope of certain redueed vow,els (see DO. 43) ; IiIl1t there is 110 indication ""hether spirantizati(1O fook ptaoe before or a n er the ','owe1 roouctic;D to shwa,

The ,lltgOlment that spiranti""tton must. be later than tne borrowing of tbe ".Ipbabe't mamas by the Greeks cannot beadduced here ; it may Ol' 'Ill.a,. "otaDl:ed~.te that bOO1;(l1oI' ;og, Jlnd there i.s. no clear _y in wb ich the Gr,="k Forms of the names could ha ~e represented, tbe ~piran:!<s,n

CONlIITJO : The simple stops [p, b, t, d, k, g), were spiranfized after vowets, Th~6 WItS an assimilation 10 the openposition ot th" preceding vowel, _ and; Un" re:snlting spirants. wer:e merely aen-phonemie positional vansues 01 the stop phonemes.

Some of the sbort. "owets had uudoubtEd.i:y been xeallceo. to M,w.a. 1>0.1'0.00 this: the "owels before th" 2nd person 1''- s.nd m, sg. suffix, and prollalJJy those of Ihe genera] vowel Doou.ctiQD_" SpiranlizaboD 'OOClJItreda(ter ."diu""d .'Owels (sh.wa) as well as af~rluU "0,.,,15, Litter on, certain

.. Ed"",.d sapir in Ls:ogtr~ge 15 (l ~19 P 114·5- "s.. SJ;>.i see- , JQR In 11!I2:6) $SS-1'O.

"&e :00_ 2~ end ill_

'4'3. Syo!Cope of certain reduced vowelsc

PW.lJH:: He"r·""" - ea!!m.a~] < ['a4'ma1!t] < [,ail£m1ati], 'my InnJi >; [mallse-] < [m&!'J;;e-] < I[Ilt:iJlake-] 'kings lCRL}-'

Phoenidan-Do evidence.

'ilL'UL!;: After the gel!l:eral vowel Il!d.uclion_ Arte, "I'iTlfnlization" since otber'O'ise the simple stope &fle, elided vowels would DOlt have been spirant'.ed. BeiON the sbess ,.b:ift in rerb forms, i,<)r we ClII'1 e:tplain why red.u;ced vowels weDB 'Dot elided ill eertain verblo ... ms ow y b, S"lling {bat ·the, shws ''''lIB sHU OIl the fi rst :SJlllah'le 'lJii these forms at th" tim ... that ei.jsiol!l took pl.ace: e, g_ the eedueed ,,01'l'e1 :iD ['1"rot;;] ...,roamed_ .BClrgsbisser's late date, aftet the 4th ,century Be 'c. {BRG I 30 k 1 is tl:tereifGr.e impessible,

CGND:lTIONS: B,eCill.ced ,rowels were elided iE all unstreesed open. syllable with stmxt vowel preceded them; !he oo:o.sClnant pr,,;;ediio,g the elided v(jwil. was then. syU.abifioo. as lb. Mod eoasnnant of the I're<leding syllable, making one dosed (Ul!lst[j)s~ed) syllable (wilh sl1'O'J1t vowel) ill the :plaee of ·two tlpell syllab!es_ A.~ noieil in InG'_ '12, th", elided .. owel may 118_."·· tileless be ",gaJ:<i'eiII as II zere .. ariamt 01 the· original,c;"'e!, and ihe spi raafiaafioa 'which had. !.shu plaee dt.r the vowel usually ',eman neil.

This elideill vowel has oItenheen called" shws. medium" (BHG I 10 e, II p. 17'6); 'hul :it occupied no middle position in pr()lmnciati(ID,Il<Jr olooa i! ,l.[e"'I1& on] historical problem. when 'newer! merely 8Sa.D add:utioonal sound change aftei" vow~l rOO]acli<l1l II BL 2>09- W)_

"44. [-it] rep]ated by [-AJi.

]l>LA.C}l: J,.rwmlem and Cltner Hebrew dialects - ""'1M [hlmlli"lM] < [lutruriqbatJ < [hllllni.qbi<tu.] 'the ltmoel' (Siloo:m 1); bnJ)~ical Heb"." f_ sg. GIIJfu p.], vr,tt.lI -a_

Som.e Phoenicia .. di"'ed$~~dyq' [",eliq;] < I[?adi'liil;] 'just {f.)' !m~' [tsram~] < [tammat] 'perle~t {f.l' (both Nee-Punic colonial forms, it i~o(lt known frQID which. Pl .. "",ician dialect},

Not in most Phoenician diaJects-'rpt ["ur~all 'c1eresoory'; J?'hOOnlclan place names ill the bible, e.g.. [~I'"p;i.~]; possible Joan-word through Pboenician in Hebrew: [OOr'q:I!] -'emerald' (Exe.2<8-13)_

Not in some parts of Palest' ... e - ilL Ioesl phoe names : ['eta~], '[ba<alAH, [gi!#t] (this perhaps Oil !he analogy of the eenstruet, or hom the locative; BL I)UI'); in some personal names'; [giDa~], [&m.'iH-

N.fr~ in M(labLte-&b mil o'! ., lhi~ altar'; however, ·the change may ba.e

spread 00 JIj'oobEre lifter the lime or tba Mcia iD_illtiion.

TIME: A£te.r ar'Oll'ping' !If fio.oJ &tort v.,wds, since the :feminine noun, ,Stllm ",as netfins] mntil the [)300 endings were dr.opped. :Before the ,.eri> stress &hi!'I;, since [-At] in IIlyw .erbs Jid .. c>t change. Before 1011, .i11O •. it appears in the Siloam ieseription.

(lO'!,u)ITIONS; In. parts of tb ... Canaanite ,,""8. this change took place only 'in the ""rb fem. so:fIix, hence beior,., the neun fe:ro. snJfu: became ftual. In thoseparls where both ".r" and noun snflil:' cbangeil it is !Jes~ to assume two changes: one befo.... th .. elision 01 final sAort, ·foll'el~. an,il! a seeend after that elision, gel'! the canditions slated_ ill nil. 33.

When. non-final, [-at] remained, !IS ;n'DImn. 'j];! the eonstruct. 'Unstressed [-at] teraained, as in the Iny'" vcro [Ol:ms [1i.ayM], ete,"

4:;. Ertemsio.n '0 ( 'Ute a rtide to the demenstrafive,

PLAt:ll: Re'hr_-J-."I, Az!. 'probably [ha~ hOMi] 'tb;" ·time' 0( Laeh;"sb

,~. 2-); [U:tabbiyi:~ hazu.] and -the Hlre in i);!>lical Uehrew.

Not in Y,,-Udi,-Mpr ~ 'this i=ril'!i.oD-'

Not ill. JPhoen.iciall-h"rpt .' , thls demOl'Q"; kmm!.!:t ,." , that prioce." l.'otin Mllabire-Mimi z;'1 '1Jh.is altar" (3).

TWE: TIIis usage, ofthe demonstrative ",i:th article IJr,elixed, had proba'bly become regula, ""{o.re !.he establi.:b.ment of the ]iktary style of the pmphetie w:r-itil!lgs, and before th., chief earl] ,eilIitJ:ngs of lbe biblical stories, fOT otherwise we should expect 00 ·lina. more traces of the earlier form without th., a;tic!e, It must tJnK'eiore precede eousiderablv !he

time W Amos and Hezekiah_ • •

CO'NUITIO()l'lS: The regular coastr .. ction in Canaanite, as also in A.I3.maic aud[ Allidian, 1$: nona + definite article, followed by demonstrative pmliloWlIri!hmrt article (P!I. !<pr" '!his inscription," '1J>ib. Aram,

, ,

~ qO!rnii. d~] 'tbis horu "). Thlll:e CliIlltraoes 01' a perhaps earlier Imm, as in Arabic;. di!ID.on.tr"li ve with.out STn.de, !f\!ll"",~d by noun + article (Heb. [zihii'~m] < this people' Is. 23. 13, (zi: 1aJ.lm<'iIlIl] ,. this our bread ' JIl'" 9. ~; Bib .. _"rem. [d>na bi1Jyana] "this building' and so especially in Syriac). 'The common Canaanite 'construction is found In ilIlrly Hebrew mseriptions : h(lim'" this seal' (Diringer ]I. 2,5]); in a few rare cecurreness in the bible: [baUayla 'bn] < that night' ! Gen. 1'9.3,3, 30.1'1>,1 So 19." lQ where the text hasbeen doubted), [baq,'!..gesa hi1 (Geo. 313.21) ; and it is the loot ·I':rototyp.e for the irequ_t He.brew construetion with suffized 'nonns, which consists, lili:e the eommca ClUlaau:i~e eonsfruetioa, of a noun + defining 'elemeu~ {in. this case pOSEe ss "" e s uIEi:..:, ,i~"'aol.. "r mid" J 'Io.llowed by demo:nmative without deflning ,elll.m.ent: [:S'~ii . ..,tt z&!] 'thls ooy O!E!h' (GelD_:24. 8), [d·l!a.;eoii ""] ,·this our ·wo...(I' (J 00" 2_ 20) . Latar, lind '1)1lly in Hebrew, the demOjl~tlicai;in mo' came W be (I'reiUeil. with the adicle w·hen.&er 'the noun ..... ao prefhed ; thi~ was. a Dew S)'llisclic formation, plobabiy Oil the anilOgj' of the. adjecti'l'e" (DQUns. in apposition) which follo~red the noun j1S diill the (lP.monstrati.ves, and which were preU:red witih the article wbeIle.,,£ the noun Wa.sfi

46. Relative [zli] {<[<1-u]}repl.aceB by [('a)s.].

I'U.CR: Ya'ud:i---wmy o'bny '$ !lib 'who<;~er of my sons.ehail sit' (134). !ByblC>S-IDk! 'am .j ~p • and any persou who cOlltinues' (5th OO'ot .. ). Oilier I'11081'.ici:11n d1idool)g-'n~n 's btl" • it is we .. he built'

North Palestine Hellt,ew-[k-] ([Sa-] ,Jo. 5.7,6.1'1, ate.] in North :P"lestillial1 sources in Ki., Ju .. ; bIer spread ore, Reb:""", area. and _ heqtlel!lt til tailer biblical hooks, where N orth Hebrew is relJl.ti .ely more prominent (Bergsldsoer, ZAW 29 «19{19) 4(i;BL 264·;, O-B).

N "t in J erusalem Hebrew .""dMoabi 1>3, """ :00. 41.

"]'rllE: Mter 1500 in U garit, which has ii [dil] 'th. one ..,h.o' (lIAR i 39).." AfilE~ the 10th {lelltwry, at least in ByblllSwhiclll has ~ [zilJ] in iU$cri.pt;"!IS 01 the 1.Mb to loth centuries (OP 98). By the ~ll> eentury, at least iin Ya."11di. The:new rebti"e, ['as-- J .m:a.y have become regular in rome areas earlier u."n it did in. Byhlos_

COliiDI'J:10!lS; Tu" .I€me.nt ['lL"-] had undoubtedly existed in these dialeets hom l'<oto-SeID.Ltie tiwes;, i't is cognati! with the uelaUoe [su] (f. [sal], pL [mt]) ",E Old Akkadian. and the "elated .~eciali~ed (aec.) relative i(~a J 0( < Proto-Sem itie f:Clrm wilh initial n·]: Thuraau-Dangin RA 30 (1933) 93; Poebel, O.LZ 31 (19'23,) G~'.l). II,;. early fElnd;;oo in ·these 'Ganaonite dialects is not known; it was ]l1'obshl.l' used as It ~.I.a!.ioe in I'a:riio:illar aonstmetioas, h a"y ease the ... Iatise [1M] declined in

frequeIlcy oJ U~E," !IJI.d ("0£-] <!am" to be userlI. more and m{),e m its plaoo. B,<blos m~e:ripti.om; ~boll1'i.his change of IEs;age [oed y 'lael;ween the ]®Ih ",,,d 5th. GeIll:1ll"e5; it seems tolna ve been ecnnected, .. t least lhere, "';~h tb.chonge of ·the :fOirDlS of the delill!1"skati~" from .,. 00 '" (Gl' 54-5, 63-4)_

4'1. Rolan"," [zii] ([<liiI) by r~ser].

PLACE; J"rosale:m HelJrew-ligpr '§T $~. ',e(moemmg [he lel:oor whkb he s""P (LllChlsb 3_ ~-6); ["'S£x] in Mbl~l Hob," ....

1Iioabi~',;,- Y"1'ly 'which :IT added' (291_

Net in ]?ho~lJici",n., N erth Reb~.w.; see ne, 46: ..

Tnu;:: 1Ille poetic literature (If the bible 'has many oce1:IJUmlIlBII of 'the relati ... [zit] < [,~ii] (_, GIl}" .J:mwi"g i'~ 00' liIa"e bee .. an o.ld :[0,.,.,., '"til] remembered from tradrl~,llnai :Ii!er,,:l;ure and reserre.d £0'" el.""ailed lil:et'axy style, bn'~ M longe,u&ld m 'ihe <;;(lEI!U"On IHerllry ~le Qf 'the '~!lr]y' :pooph.,ts and editors or lhe kill: traditions, Th.e"ew relativa 'W'lIS therefore ill eornmon usa .prGoobly be.i'ore tile, 10fh, ,eentllry_, ll3:e!oro tl., 5ta OOElW,ry ill ,Mo.Rbioo.

CQN:nl'l'10l'lS' Re1l~l'" oI Prete-Semitic eatru] 'pi""'" Mil reillted foDI1O oacnr in. maDY Semrti" hmgn.~",,- liD J:e,rm;aJ.elll and ll.loooite, as tQ' " aligbt me"t ;Ii A!:b.dia", the 0J0:9stmci: 'i>f this. fnrm, 'pb~e .. f, plate wh.oe:re,' came to fie used, as a relative, jJIO'bably fiI5~ O'I pl.ace and taiom, g8'aerai1y'. The. de~ajne inll:eqn~l1I~ 0:1 'I!b..a rel .. !;;<e [zll] OO~iDJS to ha .. ~, ooeumd, tbrollghout the GaWl3.lllite area at mote or :~ess one pe ,i,ad; anti the difEeren'lJe ill. jig saceessors 'cut an .isoglJiJSS across C~munite, thro:mgh. the ]£,.b"",w ,a.ea_ ' . ,

4B.. Disuse 0:[ .fo,mswith deid:ic [-t].

PL.«C!l:: HebFcw-mo.5~ com-mun p:;epooitiom; are Im,ma 'wi,thoOlt til .. [,-t] ': [,<Le] Dll<l ['81JI'0n,,' [li.pne] 'befo're,,' [to~]' w,ulb:in',; a f_ Emil. have [-t] bd t. a ",e been remw'l'Ieted as fernininesc 80 prO'bll1iy [miiilKiln.il:\J "between': and the pro!l".m [zau "t-his (1..1,' Gp. the probable Phoenician ""goat" lido· ....

Not in Phoenician-<I! ["0.14] (By'b1"" :>!h e en t., Sid"". 4.11, <:e n t., Punic) ..,. wel.l as "'!!I' ['.lIllI,S.]1 (B.JIblos i,3inb-]®1h eent.), "l ['8L(.e)] (Bth!.os 131b eent., Ya'udi, Punic, etc.) ''''''; 1',,1 (Pu,ruc) as well ItS IF" (Bybl es nth elml, Ya'adi, N.<:l-P,mic) 'bef"re'; j,li;! (B)1bl"" 5th ""'Dr." Ya"Gdi?1 'wilhin '; 01, Ln.tintna8OT.~ptiQD~!k (::.o~l (?)] , this 'n~ed iiD Punic as maseulias, 1:1.""" with i"ietic I[ -t], :Gol f.em. [-tJ, ",,,I prob.a'b1y eognab! wilb IIeb, [zan-

d

I t

1

TIAffi: Wile forms in Cot] '!:reid p~o:ba:blr t.eOJlBil to hoe commom, ;[1 H,.bl<!W before !.h,e writillg il:llwtl of the classi<lli! texiS or the J "d3UII kingdom> and before, the ]I~~pnelic writmgs.

C0KE11~HmS' Gp_ tho muCh sarller dli.use OIP''ODomrul, with lot"] in Phoenician and Hebrew, 00, 2B. In .Is'~ biblicsl lEIebrew the prm:mUII form [hem] 'they" gains in i~eqnenq O!fer [hrun1i] < [hinmt] ",hich h",d, the .dl.~x Df the deietie rot].

!l-9_ New fo'r.maltion o.i ,tri-tt:adka] i,pf. :fQOUS ,o,f J.l~'.

PLieE: l.f@.bi'le-imv, 11:' go' (H) bot ipf_ "., .. i,th w1I:woo:tt5ecutiv,e," ;_"., shod preter,te} 'liif 'I went' (1~1·

Nol, in I("lir,ew'-",yfhw 'tiley fto .... ~d' (.]00 sh.ort prel:e'rlle; Sileam

4) ;. b:ibUcol HebllflV (,eiel;;], .,i'.c:.

TlJi~&;Be£o"" '9tk cwtu'1 in Mallbite.

CoNI)]l?W!IIS,' In ,;,iew o,f the wide. clilfnsIo1ll ,<:>f !be I w-like :f.QffiJ.S .o[ III'!. ill Ca:~I3"'lite," and ~'iru2 MwootJl ibscll has one Q,f Ihes<l ,i{)rms, H ,", prolil.lth'le '!hI!'! ill the ipf. (preterite), too, tho sll()vt form. hail been ad.opiE.d in ll[o:>!!bire, ""t that later a s&oond new fl>l:matian, on the aJn:!oog)' ,(lithe "i. Jil~,reg!o'~ed t~ ipf.. iaI"IDS with [h-]. This;s prooobl" .0 bue ()£ !he sinriiar late Reh"",.. ipf. [w'II'yj':aD.'il.ol;;].

so, [n"pii] > [aabs].

PM.GE; YlI.'mli ~IlW :!11m' ll:Je rolllGf an. orphan' (1:3), ,,"" .I"'''''w , th. 'soul of !l'annamll' ill, !he 8th cantu 'J' Hadad i[).Eorip!ion (lme 32) from. Ya'udi, whicl:t is ,Arammc Il'IItwilh 100a1 OeJ1llwt.a ,admixture [see chapter 3.5, mo. l'Q}.

Not in Pboenieia u e lse",kere--n,¢ (CrP,,'s 4th ce;I!lq. N em In !Elebre",_:b'blieai. [ n i~cl].

TrID:;: Before Ilhe ""d, Gf ih~ a ti C01lt~l"f i n Ya'ull.i_

CON1>!'TIONS; Tbifl ""mit ha ... been !I, special ehallge in 'this wctd, perhaps !LssimiL.atioll of tite, [p]' to Ill" ,iIli'C'ing 0:1 !.'he preceding ""011'0'1. 'The assimilation may have eccurred ",,,re ".adily ;;f, as is peobable, it took pi aee in the final twO-ro<lS!lIIl,""t elu.-rer, ",hi.clt ""'" ereated :'lner final short l'Ow,els were dropped.

51: Shift !If the stress, in verb fol"WS wuJhout eensenantat s.u:ffixes., Pum:; l'hOODici~l'li~ "li'he:r4! seems, 00 be no dired e.idelilC-e.

He1.>mw-('".B1l!liOXJ' be said,' ete., with lab, Hob"B"" pre-stress !e"gtnen.iD,g "nil. lJ):troootir: st.ess-i .. dicafion, in til. second ;Jj'l1ahl~,

72

Deveicpment of the C!Jmaanite Dialects

'ir'I:>lE:: .AJf:eI !:he ilrnpl'>ng "f fiual sborl vowels,f~r, had lb.", then peuaU syllable been stns."d before ibattime, its vowel. would have been lenrihened as in the U!l1111 (see belo ... ). After the genetal rOliVel ~ecl!ucHon."ior i1 ·""rb <a,m. had beee. sf:ross£d 0.0. the ii:rnal syUa:bIe at fihat -time, no statem .• mt <>auld ·.ce~UIi.t for the diJJ:ereDt reductions m aeun, lUI." verb forms, Alter !he S)'Deope of nd1!llleO!vowels; s:l'1lwpe did not occur in these verbal ("tInilbooaru;e tltey still had initial slrw;!< DUring or after the 8tb C>elLt,,<y ill Palestine, since the transcription ",-u-s-"" (128 II. 0'.) indiC'.B.tes It CallJlQnite [hiiwm']lwbieh .hodly or immeti.!atdy an..: the stress shin b=e [h&l!']: bowever it .may ha"" "een [hawsit with Iheverh stre~ shift Ila~ng jus·t 'taken place and the diphthong remainiag for a short time aii;er .It lost the &mss:.'~ Befnre [-"'-] > [~a-], since that ebaoge occurred ]Ill •• rbs whell tuey already .h&d final stres,,-"

ColWITIOlfS: III irtfin:itive""rb fllrrns, a.ndfiu]te vern !furms .. :lthout eonsonantal s:u.ffi.es, "U 'of which bad ~D excluded from lobe earlier shift (If the stress, l1.e, stress DOW shifted to ihe final syUab!e (l!HG 12.1 Ill.) .. The r€ill'U ·lVas [,qaj;a!] < ,[qata!] < earlier [q.i!a1aJ (this as oompa:red with the DOI'l2D:1. [da!>"r ] (I!L~[ Reb .. .[ da.llar]l) . directl, < (daMvu] I : 1T [yaq~l] _(later ~0!1>. _[yiQt6l]) < [y:iqt111] < earlier ba.q~I~]; [q"~lil]1 <.[qa~l,,:] < ~qatiluJ., 111 ·,BrO forms Ilk" [qa!ilti] tbe stress never sh:ifted, smce Jt had beenon the penult .,yUable from !Prow-Semitic timBS. and IililIS satifllied Ib" condijions of the li£'.St .tr_ shift withont <:bmoging. III •• it. forms like [qa:!8lt'lllll<L] the .s!resshad .bi:hed to the penult syUable ill ibe. fin;t stress shm,tilat syllable ""coming lite ul£i!ma when final short 'O(lweis ,bopped.

That the secoud."wel o( [q,,~al] Was short is indicated, in HE"rew by the masm:ll.t!c .'i'O[!9LizatiIlD. wilh shorb [ a] (pamb); ill Plaoo!lic:illll by t~e, fad thai ~~ did 'lOl> become [0], as long [3 J (certainly stressed ~1I:ng [aD :,"oll[d h..-e done, Cp, ror Phoenician "'-Ia-~iH' [ya!a.Il-'~I] < Et hasglVEIl' (/ADD 621.2); so:-pa.-li-bar.Gl [s..pa~M'(a)j] < Bsal .has !udged'; probably iiu-ia.-t,,-tMI1.! .["el-ya!3u] (BABr. 1112. 8) ; prohaJbly '''-'-l.a-<>.~''. [yapin] 'He ~1tS give!> " (JADD 54.3). TI", large> ~aioriiy ~f !,~"e~lClaD protw'r names haVll II long " .. wd in the hal s,lIQbl.e, eren ~f If IS In a verb deme!lt, bnt libllt is becau;;n the proper names w.ere in tMmseh-es nominal iOTll1S a'!'i as such .sniitfd tlteir stress ill the :fi~.t .~m."" shift: ia-a-tu·"a I[ya.!;in] < [yatiiDIl] 'He bes given' (so Gi=berg, JB1 0'6, p~3'1'} ]39,; Broekelmaun OIlZ 40 (193'1) 1>23' .g&inst

GP26)_ '

I

i

I

,

~

"'·'See :no. 4.3-; ~ a!:ao 4-:a. e.c;d.

~ S'e.e !rIIO" l", 'lmae:to' J e.rusaJ.eall ecmdHion!l:, and. :3 L

:r,!I, See JIlO .. 5S. " Sea ne, '2;.3:.

I~

73

52, 'lrowel :roouc:tio" repeated ..

PL.<CI!: Hebrew-IYtJ!&Wlli] <[yuqaWlU] < [yuqaWlil] < '[yu.qaW.1fiJ

Phoenieian-vac e ... idence,

Tum: Afle. Shift Qf th""erb ~tress to, 6 na 1 poEitiiQII., siooelAl.is ted1ll~tioD is mated to thO! lina:! stress, l?robalb!y irnmediatel:yafwr, sinee tbis second reduetieu ccastltuted a eease ... iog of the phonetic strueture established by ihe6nt -reduction.

OoIITlIIIONl>: This is an applicafiou 0.1 ·the reil.action rJeso:ribed. in 110 '. 4J! 00 tl!te new gloup offiu!Llly-sl:<essOO. forma C'E!Lt.ed by toe nIIl s~[e~s sbart.

5<3. [- .... (-)]> [.il(-)].

PUOJ]: Phoenicia,,-r".IS<l~ [nasii!=l) < [naM'ti] (~oot nk) "I hore.' R~b;:el'1 - [w3.§&] < 1[!I!.!l.!!a:'] < [""'~il'''] • he feund"; [IDi§at'i] < [1Jl!!¢ it] '] fowull";: buE not ill. [ma .... ~I] < [m .. 'lcilu] 'food,' [y~"1;:lil] < [ya'kUIu JI 'he whll "",l'

T D:l:1l.: Alter lb. dropping of final ·shcd >rowels, which yielded tho> fulliJ. :[-<3:'] g:t'('ul's. Mk;c: the '<Brio stres ss ~Mi .• thus llCIOOun~iog f:(lt ·tbe .~if'r~tent histories of Ihst and seoonil! stem syllables. Ibe first syIl3lb1." being 11"11'· unstressed in both ..."Il anOl. noun.

Bergstrasser dates thj~, change mll~h earlier .( BRG 1 15 e), 'hut the pooitiClILS in which it took "lace .eClui· re the hter d a l:iDg_

{Jmu.rTIONs,: -S,ylill.abl."c!...mg ['] assimilated tQ pre~elli"ll" [!'] in .~r=Bd. syllables" whelh.er lind o. media], Sin"" the change of [a] > [o~ w'A9 past 'S-tb:ianew [a] aid not become [ilJ as the first [a] < [a'C] had.'· III. Phoenician ;t became [5], since bmg [a (8.)] > i[~ (5)] continued.'"

~ iBe.gstrasser reoo.gni~·ed this a. a sound ,chmga (1lll1.:r. in li:nal positil:ltl, as in. [ma,a'] > [mJl!la], e:>:p1ainillgfoTIDs like I ",~atl] by analogy 'of [m~] ; however if the change took place at this time, it em be understood as a regnla.r seund ehsnge ill an these forms, and ~o,,= to snalegic formatiens is [lot nscessarj;

54. [.j'-] > [-8:], [-0.'.] > [-ii-].

FUGH: Phoeweiall-B~pov8, byrt (iBlte Ol'thography) [Mr8B < [bi'r5,t] 'lileimt, 'Wel!:;.'

H<1brew-n01i.[l5 of tbe type,t>i [rem] < [rimu] "·,..i111 ox,' and 0:1 bhe o:econdary type [b"~] 'wel.I' b.sed on [bl'ru] ,

1t!:oalJu.Ie-O-., [bar] < [hi'ru] 'well' {or ~bifir] i' 24~.

TlilfE: There is 110 eertain evideo.oo fur Une date of ihls ,ehange, bat it

"s"" ..... t s,

11IS~:CJ:l.I"'.

·"See. D.O. sr.

74

75

pr~bablJ ""'SJiateJ;.th..a:,m tI!. "bange of [a'] > Iii.], .since ['] assimilate.] mol'e irequBatly b [II]. lE'e'l'OOpS ab()a1lhs Sib ,1:1. ·7th oentury: ~mn tmnseriptitms of lJ:mt timB ·01100 .... forms oolli with. IIIld withoot. the [oJ, 11~-di.I':'·'1i (OlE' rss), ~.""II'" (GF ~:51; bw-g;:_' (GP S$). App.arently bel'$)re '!he 9th ~eRtu:ry In Moab..

55. [yiq\iIJ .amsatllie stem,

Puo", Ph""'lIieWn (B'O ezidenee th. Ya'ndij---wyil""y [WII-l'"s;,_~nll'ii]

'".aa we cansed brim. to dw·dl'I(J.P 42). -

N" O)~ ~n Eamat-[h-] p:relh: ,ur/tm!i;"y • au.d he caused met", rule' (.31. No[)!;.In lIJelJoow-[h-]' prefu: h .. th .. [hi'lJ11] eausstive sbem,

Not Ia MQmi~[il-J prnlU: M'Il:!!" he BaTed me' (;1)_

T~." There ,;!o;€ :DO eIl,dy occurrences (If the CAusative in Pfu.oenician tem, ~'" that it.,,; impCJi3Sible ro fell[ ... b,.ih.r lb., d~l!dop",-eot o[ the form with [y- ]~JIefixwas ea:r.ly or late. It J!!lllst bra"" beelllrlter the &.elopmen!. oj[ Ute ,[i ]I'"we~ in the JI['eft:;::, wli.idJ seam s tc have aLre..ir en.<i1.d ill the Hlh """tao;y, H !J;H~bH: (8 ... Pal. EA 256. ~l is. the, eawoatil'e [Jl~~"'~] « me hid' (EbeHug ·Sot".

CoI"DlTI~l"rs: TJ)" o.rigi"- ·tlf this. f'H:m is' rrru,::lL(I\Wl>, eaeept U,,,l :it """loaMy in"<ll'i'ed assiroil.atroIl of l[fl-]I to the fo.Uoll'i'll.g· [-.i-]: [hi'l.jJ!.la] > [yiqJil.o.].. From. these, I'hon.tical1y derel"p.ed. forms; tim [yo] eausati.e spread to ",~u.":El= wlleye i'hart S!Scimibtion hlld "r>t!.akBi[l place (e. g .. the form Cltl!d :illov.e), and thug r,epfuc.a Ell.· [h-], ca",,,,,li.€.

.5"6. [~uiJ' I ' gains m fr€1J"e'I)~y ,"""'" [';i1Il~.1ciJ-

PLLCZ: Hshre .... ~['" .. f] in eemrnon use (GB).

Not in Pheenieisn, MoaIJit~!1ris icon is not "'ooniod, on.ly 'Ii..!; , J:.'

TllI1l:.: ['an'ii!9J is re.,")lia;r if) 0." Ml'!y wr.itbe'UlOlll!tres { .. nd oral """,aritinns] oithe ));b.le (J, E). So",,,,,,,,. wMdt prabal)]y iiata j"ast lJ.fore, lire :l'eriO)d of ~ne POOJl'~etSQse I>olfu. fGrm. eqlleIly (Sam.), 'while ta. ea,Ji.est prophets me, rilil6~iJ w formal ·utternn€.>S, bu.t ["rtf] more l:re,±n.g,tly, espedally in. oidinary sp..",h .. In th·. ljteJ-atu:,~ of the Ballyi.onian erile and post-1rril:i" P'ale,rone ['a"5~]hardlJ e .... eoeurs, . We mllSt j'udg,e, "iiwl:efot<), 'rMt ["'Ill J b=ma. .. tb:e OW'e frequent "w((I,d f,,! ,. I' iI"~ing the ll'nltb. ~tury, R:nd that by til. Ian or 7tlt cellln;y ,['an&kl] was rare ill lbe S'pO:hIl Lo""gtUlg.e.

CON"DJ"l:IO::S-S:' Eo", [""-0&1;:;] "!Iii [~ .. 'I] lire ",.1Ines of Proro...S"'tIlitic ~'IIOlIS, the :futmer ha.vil>g ~IDe, regrtl,," ;rn, East-Semitic. :!ll!.d C8JI"""i!e, !he !!lite< in. Ar;amaic ""0 SGn!ih-S"rnitic.Ear'ly Canwul.ire a!scl !I.an [':"ni] ,. urung it :ial:freqnently: Ugaritie ~n (.JIAB h 59-S(); 1"'ll ii I;?;,

L9); ilIl Hebrew jb.xistan~ is to 00 assumed. from tb. fad mat it later opread omiI rep.t.ceil ['i:n6!p:]. '['he positi"n of EL 248--9 ibal ["':n.i] "'''" an dram!!.i.; fnr:m. belollgmg te ·tlteIrYI'a'llb",tir::aI J'D"'l!Ig·er (Aramaic) strafnm in !EIeb..-ew, ;s ""'''.e<:e",,1ITJ'· .in view ot th."· eriste:m:lle or tbat wMd in ""fly IC auaa ni.re. The reducii'lll ,ct lb. tim., "owe I ean:<!ot b e e ""billed nJ!l:m A.mrnaic, smceth:!.tredueIiO): u hail probaiJ..ll' no,t takeD place In Arruno.ic at til., lime. "M"h iEl" ... er assume s m. tDe oomrog ,0:1 the yoomger ,stratum, lind onre the £o.l!m. W3:5 bken into Be1:ornw it :mllst 1n.>t,'e undergone wh.atever reduetieus o'1'lern,l;OO. ill other simils:r Be'9TI!W fa'rms, "ud could 'Q(J ~.ougeT 00 afI1ecW by Anw:a1ic d""elopmO'nts. Th. Ull1Jc."UI<1 1:eirudioD oi pre-stress .. owe! 'in Ichis .form jlwhabr.l' arose iEl its ireq IJe:Ilt .pt~j]:itic (LI"s~edl [>OsitiOIl in ·the """leru:e'" Ft®1ll f,b~"" positions the rOmIJ with ... dueed 'v<)wel _s .,xb",ded to :po:sitilllll! :in ,..b ich ;t '''OS net nnstr es sad, replacing' mB' 't egu19x unreduced form.

1!i~!See: uo.. 6,3. :fo(' al. s:1miLat prenSittl!:i.3i irieducl.iQ,n wtui:cl:J. could. hardly 'ba.1re ib.sm .Aramaic bor:rU,M!Ilg:.

I

5'j'. [-ki] > [.::1<], ;[-:ti] > [4]-

Puc!>: :SOulb. Palestine {J"rusru;em)-[Siima'aU < [Sam,,"!;] < [sami'tJl '.f",,(f. sg.) heard';, ['att] < ['iiUi]' 'Y"'" (t sg.),;. [Io.t:] < [IakJ] • to yo",- {to sg. I'; [dameJs] < [dlm1;; (?)ki] < your ~ it .~ .. J b.lood'; [oo.nal"i~] < [banayk] < [oo!l8ykiJ ''Yo"" (i.o;g. J """s.'

No~ ill North P"]. es !in£-h1kty [bal:.o<!,rti] '31"'" (r. sg.) _"t" (Jr.". 3:I .. 21; alld ClP .. Ifu. ~" 4, etc.] ; ',i'~ ['attl] "yoa {fc lI'g.Y (In. 17.2, L Ki. 14.2,:2 Ri. 4. 1..6, 23, ~er_ 4. 36) ; lloy [!~iJl 'to· .:fDa (t. Sil.)'· (2 Ki. 4. 2) ; ."Yky [b"""ylft] , Y""~' (f. sg.:l aons ' (2 Ki.4. ill_ Noi. In P.:hoemieian·-"ibdky [,1I1!dii·{?)].;l.1 'YOIl[ fl. 'lg.) S2"""'t' (Pomi·~;. peo:her'l's m>l to::u:e. :Eo·]' all Ph. dialecl&j.

T,Ull: l3ef'()re "l'h rly eiliti.I1,gs 11'1 tl,e eoesonantal laxt "f tne .bihle,

since "the".i"" -.!I 1.1 ha •• bee" writ~el) down as .iIl ll:J.eNorih Reb",,,,

mawiaL Rente p'ooliablyw"ll before the Babyloaiaa erile; the wC!iti:E1gs ",ifl:mut '-Y eannnt be alt:trHwted to removal ofp •• -exilie y Iliy I'ClSl-'BXiiic editing,;, since Ih,. NorTh Hebrew forms with [",] W"",e len unchanged, (lmmI'l'l1)I';S' The ilI'IlPI'i:".g "f the OlI00p~ [ei:] of I:hekm.. I?g,_ •• uffi::r caused. changes !:Elth" I' "",,ceding "~"'el .;It eeme =&8; ooe !ElRG ] 27 a The N"db H.brew !"rms 'He Ho;l:ed in 11K 157, 256, 2$8; EL il~> MS, 250.. men non-fiaal, this ,[ '''] l'emi9ln.a; {y"I.wiI.tjrii > _Y'I;gru.'i] ., you. ha:re berne me' (J e r, 15.UJ,.

5l8. N,ew forDlzti."" 'c.f IUyw pf. 've:rBs'witffit f. 1S,"ffix.

PUIlE.: Hehr"II'-[M.rtft1 'sl!~· was; ["~] 'ahe did'.in biblical

Deve10pment of the Ca:,laanite D:ial~

Hiehrew, replacing' ![bap!], [-WU O'i tte Siloo.m i.n=,iiptioo, aJ!ld earlier Hebrew (""e no. 33, 34., and BRG II 3~ .J.,

Not in the ol.her Ca,D. dialects, where Ithe ffiyw rerbs in, pt. 3 f.815.

did IUlt preserve the [·a.t] aUh .. time of the fi,rst change (no. 83-4).

Tnu:, .AfteT 100, sine" !he Siloam inscription, h as hyt [herY'H- Before the :fixing ,of l!J.e eonsenantal, llext of the bibI., since 'the tis,", [.§.] Is WJri~teil -s.

CONDi'I"HlNS: The 0.1\1' ful'Dl!ations were em tile ,analGJogj' of tibe ngulaT 3 f. ;;g. p,f. ",.rbfol"1l1 I[qWl§.] ; they rephwi!d tbe formsin [~.t] whicl:t wele formelaic ill, Hem' .... w, not fitting into !:he regular 'p.tte'tn, since this [-all alone had) escaped, bath Hebrew clmnges of [-aL/-a,t] > Hi]."'

76

59. Reduction of !ina'! double ecasonants.

PlLAC1':: Phoenieian - probe/o'!y: "'f"F'I' [g:m] < [gann] < [gamilU] 'garden'; ,...&.. [ka~] < [kadd] 'jar "; final ,alouM." consonents WOlT'e dill prlilonm:ed at :l!ll, earlier period: the G_k loan. "f the mpba:bet name K .. ,...... [k"pp] < (bppu] (fuu!.l short vo ..... els lllOv.ing already been dropped).

J el"1lsalem Hebrew (Tiberian masoretie form), - [1(0)1] < I[Jnill] < [kullu] '.H'; [\a:m.ll < ['amm] ']leo,l'le'; (~y] < [~ .. Yl'] 'l!iving',(roo! ~y!j'); [~wl anilogiwly replac.ing [taw] < (ta_] , ma.k' ! root ,~ID"'ly, as Dltly 00 _iii in the "erc f"rm [w'hi!,ri!&] 'and! you .Iulll, set 9. mark ') ..

NoLill, Bab;ylolliallm3:5l)retie Hebrew (= <ortl! Palestil!eHebrew?)["Iit~] < ['itt::i] • w:ith' (Kable, M:a.soretell. des Ostens 199; Kahle in BL 219-20).

"lrl.lE, After dropping of fuLid.l",rt "",wals, wllell 'these e>Ngi""'lIy herem- 5}']]ahi.c deuble coru;OJ1Iml$ ~eeallle 8 !ina! elusler, After the Greek bortowing 01 Il,e a!pbac.etnames. After [-at] > (-!] [in nouns) siuce [-at] < [-a.l.t] did! not become [-iI]: ['a"adhlJ > ['~8ttU] > ['al:!"tt] > ["aha.!] 'one.' :rllere:is no lower date before wbieh it must hare been 'campleteil; the chang .. ""'Y be cansid.tably l a te,F than here assumed. CI)~HII"I'[()IlS: 'This precedes alate., Heb re ,. '(lmd,pemaps wider Canaanite) temielrey to NO.ilCE> bill ~Iusten;.u Medial dOllh!.e eII050IlOUu.. remained, cliiild.d, ill.OO !:wo5JlIabies. Bergstrasser IlGtcs (DHO I Z4 e) t ... t the regular reOex of tbese forms bad" short, vowel sinee 'l'owel leDglhoiiDg had not eecarred in sJll1a.bl es whieh were cl0Secl 'bef"". the' d~oppi"g of ~bort fioal vowels; forms like [gag] • roof 'we,e new formalions (replaci:ng [g:!.~], et~.) om the ~Oi.lIlogy of th. other DCl1l!IIl, ,.."jell had ~~ress-leDgth.ned .()wefu in ilie;. final cro.s..il "yliJJ:ble~.

100. :NeWlo,:rnuatio'l of [''ilon I' god.'

l'.LACB: l'h,~nic:ian--'·! ... [·ilo .... ] (Punie); pl. ~h."" ,a.l""tm ["Iilnim]" f. lIl.o"ulh [Byblos 5th ctml, Sidon, Cyprus, ·I"tmi.c) ..

Not lin Heb:rew, where it does no!: eecur,

TmE: lIefo,," th" 5th cenrury, haw Joud. ,eadieT we eannot tell, CQl<III'l'IO!'IS' ('il.u]' god , is found in ,eaily 13l'bI8~ ioseriptinllS, i,[1 leter jp'nOOl1licislIl lit, oecurs !I$ the name DE ooe goo, 'EL' Tile neW' faF!m.ation ['[13.0] was probably on the an.logy "I ['a>;lon] "I,mal, god.' (ilrelf related to a borrowed ["add,u] 'fatiler, lard' which was 1IsOO in Ugarit and probably <ilsewhere in Canoaoite);; it may have been formed much earlier, when Canaanite "till had ["ad] by tbe side o:f ["nd!5nl_ There war>! several di..u..e names amd epithets ending in. this sWlU., e, goo SBn~b01llli11thool!l's ~ ['elydIDJ] 'highe,,t_'

6l.. De,~'elopment of the Sllfliix: [·ne.m] 'tllellL, their . .'

PL.!.GlI: PhoemciaD [Sidon, etc, Puaic ; no I)'widence :ro,. 13ybI05)l/Summ Iya"giriio~ml 'may "they deli •• r them up'; wY$pnnm [wa,yIlSflpnlinem] 'aod we a deled them' (bGfh S'iol.on. 4tll eent.} ,j ~b ... m It:Jaltreil~m~ 'thei[ colleagrres (Punic), ere. In allier forms, ehi,,;~l' tho,," eniling ineeasnaants (Ilikr oI:i.i."u '~f' final ~'h"rt 'I'owei.s), the ."Jfu: .... as [-;1""]' YO'F,bn 'ma)' be b] es ss them,'

Not in Hebrew, where the l>u:ffiJx is [-hem], [-imJ..

Not in Moabite in the 9th eenturl~'''/Ib-km 'aoi1l1 dragged them'

(18) ..

T[M:E: A.foor syncope of [-11-] lifter [on] ie this su1lix" and aft;e. th" ,el,igi~lD of final Short 'i1lI'iVlels, oatbe basis .. ,,[ the 'e::qJ!:matiml below, J3dO,l6> the 4th aeDtu:r~. Byhl<)~ hers '110m 'upon !hem' in the 5th esn(ury: the ae'oI' SI:Iffix. rna y not hltve been erlcuded as, )let 1!",tha.t form j, or it may baYe been.ext.!:Iuled ... en earlier but 1D.Il,J nev-er nav'e reached Byblos.

CO'NIlITIIllN,S; In the suffix [-hem] 'tlle",' [-h:-] WItS elided afm]' consonants, specilic:ally "ft,er !he [-ll] whioh iQU<'lw.d final ,""""p. rowels in .ipi. indiCII.ti"" as ,aga,nst jusshe;·' !bi~ is seen in [y!lSgbiiD~) < [l'esglri'l'Dhilm] (;ncl~o.t;"2). The [ussi .. e retained the [-n-]: basglrilMm], since [·h-] was not elided afte ... ong' vo....,ls, After the dropping oClina.1 short ",wels the [ussive Hp.qtul]) and indicative ([yaoqtul] < [yllq~lLlu]) came to be identical in most forms and the difference ]n melln;,ng ceased tG be forma!; ill. the :imms with final aoceps vo,wel, tile [-n], w!o.ich still remained as a ~(>rmlll distinction bet....·een jnd!ic.llive

78

, • ., SeE! 00 .. 4,

ami jiussii...e, 'WM 0<).",""" iOIlge:n- .e=g"i~ed iu this fmwtioIl, a01d the fmms wild. [-,,] ~ free """lim.'" ,o.l'lihore ",,[boot 1[->1]_ As I!. [<>sill!" [l'al?girn:n~m] and [y""gimh~m ] were ~uri .... Isets, "elated "10 [ylls"o)im] 'they wiit deli ... .". up!' F.am.such 1:"rIflS [-nem] was dipped as a. sudlh, 'iliem, th"';r "; i. a, "Ther .. eribs ending 'in a,,~,I'S vo", .. ls wu<> used wilh that snfiT, as in the pi. [y,asapliIii.-Dem]. IT ae oi this smIi:!: was e:l.w..,a.d 'W Qth<e<, .non- ... rbal, "form" endillg ill long "0""'.1., 8.'!, ill, [(!ab're.n!\m 1; 'IIDd appa.rell.n, a IS>!> to a few forms wbich did [I0't end! In ~<>wels! G.P 49-~Q)., S-ee ehapter 5,. ,AS, fn .. .1 L

iu 'P:!toorricia'D in the Dame, [":l,Ji'rom], "oa ia"U,e. " .. mes m ]>rnrio (GP :J 1-21_ ,F'rom pooclilie 'pooitiollStite fll!rm 'wilih !e(tll.ced vnw~ WlIiS ex· leude:d r(l pO)<;itill"lS inwbicl> it was,s~ yieMing the regruav biblical ['"1'LliI;rnill. TIl.ll the new form '[nJlll:mllJ sums 'louV<e ol'ig:inded in n:n:si:reS:soo procllticposihoas, aad it too 3pparCl'lt1y extended. 00 sI'Ll$se.Ji pesitiona,

62. Lexical specializa.1ions: '",,,,lkl • prince'; ['iiLim]. 'gmcl!.heaiJi..'

. Pw.eE: PID.("micill~".ml.H (Bybloos 51h ee .. t" SId",,,, !I]1l eent., Punie) ; 'lm, . .:lim- 'g(;iJ] (m, and 1.)" I Sid"'!l 4th C€tIt_, Tyre 3rd csnt., Punic).

N "I; In Hebrew, "'here 'theSl! f".',ms ar .. not recorded in these meanin.gs.

Tmn" Earc"" "itt "",,1,,"7'

CONDITIONS 0 These are " few "f tn.e spec:ializatio"£ in meaniDg oi' :mo.rry liI"'''..a. whi®. al'l'".ren:!ly nee u ned iIldepe:nilenUY' ..... d .. ilb different results fuI:L ",ari!)tI!~ parlsllt the Canaanite !IIr~2. ,,.mIH,.:i deri vOO. 'OOijiEI which ;11 H'e""","" cam" to mem 'so""re;s"l'!y: ...... specialized as 'PI;"'''"'' in Phoeaieien. And ['ilim], plllLral, of ['1]] "god' eame to me3lIl 'godb,<,aa, iIi.;,";ly' in !lE'hwnicimt and Inooome l1loBll~- Ihe eommcn word 1m ' deity, god (m. ar f.)"j, ill Hebrew too, lhis "form drcpped from us. as the ~egJIh" plllUalof fM] 'god ' (see OB), bllt, there the J o rm disapp ea red from = instead 0)[ 'beeemi"g speeiflli:>.oo as 'm. Ph. (OP 59, 60, '1'7).

64.. :F"rma:tiol> of' ',,,ot .,J:.:.. from, ~h ·;·~eDlbel:."

Fuel!: Phoeaieian (p',,,hltb1y mwk dialects )-k'liT ' 1:(1, ,remembT"nce' {Tyre 2nd <Jellq, wy,,.j: .... 'Ill"Y he nemembe', me' (Cyprus !lId '''"''-t.), sk.,~'!, [,,,,~e,ba>{ .. ,)I] ']j';aal remembers" (Punic),

NClt in ,rome I'h."""ic;ao d'a]"d;---l,;J;,. (P,mi,") .

N "t iu Bebl"""'~Hl<lt, .. !>r.

Tnn:, Before ,3rd c.nt..rJ.

CO'l'r[YJTi<l,,"'S, This :mU$t 6xsl hav" ""<lID. au assimilsticn ,Ct1 [~] til the OlJ<ceJ.es;; [k]folEawiog"it: [y-ll.( ?')skw:] < [y,,..lru:c] ; Iaber, ],0.111"",,:<, new fonna..tiClIls <I;,eoo created On the analogy of these fO]J]lSwitb. $'1'-:, eo that [s] '~1.1!<S e"en wh~." a, "owel .folEo ..... , (IP 2~)."

roo Furmation ef [na1mu] 'we' from ["wtlplii].

Ph!",,,: Heb·.ew~ "'~"w (lLadii.:h 4. H)-I), tate 'ilariant lDSlj",U] in I.&tel biblical sourees (EiT_ 1.6. 7, 8" Gen. U. ll, etc.) ,;, but the regU1ar form in the liru,ary ra:..gullge is ["'n:B.I;tn"-1"

N Of;;l1 Phoenicia n -'n[.-n (Sidon, 4th cent",,), l.

"I",Jl£S: Ey th ... 6th '.eDtu~y it ... a. eit]",.,.. the ""=011 form in the sp"ke" """,gmLge, Or at all e~ents a freq,",eu~ 'fee variant,

,C@1!I1ITIONS: Thi. Io;r,mis Jloobe.b!J' to be "'p.] moo Dot as a bar;.o.wing mJiIll Aramaic" which b8~, ,[1mi,JIDi,] oilly in ,3 few late dialects, and in 'whicl:! ease iii oo"iati~I1 """,IAl hMB' 'to be assumed wi tb !.he Rebrew form ,,,,,-ding in ("il], but .. "tnli!'i" as, ~ "peciol d".elol'meDt ill Hebrew, The Sj"illI.C'Upe 01 the first sj'lIaTh,. md, ~h. ""rlie r re ~,,,"~i"D oJ tn. fin! '10,,",,1, are b(}ili I'DO'bahty due to Ibe f])~~"ellt o.oouuen"" "I this word 'in :!,oocl:itic posili,,'~, wfth""t tfu ... hesS; cp. [~Dj] in no, 56'. Op, the simila SY"C"!",

(65.) Amon,g' tit. ]at.. ch!c;;.g~ ",rna rook pia"" in Hebrew .• nd, Pheenieian the ooIh.lYwg 1M)" require especid merutio'D.;

a, :Merging <>1 [s J ""iI;h [s] in Heb •• ", (b1i~ not ill PhOO:Il1ici81l ",h."," [s] > [0] lang before)" - eYiihmced by ..:mfusiOD !>f if and s ill. writing, and by m,,:oo,re~ie tr"IDl;OI!l.: KIIhl.o, }ls>;oretem des 0.."",. us, 8.li.d in BL 114-!ffi; sac I I) s,

0.. Weakening o:f ~;," glott..l "top, ani! laryngceo3:&, and later the mmging alld ili""ppearao.e. of' so-IDe 0:11 th.m as plILoneme., iu Hehrew and Phcenieian (.~p. Punie )----evio:l.oood by ""rib. m8.S1I>retic taul!;p(109 as fl.. habef ".,,,, re Is, 8D.0: by I5lIn[USiODS ill ~pelliDg. This took "pIa". ttl, Nortb Palestine earlier than in SQlltlil P3Ji«sti" e ; and ",hil. it probably ,oo:curred ill. Phoenicia, the hiistori...,.1 .spellings . <lire ootailWi alld do nl>t- ;maw tt. Punic S~IliDgS ~how the loss of m"-St or ,,11 of th_ phon_,eg, Lhle, Maro·""Wn de. We.tens; Speioo'C, JQ:R 23 11933) 231; ]R,KG I "h, 1.0 (I, 2B :<,'; :BL 2116, 2.&1-; GPZ7-S.

c' [a] > [J J in lI~btew [much earlier in l'hoeniCLan)"' - e.ixl"liC€d

". F".r .~/'~· ~r. B. ~io''','fL~ ... mild,,,,, ,w: ''''':Fr. k"""'8"'p1". 3 1" ea, (lll(· "';1, d. "lwr, G es " 11_ I).

'-y {J}e masoretie trnilil;i"DS: KahI. .in R[' 99, 1j}2; (lyG 1(DIH ,; BHG ISm" llil a, 8@ Ill; S!",'iser, JQ.R 24 (1~33) 34-5.; Sperber, Hehrew based UpOIl Greek and Latin transcriptions, Hebrew iJ nion CW!iege Annual 12-3 (19'37-8) 1(IS-2'l4.

<I.. Breaking up of final two-c", ... mant dm:l;el"S in Hehr.w by the JntnWO)] of !lD!lptyCE;C (" segolate ") ,owels; in Pbceuiesanthis P'FGCeSS was limited to clusters whose second, consonant had. relaL,..,ty high soaeri ty--evideooed by mssoretic aD8ptyclic vowels and transcriptiona 'Clf Phoenlcian forms: Speiser" econdarj: developmenta ill ,semitic phcaology, AJSL 42 P9,25-6) 145-69; BHG I 23 f-i; ElL 212; GP 33-4.

€. Le:ngtltemlDg .of " .. weds in open sylLa'bles immediately before th .• stre!1<S :in 'Ehll!,.w (0,0 LrllCec of it in Flooe:rucian)-"BDG I 2J k ; BTJ 234; Speiser; JQJR 24 (19'33) 37-&.

CHAPTER s

'llliE LING'UlSTIC EiVOLUTION OF CANAANITE

T.he <i ... elopm ea is w'ru,ch took place in Syria-P'aLernoe lnougbt about many changea in the total strnebare of ilie lang u ag... A tabula'tioD <li these changes by ULe e6'Ed whith they had would. thus sene m show tne g<mer81 ,CIrh"t of to.. wrw!" I'ingui:stic area.

J. 'Phonenri. 'patleru. Tile em'plla.tio sl".anb ',..,ere Iest as sepIIf,aOO ph"n~ liml1lghout tile> l',ibo~e area: [(1] > [~] (Ii),' [t] > [I~J (12-).. ~D both eases theirp~()IDJILcia~icn. merge~(<I'ith that uf >m(;ij,e" phoneme, I[~l

'ili'b" aon-emphatie spiranm V,ere also ]".st, Cd] merging witli [d] in U garitic (6) and with [.] elsewhere ('.l}, and B!rtJ merging willi (SIt] rsspeeti vely (12, 39). 'Ji'he ]"",t U,Eee eonfinned as distinct phonemes in Palestine much longer than in Phoenician.

[ii] toQ was eventwtlly loot tb"C)tlghou.t he Canaanite ""'''L Ii merged with [5] at II vel)' early time throaghout most of tire I']a~, for \lim'ell we hue records ("'); in. Jerusalem it conw.ued to n;.t, but tin ally merged with [s] (1)5,,) .. e

At a very Iatafime, past the scope oi this stndj, the glottal s!op, .£tar having assimilated ." .anI}U$ positions, seems fimdly to Ita". lleen climinoted in mod positions nod 00 have be.", lQ.t lIS a phoneme, The la'':Yugeils, lit Ute same Jate period, spl'9reDt!y me'rged into one lalJDg!!!IIl pb=eme, .IUI<!. then fhat. lJo"probably disappeared hom speech {'S.5b). Th."., cbasges I:ook plo". ill soms parts of til" Con.anils, area earlier than in "thers; !her,. is. IlO prm.o£ tJ,a& theyollimal€ly e:rleail e d over the wb,ole area,

1: In cila'p'itier-S 5i :find. fi number's m p:JIreDti:J~'!ie5 indiC31te the ehaagee list.ed jn cb!l,pter- 4.

'Two oth"" ~igo;; 110 the. Up.riti.c alplLa.bel, bGtb o{ .. hi,",. =r rel'r...,,~ _d· di'Eta:llal S"i.bilants,. slwuM be men:ti'oned bu.e_ On~~:t_ is ~d.. in 2. ft:'W fare:iginl 'WQI"U 'l"l'biin had eeme into eomtaon aee in Cs'1:ii3la.'Rite~ a.nd ill. a ie\'L' uncertain forms.; the; of:.be.r. ~~ is used in HUlicia.n ,,~or&!. :J.'r.Id in s.ev:u:)l uaoer:t:ain f,1lrms,

~~tRhie:b 'mO(f be Semiti.c, Both .£II.te used In Se:mi:t-EI!' te.:li:ts. E:iII.l't~ nEither' iDi. a -t'{Immrm &mil;c p"o..,me. ,s' :""'Y .. ", er ,.11' • f"r.di~i~o~l ..... itUlg for [.1 'in cert:a'ia 'OO:rrQi;f.e.d wee-ds, or n mal re,pn!SeDt {be: foreign $i:bjlalilt. willi ·",·EJ.i.(!h the.se 'Ci'-m:de .... eN [0"[: 9J ti:[Jle: prOll!lUnotd ~ i is appa.re.o tty a Eru;rrmn :affricate \l,1htC'bJ ~ 'tlsed 0'1'1. HnJrrIa:n llllll:n-."..ronfs hj~ C'a.tIaaDlf.E!· .$llil. pe1.'h_3ipsi!l1l aeene Upriti!C ue ,.'·lormo.!ioD$ c". ell,,!,w ~, rD, ,I'll.

HI

De'Oelopnu-nt vi the Ga7UUlnfte Dialects·

. New phonemes [e, (j.] developed by regular sound change from [Ill.y., !I;l (I), and.late~ OO_C"'",e,,~es of long [oj (Je;e]) !"'~ fflW [i'] (54,), [1-] ($b-ess lelJgtl\emng 36), and. of IOD.g [0] from. CaJ (]7).'

A D.ew phouen:e, liong [n] ([~,:J]) dalfelopetil in Phoenician ('37),:md ~"'J' mneh b.te. HI Hebrew. (.o"cj ; it arose from [3:._], (81""'" IeDgt:Et.,,mg). a~d D:0~ later assimilations oi [01.'] (an~ [a'J?), and was poolilem~""IIJl olistinet hom [0].

. Tile long grade of tIl1l phoneme [a] continued, 8.$ far as concerned the S(I~ ~t.tern. ~ the form "f tills [;i (i»], bllt it no lODgB.·!Jad the same phon.be relation 1:0 sne>tt [.a] as if. hod bad! t...lore I·b .. chonO'e.

In fenns of toe pi1oDem.i~Jla.ttern.. Canaanite bad thus lost til; class of sp.i?"ts,.tiw dental spirants me~ging ",jth sibilants (""cept f.or Ug,mtic, .. here [,~] merged with its stop) and th e ve],l,T spirants a:mtlQgous!y mergi>lg wRh laryngeal:;;. Iitaler (:3Joa;:mite hall 'Imt the class of laryo.geals and tb e glottal. ,stop" their places being lalten br zero, In the ,'owels !he pattern develClpm.ellt was -t"e ndditi{)n ClI' intermediate ~ODg v~wcls eou~latively :pl.:lced among the three Semitie enas, replacing d .. sertas [Hi] by [li!il.<iii].

_'2. Phonetic SinGtu:re_ . In I:ypffi: (l.f symaMes:: FiD.ll1 opensyllibles ',nth short ,·owels we"" eliimill1lted a.nd were np'laced O}' a preri"u.sly tare category, final dosed syllables; this cbaDge was the 'result .of the loss 01 6:oR.1 short vowels (3.~).. And nollhly closeil syIb.bles, i. ·e., final ecnsonant, ·cll1&ters, IVere al!mosil entirely eliminated, at Ieast, in. very h.fe iII.~r,e·w, by a ser-ias of o'h:ange" inc,\uiling 3S$lmiiaticm of C'] 1(> th" preceG:(ng vowel wlt.n it was the first member of a cluster (15), reduction of final double consonants {5'9) ,and de"el"pmeuJ ,,1' all aIl3ptydi" vowel betweenlbe two coaseeants of almost ail final clusters (6M) ; tbe last ch~ge seems to have i:a1reJl place Ol.nly in Hebrew, and at a Y,ery late pe.mil.

. Tbe inci~e: oi~~rticul,,~ phonemes, ""p~cially ['Il W J' n], 'W(!JJ aa~red; m eertam :POS!.tiClls Ihey cesser! to occur e..:ither througbwilllIIlluon or wrollgh sYI'cope. In th.e renter and Dodt. o~ the C"n,walljle area, ~ ~] before :~0I1£onan.t was assim il ated, eve!) ill. the On •. 1'",,"I;{)n where .It Iwd .,,,m.a~De<l. I. e., as third radical 111). Throughout the; area sJ~"b]e-_liinal [y, 'W] after [a.) no longer occurred (molw~hibClDgiz:ation of tbe diphU",~gs. 1, :>1) ; a "d. 00 alse "l'llable-initial [l',""] between snort vewels (32); slIllilady [h] DO Iongee occurred betw'Nn s!tort ",ow.lo. and IiIllal I.(lug ensa (ao~ifI'3; 1H1). ['J I!W longer OCCIllrred as the Jiir~t member

,"The pll<>~em;. <:har"',teT ,01 'ho:rt [01 (atld [0] II in F!"'""icia a [e.g, o .. X~~~ 10r (Sillcl<j h. set troo GP 1.0) and lfwrew (mort sere .• s in t~. piE' verb}, .,,<1. '01 beth ·Ill. 1~D..g anti :mort [<l (M;!:<>I.) i" B.b"",,", ;$ .till ... doubt

of &. ecnsenant cluster I Hi), ner as s:rU.lJle-cl.osiDg' lin. si!'eSl!ed syUaioles < 54; but syllable-final ['] co·otmu..a, at !ee.~t for' II ]ongtime, .in unst~S$e~ "}lIables)_ 'lIhe ctilmbinllthla [-at] al the end 0'1 words diSllppea.red ell.tireI: or fiitmo:st enti.~ely Jn lhhre'''' {33, t4 ; the residue iII .34 ""'". obviated in 58).

[!oDsidenb!e c1113I1ge rook. place in the SIl>OOlDdaq phOllell1 .... : The.position of the stress ehanged to the penul~ syllable (23) whieh later, "neY' the dropping of fiiilJlJ. sbort voOwels (35), came 'lI1os~ frequently to I.e fuJJld.; this D.e,,.. posilicn was. eztended with th2 sbift ofEhe stress in the unslllited ",rOOl forms w lb.e· :!lnal syllable (51.).. Length ot .. owe1 t.<Hik 011 a. lIew function rufOOr silcess-leogtihe"j:!lg '36). Hithedo Iength 11.,[ 00.0 almost ",nli:rely morphologic, a eharacteristie of esrtain stem-types; now' it beeams also a proJl'l':rtl 001 .stressed vow.e]s :in eartsin ""llditiO(ls. lhuili Ide., perhaps ,oofy in the uUlicial tradition of Iearned Hebrew, th",e was a similar pbooe;ic lengibern.illlg QIpr<)~ir,ess yo'W:a]s ill epen .syUalJ.le. (65~).

There sIS<) de ... el0p.ed Dew positioDal 'l'3tianis to, tlJ.e ."i:sling ·phOlilemes.

Vow,el <oo<lc:tion set up a ~hw3 VIIr'iant [OJ 1:0 all "CI",el.s, in certain positions (41, 52), and sJIlcope of some .I"vas created further If positionally defined zere "lllian~ (43).. Ta!.-:en togetJi er wi"" ,bess-:t"ngth."i~g of vowels. this resulted in a pattern o.i'fo'lI< le:og!Jh grades in the place of the P roto-Csuaaaite short VQWB'Is, I'DsilioD!!lly determiaed ill relatiea to .Ix.", and syllable structure: lo.rlg, short, redueed, zero. An·c.ther set of positional variants was, created 1:>5 tl>e spirantizatio» of simple stops 'after vowe'ls .(~).

3.. Morp!J,o f(kgy. The ·C)utsilandiug change in the mcqlh.CI!ogic stree~uI,e o.! Canll31l.ite was. the replacing o[ the o·bj."ti ve aspect system by a subjective a.sped sj'SOem... Prow-Semitii", and Prote-Ganaanfte, had hsd ilne ob'jective a.peets which II'" see in Akkadian: pretecite J.aqrollll (Akk . Jaqtull and present y,aqatalll (Aklc: ;q;i~(tl aI j,' ihe P'fl1&1!l!It II.Lso had e. :Eorm willi ene'1lie [-'Il.lila] ([-I!I"]) sulfi.t:. RCIWl!Ye[, Proto-Danaanite also had" modal SJlsl:em, which Easl-s..mi~ic dill. no~ have:. by ·tha side ru ttu:.p.retedte 'II''hicln. ended in [-\Ill it had a jussi,e YlLqtnl without that [-0<], and pTobably 8l s u bjunct'Y~ YBl!J!hda endi>lg in [-mJ.' It is. important to note that, becaMe or the ezistenee of a j<is.i.e a:oB: soojuncl:il{e, the prB,,,ni WllS€ had nero a llllllch more restrieted Junetion than in .!J,:kadian_ It was used, as is seen ill Ugariti.c, only fOE' present indicaii .•. e.; tbe clmdjtiolJ9i\, desiderativs, etc., whiCh in AkkadiaEl would .. !oo have been ex.p<es!!ed by the present ""ere expressed in CB.D.lIauil.e 'by thess

~. See 'oha;pur 2_ 6~ and Chapter 4. 11;0. 1'91~ '2;;!" 'See chapter 2;. 3.

Development of the Ofmmmite Dialect.

two modes'. In additioD, Pretc-Danaanlte and Easl.-SemltieiJoth had. !I stati.ve pei,feet aspect devoitoped out of a pron<>miIlaily-inflecl:ed nominal sentenee, the. Cal,aanite suffixes being .mnewhat dilf'erent: {kabidal. "be is heary: ['.!Jlbidta] "18m haa")",' [qll.tuDa] ., he is "",ill';· but because of 'llie West-Semitic internal jlas>i:ve i'Clrm",ti,ms this. " nominal » for.m funcwmed as a .. comple.!e stative r-rl""t, ..,h .. ",as in Ba&t-Sewitie it fUllctionB!! just as JI 11"""."" "ilj'eeli"," (" permansiee "'j. It was· tll" elaboration of tile morplloi<>gic pattern. eontained in the pmive forms and verbal modes that resalted ill the aspeet-sjstsm of Ca"aomte "nd of:

We_of..Semilic iIi ge:J!le;.aL F·o:r Oil the aulogy of stlliti.e qatila and q.tn:lli8. there · ... as formed qatala (lS), .for roots referring. to more acti,,, ,s;ituati.om. These tlTIue t<JgethllE then formed, the l"lrlect ';'erho1 • .spect, 'USed fo .• completed aclilms and ~!.ates; 'later' 0 u, the use oi[ t!Io" q;~tat a form was extended ~ many roets w:i:lOse pedeet hail preriol.U!ly been .q;atil.a. QT' qatul.. 'Phis per foot aspect came eo 00 Iascred ·aver· tbecprei;erit..., iIll tefe~ri1ig to moot p$f aefions ; II11.;JI seen the prete"rite dropped eniire.ly Irom lise (19'). In some parts of the CIUI3l!!1J1ite area, :mo,t1y inland, the sboril'retedte, use'" after ["' a -] '."d.' IIn.ill e Ihe:r particles, W8;5 ]I,_nM . as the n a rrafise lens e ; 'but in Phoenician it too was. deepped (2.0).

At this stage II! new .aspl'ci ",as a""eioped, the .impeded, having t.be . same form as -the now furgot!e:o pre~e.j,te (211.. The :nisl,u:)" mwy hare been 8!S follows: As: tbe p~rr.d replaced the preterite in regular speech, Ihe few Case.i. om tit. !,rere,ite which. siillll ee urred (in "I.d sterro!yped phrases lI."d the I:ik;-,) carne L;)' be :forwtlL1tic, members of an ebaeleseent :tOrR\, and were no longer understood as a prete'rite tense, Now it happened that tbis petri.6ro ve<.bal form, ya.ll.tuiu, seemed. to hll!". an. obvious. relatioa to tbe other e.zdstiog ferms; as ~.tween ya{jll.tilu present jnrlientive, and y"qtul, yaq.tul a jussi.e and subjunctive aspects, this Y8li.tu1u had precisely the .(om. whieh an iool.1cativewspect •. alated to th,; two modea would lis re had. It]9 probable that on this formal andogy the petrified ]''It11111 forms came to he mterpreted as an impeded indicajjve, a c a teg<Jry bibI'm nnn-exisbanb, Tbis new imped'e!!t seen 1J.oo"m.e a !\egnlst construction, 8I'P]iea.lille to any :root [Or whichthe» e was a jussive or present ; thebegioniElfr-i' of its use "~,, seen in the AmaEDa . Iettars, FiUiog as if did inw the now I,n:gely «sl1!~j'ed"e" sy s l:em <11 the Canaanite rerb, i~ w as Iasored .... er tbe present, In time, the present dropped 01!lL of use (2il) aDa Can.al)lte 'il'as. reft with II prac.ti<:aUy pure

• 8i.Dce (:be 'verb s,ysWtD asswned! fo-r Plioto..Qaoaa.nite. ... O~ geoer.tiU CDmpa:raii.ve groTIlul., j,. ill~' ... m .... I~t wei.l1 "'e fi.od '0 1J:;0 Ug;a:,ibl. terl!; ·01 tbe lo'il] ce:n:tu:ry B. c..~ it cam hest iIJ.te. ~e~ in tiLl!: tr;Ll t dle9cri:ption pre:sented by A. Goetze, The ':00...,. "i UgaritLc, JAOS ~B O'!IJ3)2S8·3I1!1, .... aliso .ohaptex 2.3.

85

onhj'8Cl;iye ... s~ ve rb S),s1le:w,. Ilhe .hid ~llI!Ilt 01.1 the old tense ")'6tem be:i:o.g bhe~hQrIi preterite in iJle inland dialects,

Later on, the mod'es .. ere los~ 8S an iudireel.rest>l.t of pbcuefic .changes.

With the loss III fins] .shmt vowels 13~)th." difE"",,"ce bei;weam in(l;Cll.ti~ imperfect Jaqtuli! and sobj'l:lDctive yaqtula disappeared. The di[ere:n.ce hetweellEhes:e:anil the jusssve a1SO' d>sapp ea red (since all became ya'ltul), excep"!. tba~ alter I'-D.g bal.owel. the fi~st f.l;oo had [-n] wbe,.ru; ·the jn:s&i\'l! did not. However, in. lime the use of ["Iil]l af· er long v·owet. ceased to 00 regula., "t least in H"brew; enl) w.hen it WIllS "",ell, i~ no ioll.ger lWIrked the indie&tive as sgaiD~i; the jussi.".' The energic I[-na] ( [-alma] }, ... bi£l, loot its vowel m the dropping .of the amiD short ,,,wels, a1.&l ceaseil to be. ussd finally, re moining only befuoo oh.iu.live Sltilb:es..'

Olher genera1 m.orpho~ogical changes we"e I;!Il! .eedy d:wppi.ng zyf mimanon and hen~e, since the article did not eome into. wid. US<l' till 1 a 00", the less 01' formal dis[ill~litlTI 0.1 I;b;~ i:nds5ni.oo neun (:~); and the disme "nile [t]-r-efie.uv" o:! the s:im"le stem i" pari. of ike Ca n "mj·!oe "rea (38). There were some amplifications of sherteued forms: the new-iDrmati.an of fe:milliine nouns with [-t] !i1Iffix for lilly nouns (25), and the Jl.ewiorme.t'ion of .. erbs with pleonastic Iemiame sllfiix [-a] in l[1y pt. 3 f . sg. (5B) .

4.. Syntax. TItere is mot .• nong" URllfle.vial bo speak wi~h ~e:;taiIlty on BJIltad:iC changes; ODe of the deaT"S& ehanges before late R.el!n, .. ", times IV~ t!he e:xteIlSOOl!l of the adiele 00 the demoMI>rat,,,e in Heh.e ... · ,145), thllS putting !he demonstra.nve in!.o Ihe sy:ota~liic pesition o~ th e adjectival (attr:il:lll!ti.,,) UIIlID.

5 .. Lexicon. There wer.e sev e tal changes 01 Iorm in particular roets er elements. In the perscnal suffixes, [-h-] OK the tbird person sg. WlIS repJ.II1ied by [-j'-] in most IY.E E'hoo[]ida1!l! (2S·); fulal [-I] 0:1 til" seeo·n!l! P"""'o feminine suffixes was. dropped in sourhern Hebrew (Jerueslem ; 5'1) ; a Dew tl1lh,iI person plural sulfu:: [-nem] arose in South Phosnieian, ,e"I.a-e:ing- (-em] aIld [-Mm] in ma9Y tOems (61). In the c,,,,.sative prefix, too, [11-] W1I'S replaced by [yo] i .. P.noe:nician (55). C,,-->e..,ndings, ~erh-Dirul! vowels, and the l;im, W80e. mdnr:ed before stressed second person suffiI.es {24), New Ioemabions '" a group or ~tems of one «ll)l included ; bi-radical ll>. '10:1>' (3) and then again t,.i-rarli<ll<l lIll.: (4~}, ytn • ghe' (9), al! ·.~OOt' (24), ",bi '.ooul' (50), .. b- 'renlernbe:r' (64)- New i() rqiatiQIiIS. o[ specific' 'words iuelod.d [,ilon] 'god' (60). ['ilim] 'god'

'OP ~a-l, arul fu. 9. E.l3fGliIiib; BL ~OO; "" •• J.., <h':plor ~ M_ 21, ~L

"'f.b.e e:cergme [:ar.m [s !frequent ii:11 Ugadtll! o'E the 15th eentuc,! 8., c.~ d. Goet~ JaOS 58 [1938" 29il; MlI 23; i:t i ... ",oil in th~ Am:o..rn.a. I.U:us, ~!. Ebel.i.ng 69- ':l.3 • .In H.ebrew thue tilT.{! Q[lil.y f.O'tt:dllJlall:. '&a~a or it: BL :):38 q.-sl M-O f!~_

86

(Bt), ["IDJ 'I' (with. reduced first ",,<%1', 56). [E.3~ji] 'we' (",itli elided [rot sjllab.le, 63).

There Was <:on.idembl., fiuej"",tio,n in the :f""'luenoy of nmDs, W<l~dJ; of <IDe l:OOt .0)fl:81ll. beillg fa.o.-.d ore. Iho.se of another, Suola fi'"etuati'Jn is seeu in thBEaMring of thirtil pc-wm sg. preneuns w:i,th'l'ut [-Ill] 'IlaterHob."., also ill pll!JlalprODmJIT':' ~,81, Ute disuse in Reb,,,,,, of pSJ;tides with d.eietilC [-0 (43), 9Jld the .. arious le.el.lin"as ill, varilllins dialecls Q!' the -tWl) feminiue ~nfi:res [-atu.] ami [-!:Jl.] (10). Of this miler '!r .. the javorings <JI [kful], p'r, iOr.,·am. rn Phoeliici:m a~ agai'nst kyk, <ih, ..... 11, '$ in Hebrew (.26 a.b], o:f rail]' in Phcenieian aod N "rill Heb." w . as against [,>fr:r] in Jerusalem (46-7), I1lf 'Iii' g':>d.' (27) and I'llm] 'I' FiG) in :S:ebre,w, -u:nd. of mm/Ji:t 'prfD~e.' (62) ID. Phoeaieian, The I""uoi-ty "f_ ~.llItiis orr~d" of Hobr ... ; and the "",,1,1 .go 0:1 the U"garitio m".,.wre, makes: it dil'IieuU to di"""""" me fasoriags o·f roots andthe sl'eciali",,~ie"'.B of m"llcing im tile! "arlO". 08lla.aWre dialects,

6. Dates !Ifd"'nges ill the vartcus lin.guislic les.ltI!n;;.e;s. TIl entre lIltingth.ese changes 1I'itbJ !he da!as ",bell til.y OOC'UT,eiI,. it is found iliat changes 'in all the:;e f""tu_ occ,un'eil"t ,.1I. times,' 'Olunge.;;n th~ phonemic pdwrn, In the phonetie straeture, in the morphelogj; ami in Iweal fcrm, all Dre1lnod btlm the earli es t. to the latest periO;C\;;. hi laical ia:voring the """,-plillg 'was "" SOlili, and tim d!atwg- arbit.".,.. wililriu S!lch '",ide lim:iw, tb..t no judgment can. be marl",; Imt tbeprobabilfl,y is hha~ these changes, too, were seatlered 0""" tire ",b"le 'petillll_ rr~ is ·ttiterel'",:-e ;mpoosibl., to oar tlm-t dili"~Dt :i:e.lw..e.. oJ! i.ing:lilistie de.;r.e!OpD'lent (pho-n<mllC, mc>r11'h~lGgic, elc.) telldto oceur e.xl,. (lr Woe, "" lhat they lend: to oeeur in lo>;ge:r or "",aIle:.; h~""ag" area s, '·

B-TRE LUfGlTrll'crO P~OCESSES [Nv»I.VBD

The"" d.e·vel!opm.ell.ts. in. eaDaanili< were tlte Tes"l:~ of .""",a1 oi'ilfurellt kinds 0.£ Iinguiatie :1'"0=,,, iWling w;thir!. tbe genenl d~, o-:I·p'wnetic c:ha!tge, .. analogic ehmge, mil: fiHlctootioo 01: :t:re.g.uomcy:.

1. .PhO'l""tic <l!anges.. Thuse for '",Ineb we can no~ !USS<igo. lID Y immediate eause:

the pi1nemi" m''''g1ng of t~.e spirants, [;§l:, ['J, and la'J11geal:s With "tile.

- T'a~bl~. :1 en ill. S2: {(:li.apter. 6. 2) earl, serVf: rOil th:~!;'CQrpe~atlt;1llJ ~ it is d'~'Ilirled by' ~EI! ·~t.,llr,es or. d:el('..::ropm~[Jt in glJ;O:S(·~o.n. :Reid] :fl.,::, Il"e~a.tive; d.a1t::ii mia'y 1Ji! _g3.uged, I'nlm. itht;! nm!JJI~r- (J-f' mc:h .d.e:1ji'"e·~0f.m.elJt;. the ll!i!it'er- [lUmbk:s r4;!pr;eselliti;ng euU.e't'IU!JlE:.

1'" 8i1:l_~ at tbe: foli o~ this p~doo.., [he Ga.naanit;.e, :i.:!!fa. "wr:as 00 JllIltg:ef O:IlB hE,g:e' (t:re&, bu,t ;8" group (Ii !!IIrIa.lkr. !IKI1i~.

phonemes 01" -with ... ..., (5,.]2, 6,. 1, n, 39 ;.4, 4.0,. 6511.,. 6~b, 1I'itbin Meh seri es !he later ,"b""ges may ha va been ·p,,,Uy d"'erm.mBoJ. by·tille situation c.realed 'bj Ute eadier 0"", ;

the eaily -ChE!):es, (),f -'0",.1 <[l'ooty o:f ~b~ Tong [iJ > [aJ (l?'; ",hloln. .m;Jl.de [flat .phollemei<ielltieal with [{I] <, [ow] I ; shift of lhe stm,s, (.23) ; ilmpping of li1lal '-borl ,,·owru (14, <35) ;

reJll.dng ofthe ""lID: ,[-at] by [-8] in the ·v.ib ~33,. 3-i};

reduction of fu:uLI double il:.II!1so-rranil; 11>[1) lind the. .pmlit:abl;r rElated breaking "ffrual eenscnant dusiJa. ily 81Iap~e!iO) 1'0"",1. (ti<ioi).

Th~",,.hlc:1t wer.e :I'rom.hlj' due ti3 the, elimn'& ""w.alllatiGDS.,,~ the piu",nem ... (mclnding ,""c()]IIilary l'bo"-_~s} :

mouoph,lilicKlIgmtion. of d;pbtbcmgs (li) aad ;~.Wp'e ·"if ;!I.teu-voeai!ic [y, 11'] (32), res(lU:ing mID tim s~rm -vowel :IlI(lU'QIIcwtion of [10] and [y] ;.

limited: SjIlO<)pil (J,I inte • roealie [--h-] (~il), ·resQ.!fulg twmfueweal. pronnneiafion 01: [h] and lihe probable existence of a. zero 'l"a,riu] ior it (i. e_, th:lI.t .. fmm ",.ith. _inl:en~[-h-] ".aol'rollab!y oometirrtes I',WllOOllCel'3: wiitho",t the [-h.~]);

stIes£cl,eo,gthrniillg < 3 6}, a~jgjDgp:iJitly as leDl,g!;bt eompeasatiun for !he d:rop:pillg of' :6ru;a1 slm,-f; '''0..-,.9.;

~,,<rel redE.cij,m and Sf'L""1'" (411,. 52., 13), inelJlilding the ... duefien i" ["ni] (56 J Olnd ["naJ;LDiii] 163)_, !lind the SJ'll~OP" ill [I>a!j_nft] (63:) , ..,,,,,ilting from tb8si;oolJg prouuneiation <If the stress.

TIt_ cltuges w!..ich.=y hot:v e re~,,]ted :uom ·o<mlignrati()I1.1 prBl!SOIlIO, sinee th~y hadthe d-ect of ll'Iaiu'Wning 1:b:8 ~·ri:stiug plleD.tie. strnOll;ure, late. m!ln!lphthDn.gJi~atioIl! of di]llhtbO'ogs (],31) OlIn the pa:wm ,e&tooIished. in 1;

Ilhang,e "f '111i1t1ity 0)1' [a] > [oj (3'i',1J5c) on the I'atiem e.tablished in 1'1';

replacing of [-at] ibJi [a] in th" ml~il 'I 44)I>Il. the pattern established in "-3,

slaift of ·the stress in ~'.:rb forms 161} based, OIl. the ,siluati"o. rewlting trOll!! 2.3;

(.m".-r wlucti.)oD o! ~"wefs (52), "'p.,ding 4L

We .mar also consider the lat~ I""" oiphcn."",es in all] givell clac..<s .~. ~ing' facilitated bI the ea-iElieI'lol!S ,,{ iIs class-mambers .(!>!!e above) ; ond, !ll.e aEsimilatioll ,,,f U[ n (11), jjit ".lISan .additions! .cl1ang<; was lIl1.do-ubtedl, due 10 the ineidanee of the I[ II ]-pimoe:me' (iIs uen-oeeurrenee bd',,'re"IJn50Drults, IIDd the fad that fOrnl. h.:ring 'pre-v()oC;;Ili" [-1l-1 enn- 6gura.lEd willi. rorms harillg double CIlIDOO,,:ant;!l, .. bJ)x.e, p.~~noommtal f-n-] ",,,,,leI be expaeted),

.,

:88

Development oj the Canaanite Dialects

.Ae:3i:mila!ioll~ IIf "eighboring soll11ds; cbang" 'C>E quality of [a'J > [e'] (8);

a..~miIJltion of ['] !Q' p:roceding' "l'ow~'1 (Hi, 53, lH~) ; :spire.ntization 00 stops after vowels (42);

[h] > [y] m Clltltacl: · .... itb [iI-ro .... els (in. true 8Uflix 2'3, m the CIIusative 5!1);

voicing of the stop in ""simiialion io the vowel ( ?) in [nabS) < [na~] ., seul " (!i()) ;

llll'i'oicing VE file ~ibibDt in assimilation t-oihe, stop in [Ji'i.Blrur 1 < [y;zkur] 'In., willl'emember' «(;4)_

2_ Analogic eew··formatioDs, Those for .. hieh "OM cannot "-S!lign allY :iliUl'lediate wmlQgic model:

less of mimation. (2);

exten"i.lln of the f<mim.ne sll!lfu:: es [-alu], [om] each at th s expense <IlIi' the other IH»;

dimse o.t [t]-refie:Ji'l'eo of the simp],e verb (as);

loss ,0,[ &,,1 [oil of secoDd person fem.inine su:ffioce. :in Jiei1l<Jll,m (,57,-

Cme.tion 'Clf new gmmmailical cl~s OIL the Imlilogy o:! the "ris1;iDg mor!lhologic pattern:

qatala, e.ctive pedect on the ana1<tgj of the stat;V!! pBdects ,I HI) j

]"'<[ bllll, impeded indi.cati.~ce on ilh'Ctlu'lllogy of the twill 'moil es .. ad th. ]!~at tense (i!lj.

CrMti(>1l of new i'omilS, on ·itt •.. a:(lwogy of f\mctiomul.y CC>IDl'sMiJle grammaticai I'OI'm> of other roots:

Illy 11l)([Oa with feminine ruIllx (:25) ;. IllYve:.bs with pi~.(lIlItiit1c fi·min.illle suJlk (SS.) ; {dalto] 'doGr' with feminine sum.! (21,; ["ml!l] ',god! ,. willi [-On] suffir (60);

~i."radi::a! lk • go' (3) and neW' tri-radical hilc' 1(49')1; !lIn gl!re' (II)_

E:densioo of e:J:j~'lieg fJ)rms to new positiolls, Oll t.heaoawgy of eomJlsuh!e forms wbieh occurred iu hath pooitioDS; this .is the creation of a new in.ciderwe or the form ;11 ques[ioll :

e~t:ensi:on ,of' th .• coDslmct fcrmwithoul final ,hort vo",e~ to all futms befere shessecl person ail sulihi!S (24);

exteD~i.OIl of the clipped S1l:ffi!: [-new.] to fuTDlS ",!lim, nDt 111L1"u", .ended

00. [-nJ, had had [-em] Or [-hem] as suffix (61);" Q

u_ In t-he !history litE tit'fl. 'QI1WiHo:CI of this, [l1l;:'iV" 'SUOi.lil sudh. eden:aioll :EE:, tlJ.e <ln1-r pEa.c.es& ''iTbich 'WBl C3:n 005eW'e.. Thl': 'prioE inisumlerstandinrg of the: ,[-'n-], the

The Linguistic Evor.ut~n of Canaanite

89

e:xmDSiom ()of thearticle to the d!'mlil&trati'l"e OIl fhe "omllgy of afuibut;ve nOIlIl.S (4.5);

·"ew-forrmatiOlD oj llrird ]l6sonsg. &ufli.es 'with I.l'] instead o[ [ll] eu the analogy of those in whl(h [b] hmii changed phClnelic:allyl<J' [1] (Z9); simi!a" erlension of [)i'] int'he causative [yi'l.ttl'l 00 (:"rms 'where [y] had not phonetieaUy de'~elllp~d (55);

n."·\;' f(lrm~tiall& with tharoets nbs, $1;:.- In farms where the aasimilatiou hadnet oecurred (50, 64) ;

extensio1!l or the' reiluced (uDstressed} forms ["'ni] '1' (56), ["~u] iliad late'r [uahnfi] "we' (&3} eV,elI. to positions in the sentenee lowb.ieh they were .tre=tI ..

3. FluctuatioDi in rrcq."eD&Y' or forms, dependent upon many nareeonst .. retab! e . Eacrors "'f II g<!'r>e;raily lIualo.gic Datu!>!!; Gainin freqll.enq mus~ have !.ake" place ilJl art the n~ iorms whi-cb reswtteii j£mm anruogic change. For ill tbe elise of such Dew 1011nS there was always It choice ~.etw.e" the .pre,[o1l!! way of sayilDg a giwe:Q lIt1manc •. and ·ih. Ilew _y_ Il!IlWIDJ cases neoo was a eompetitien between the newfOflll "n.d 9. apecHic old lo:cm i.n whose place it had originally been crested and ill w~e place a!on" it, ooul.d boo used .:. e. g., fue oompetitixlo_ i:Q. the Ii&e. of [!f&!.ana] {JI!' [nataaa] for 'he gave (9}, or inth. use of [babbiiJl h=9 0" [baoayt re] 10lr 'this house" {45,)._ In other cruses the new f<Jrmalion JillM an ;;n]'p~ space in tlita mocpholrtgic p.U~IG. oro tha,t· its. usa f'lIm]>t!tom not with tba,t or some one C)ther form but with_ the VlIrions uf;te~moo; which had IIr<ll'ioll.Sly been rued in com parable situlltions: e. go, {he acl;iwe perfect qa.Wa (19) and lhe imperled y"qtulu. (21L)_ '[0 all cases it was those Dew ionuatioDS .. hieb rose in freqDency u,at became regular .in the curre .. .t speech ..

Decl!i:D.e in i.reo:rw:en&J~curred ill IlIaD] uis!ing speech-farms, as for e:t)lllllple in tbe CODlp<!t;ti'on with. new Io=llti(}n~ which is impHed ill the s.cC:e'p!.a·ooe at tll.eo lie'" tllr,IllS above, The di.&use cf tin" obj ecl'lffl aspecls (19, 20, 2 t) was p ratably oonditicned by the gro'il'iIlg aspect pattern; fue disuse of pronouns ... ith [-to] (2.B) and oI forms in deietic rot] (4.8) was related, !Q tbe ooniusi()11 or th.i. ending -wi.U, I!hte I-em.illine suffix;, and the disfa."riIlg of the .re1J1tive [llli], (~6-7) was probably !".elated 10 its simila.ity to the [ze] demonstrative (especially after this fo= of

'lOSSlImptioll tha:!, the wh"l~ 01 [.n.m.l """' iIlObndfd ID Ice ."ili:s, ;3 n.ot an , e ,,,,,,t to which we eA.1li point.. [[I '~rm.s of' thoe eonfigurati'oD ef the lan,gtl2:g.e. one may ""1' that "it. !.]I. ,dl'O([>f''''1: "I' Ohe fU.n<:ti ••• A ... 1"" of .inw ea H •• [·n], Ib. tor", hrasgl ... ilnh.] .hanged l,a[JJJ imperfect i n .o!''''.tivo veil> ~ [yasgtTun) I + objed;,·. suffix ((-<:ml.l to 'rupe:rfe.o& v .. rb (r_j':a".:iiril]) + obj~ou.., suffix ([mmll. lint tb.i-a .can:tlol. be -tested. :ailld llite ne ..... ril9xl:iii:IDlI dtM:S :nat ap~s:r ae. :a:iIII e,,"e:ot lI!r:dl.in I&:nlml SI~ an obj'ecli .... e (_;a;nd wier 'possessiVil ~ smffi:t is. extended. to 'Pth'.ea- rooms..

u

I

I

90

the d:em.omstra.t.V<l had spread a:~ Ibe expense of the ( ze n] f,><m).'·· In th~ decline of frequency of varioas roots in various parts or tile area ,(~6"b, .56, 6Z) there were fartors · ... hich we' cannot now know.

4. Correlation of the processes Q(f cbange wi.th the features which were c·haage,!. Ji'r(}W til" t:wG lists aool'e" it is possib] .. 1:0 c","relata the feaml'€S of l.i.ngo:istie d"".lopm...nt {pho>:>eroiic, 'mClt[>lim1ogk, ere.) ",.ith th.' types o! prooess wbich hrGllIght them about. It i!s i'lund that Ul.e pll.onetic, cbenges oH""ted! thepho-nemic pattern, th .• pocmeUe stnlcture, and .. arions lexie.:l forms, .... b.ile ibe Illla]og;<: Changes aft'ecled the morphology the sjntax, and the lexical stocik (the €xisbmee of certain forms or roots rather than others).

"JI'he same .arrangement may be slatOO in terms of'the efl'eds: Changes in ilhe pMl:l.emic: pattern 'were due mootl.y to unknown iaetllll5, but in "",me cases to 'the infinen"l'. 01 current 1'"oIl!unciati.on 0 r the eri!!ting l'honetic stro:chn". Ch an ges in .b. "holD.tic stmetnre .. 0:;. due paEtly to unknown factors, pa]t\y to tb~ in]luence oi tile eurrent preannclation, ,],a:rill.y '00 assimilation. Clunges.in the :morphology were eeused. 111 some cases by irillu.enre of Ill" existing ·mO)["pb.oIGgic: structure, in ether eases by the, lIutomauic result of pho:nelie C~ue3 wln.tch merged fo rms tIt.1It lad pre,,~ouily bean mmpEro!ogiC9l1y different, and ofteIl by e .. temions and. the rise and decline oI iTequeney "f woro.., .. hid" 'bad special gn:m.m!llticai formatiecs, 'I'he one recorded change in s,Yld,all was caused t.r analogic extension. Changes in lexical 'forms were dae to assimib.tions and tne, analogic ext"Ill5'o,,~ of such ehallged {OmlS, also lo a ... ,neLy of reasons determining analogic :new formations. Changes in acceptance ,0'[ farms "ere due to the host of faclm.s 'wlileb determ ined the 'Ihrctuanolll in their frequencY',

·'G:P 53',5.

"U Or fram a. oo.rnl'.a.ra&llll D~ tbl! 'ij';erti:crul IBst;iIlgs i1n 'Tables 1 and_ '21 an 'p. :9"2:-3 ..

FORMAT.ION OF DIALECTS

1. 'The .geo.[laptJ.i.c, e;xre'OSIOlil 01 cbanges:: OtIlltve<rg:ence an.d di'.-e;rgenoe. 'lIh.e gradual b_Jdng "IF' oi !he· Canaanite, linguisti.c commurutl' into Lug~ and small dialect It reas was th.e rwmU ,,,:f ill" varying geO:gi"pb:ie eri:ensionsof the changes that took place.' Some changes occurred o,eI the ... hole area: in most cases they .. ere the zesnlt of diff'llsiQO of the new .fe"brre., kom the place whe ... ii. devel"pOO, to ill 'Canaanite eomIDUllitie9; in a few eases they may Ina,e been !.he re<lUIi; 01 independent :id2D.tiul change>; in ra.cio..s !pAri"" <I.f Sl'rla-P'3~ti'o.e. These ~h"nJl'€S liad 'lbe efi'€ct of keeping tb.e ",'holeana Iinguistieally similar, and •.•• lhe re Ioretermed. oom-argent.. Ot1er ehanges, however, spread o .. e. 'only part of the Canaenite a rea. III some eases" cba,nges which eeeu rre d in almost .·,eTY p]aeefaiJ.ed to spread til ontI ying regions or to inland hill eommunities which may have had less eonlaet will! the rest of the area, er wmw. fo~ soma other reasan vrere Ie..'ll infil .. enoed linguisticall.y 1>.f[1;. Such com:muniti es _y 00 callied. islands .in ilne face 01 the .. ~herwise general ehange, lIn. allie,r instances, features which hegaD m spread beyondth.eir point of origin stopped at rome lingDIi5tic O[ social bounClary without covering the whole area; ilia new form was accepted only in eerkin paris of the land. FillaUy~ some' mew 'forms which de.elClped iII one F!a~ we"" never a_pled auywheJ!e else', :Mma.in:ing only in one town '01: ~mwl area. All these changes 'ii'hieh did net "!,relIt o ... ~ !.he wb0.l.e of Syrilll-Palesliue !mol Ib" effect oi breaking it up lingni"tieaily, SI.tlO!! they created forms in one seelion which another seetioa did. !lilt use; they are f;herdor;e t.e:rm.a civergent. E,en smODg those changes ""him took pla'OO over "the whole. "rea, many probably OOClIIrrOO in some seetions much l.atar then in others. During-the tim£, .. hen they nao as yet spread to some sections enlj, they Jnzd the I'!lIect oflJe.ing diTre£g'l-ni; after they had 000IITJ?"c1 everywhen, fhey beeame oo,""ergen't.

2. Conebtion 00' ling<c!i51ti" fearureonrith tbeir gEogra)lhie diH'usia:II •.

In Qraer to see ill whicb Ieatnrea the ... bole a rea 'Was eou .. "rgent and in -. "hieh ibro'ke up dialectally, it is, I1e£eSSBIJ" to con:elate th~ linguilitie feat.ures 'Jf eaen ohaoge with its geographic I'!:rla>t (Table I).

, S ee '!h.o .d"",,;o •• and! dale. of tho Can.u.ol.be <boges as shmwn ;0 tbo <ifl.art r .. ~ing u... I."t .e~~; .. to. to.. n .• w; W ·tho 011.<1..

II I
t
~
a
"0
-a
~
~:
:il
..
,<>
..
"
,"
-§
"
.:;:
~
>'1
.;
~
.,
~
'"
'"
...
ec
c
"
..,
e-
il ~
!i ~
~
"
~
"
~
..
:;;
g
"
-"
I'<
ci e ~
,..,
~, "g
" i
'" ~
··i .2 <0
~ " {I.
~ .,
.,
~ ;;~;:~i ~
~-r,: ~!:
E: P:A~:;~ 1\'"
,._" {I.'<>
...; ~-';:;;'~~I_~ 2;~ ,.,fI
';:,""d
>, '"
::::l C'
" -;
~5 ;i;
'" c"o;:. ~
'" .. " 'ii' '~
'," ~o
~ '" ... ...
... 0 . e
~"" ,~
~ u" ~
""-
" '" .d ,;
u ;9'

'" d:

iEi

" ,_,

'>

...:;

,;.

.-=:!:

., '".

e-, I.:~

....:

f

,I':,

<;,

" ::<

"

E

's

iu .S; 11 nEW (a:caHoOg,ic]

r o e ms ----

= = OO"lfl ""Co>

~~.t

I .~ ~ q;

3.. COHelatio'n. of linguistic processes w:ith their geegraphic d lffu.!ilon.; the ilIetemtining element il!! diiffusion. Table 2 shows the l.li'pe~ ef l':ogu,.tic pr_sses io relatioLIJ !Q the goograplili.c area wMcb, each ·of 1lt.ellll <o"B""d.

Of the phonetie ehanges, all precesses Me IOWld in all deg!'!!es or diffUS[Gn. A phonetic change otigb.t spread or remain. local. II-ccording ii,e> the linguistic feature i n vo!ud; blat tbe fact that it wa:s a phenetic change, or !he particulur lacoors which had brought it about, ill no way affected .ts :ihilit}' to s-pread. The acalogie chaages and the fiuctua±tons in freqnellCY were ge.nerally aot oollllergellt enept in the ease 01' changes i:"volving Iarge morphologic categories, PracticaU.l' al] others, no maUer what type of analogy had caused them, or what word IJIr group niwords they involved, tend to be merely partial dlll1uaiolls Or local pecu.liarities.

It appears from. ihis fba! tile cause of a. change, or the lype oi process .... hieh constituted it, had Iittls relevance to its ge1lgraphi.c erlens.i<),n. Us oJ 'iu,siO'" or loooliza~ia[] was, il!etanllined chied, by its structural imp",ta"ce m the .Ian.gu;a.ge. ahanges; w&ieh ~ vel)' JlDao)! uM~lt· 1lll<>e'.5 ia I&.e laogwtge t"o(i,ed to, sln~ful. 1»,«, the "II'b~le aras.; th<).!;l. which

aiEooted particular group~; of forms o:r :freq1i<>:l1ily used mdiYiduol words, ,mff"-""'l! over large, paets OIl i.(; and those which affected o(J!D.e we-rd. owy usually remained local.' The ehlef modifi""tion ,(>f this £ado]' 8 eem S to hue been the growth of dialeet boundaties in the OOIlI'S~ o.f time, 'Which Pilt obstaeles in the way (II wide diJrusioD; for jn Iat". times changes dilfused less than eomparable 'earlier changes had ; compare, e. g., the general illifu..<ion of It (3) and the partial diffusion of ym (9). 10 any event, this genseahsation, tns·t the number of forms in which a change occurred determinedfhe extent ofIts i)iHus.iCfD, holds only for the most part; there wel1~' lll>do'llbtedly olDer faetors in lbe case oJ' each de'i'elop. IJlI!nl which contributed toward its diffusion. or 10Cllliizati"Il!.

~_ Growth. of dialut 1\Hlu ndaries, 'l'Iiee growth (If iIi.l.ci, beundacies mil] be seen by ""rrelating' the dates ~·f ti.ngo.listio ,(!,.,.".lO'pmenm with their ~(l'lnic erlensi>[l"'>

Con .. ergu.t, ehanges are g~Eleral1y allsent In lIIteX" times, The,e which, may have been iudep,mdent in various puts <;[ th" area own e:caU.ered. throughout all perieds, b'tlt in the laler per.ioil! lhey are ili8U:oC!.ly feWEr. Aml.the general dilllision!l occur up to abo<lt 8'00 8. C. or well 'iJ.e;f,w>.; the.., were ve'1 few" i:i aDJ', "tiiereaft.er.

Dinrgent ehanges oocuriliroug'hou.t the whole time, 'bill; they are much. more common in the la,le,! periods, A. few sma·ti1 islands, which ilid not """"pI> rome ou..·,w]u general dili'usion, appear from e~rlie~t times; and small local phonetic ll'nd, Iexieal changes ptoba:bly oce ... ,,00 i» the v8riO'dls loc"lii"ies In all periods," Partial. diil'usioD~. range fhrougb the whole lime and are parl;"'uJ.a,']y frequent in. the middle and later 'P"riOO:" s,

It "I'lleans foom tni" ~or.relat[oD.that cl>anges. ill lhe pb.wnernic ·pal.l.enu were gene.ally convergent, ml.l)' " foew being Ioeal islande, C!ta:oges 1m tlte phonetic s~raeiure WE're [tH)Stl,. co,,"etgent, but som.e wen! partial diffusions, and a few were local. ehaages, 1m mOl1pho]ogJ there were some ecmvevgent changes alld SOme partial dilill!liom;, ~ne one recorded change in sy.l!ltax: was a partial diliusi.on. The changes io Iezieal forms included but one convergent di:I'f:u~iDn; otl1arwioo, tln«yare partial di1- fusioasand, eveIl more frequently. local changes.. Choices of one 'IV·om rather than another were almost entimly p!lrfuil diir!lsions, awl a (.,,·w of them probably local ebSllges.

Taking th~ eorrelatjeu from the pc>rot iii' view' of geog;aphic erlent, we may group the C<)lIvergmt9lld. divng.nt dil'fusious.. lLin.gnistce :Ileobures ill ",Io.iell the ",11;1)1. area fte!lded to ""main the same were:: tl", rh"nem.ic patlerQ, most de~'d~lPme:nts cf poonef;ie etrnctu De, IIni! "the major m<>rphlill!>gtC d<!,elopmenfl>; 8100 a 'oery rem developments ;0 'P'JIl'·liJm"'. words, L'ngaiatic, feAtures in which 'iariClU., parta of {he a rea rended b) have clilleroent :bisl:ories were': delays aad islamis ill fhe faoo of & few phonemic changes, ... few developments ot phoneli~ struetnre, Ine Iess ramified merphelogie developments, and almost ·all changes in lexical [lImI and in choice ,c>f words,

n foll~ws that ilhe Canaanita dialects remained generally similar 1.0 phonemic and phenetic BnO! morphologic sl-ructure, and were ,clilIer"n·· tisted in the Iess important phonetic, morphological and lexical featlllre;;..

r Til.~ le:rglli! numb& of c.on¥nf:!:Ent p'l:to.net.:l'C cha'D.ge:s as ,~Va:~Dst the \"ery SllIaJ;l ,m~mbe;r o.f oo[l,ve:rgent :a:nat.mgic ,clta.l:lge,. as thus: :00, be 'ex:p~atrced 00l tJt>J!. gl'.aflJn.ms tltat 8lll :OIiIlt8.!o.gic: c:.o.~[)ge: o.su:al1y "in'!.!Q~.veiIl .~ much smaHe,y- nnm.l:ter or uu,exa1JC€S-. 'The. '(IE!W S:na'logi-c: cl:J.a.m.g.es wide"&. WI!1'£: of 'li'iddcr eejevanee did indeed. e;,pre:..d 'OI",:-e:1i t.h{t whole ecee r the Lo£II$S -af UJ~ irl.ufi:l'late-ru:l'I.i:fi In.dica.tlD_'R. ~ 2,,) ILlLd the '[OlLllla.UOP oUhe,,..p<C'ts (11t-,n, "".epl,'I!II!,

:I This may be I!ibtainedL [rom Table I or :2 iby di:s:rega.l'liiLog the ·'f~tica.l di,,"[sioDS ano. or r.a nging all i~, in ""ell b.orironb.l ili.visi .. :n. __ n,eI'g"Dt, ps.rtial dil· rus.ioll~ loctd----by thei.r .[dative dates, the changes with 'tbe ~.owe.r number beillg tile .... 1,; ... _

• The tahl es w ould .,ee", to .u~~tha.t most of these Iceaj. cl>""'ges we.e lot.; b'lllt th:iis, is '~1Il1y, ;a:I1 :I.ec.ideot A:ri-sing ft.-o-m tl:lIe type of e v i_d!ence npon wh.i.e:h tbey au _,tn.cied. ilfn,t 01 tM i:D,,,,,ipti<>ruolmaleri>i. ;. Iate, 1" .he ease <>1 a ge.n-.enU Jllhtmetic cr morphiologic c'ban,ge;. there are Ilt&--ny U:ull1;-id.uI11 ;S.pe,e,ili·j'DrDll5, In w1Jitb, 'iii\!! -can see its effeeL, and jj·regrll.entl.y we eau stna'],peils -.;~1.a.lilQ[l to onl,er I!hlllilJ~'e:s whi.e'b must- 'h,a",.e Q[!c,ul!'red, befOl!'fl ~t (J.T· after iit.. 'We h:a"l'e, theruofl\ k&c- ch:a..I!Ief!s ,of 'l!lM_i:o.g. eviilen:ce .or 9u'Ob a e.ba:n.g.e <ei''Ell1. in th.e Ee'IN' old£!iI: w· ... ril't;.",,;, .ilh.o· a '~r:Gl which J>etr,ay.s the cJl'ecl or "10<30"",, .fm" ..ba"ge, 0.0' O-Jl1;l' wh5clb s!hQ"W$ :the a.bs~n<:e: Ilr prl2$£:[JOE: 0-( al -:!'Ji:ange 'il'bi(:'h m:r'lS'l b:a:,,-'e: 'pTe:c:edoeil

96

9'1

It Imay be convement to dlivid.e the whole, era,ilom perhaps 181)0 II. c. to abont 200 ]J<. c., ... eryronghly into three penods: early, to abeut 1365 B. C.; middle, !'rom then 00 about, 300 e. n.; late, after SOil II. o, In the ea..i.y period we .... Gold then find. tib.at in! the moot pan the whole area derelope similll.r\y, i. 'e., l!ll!0);5~ changes are conrergent, Tiler" are haw.ver, ,I< few locilislaods resisting general. chmgss,.a lew local ebanges wbleh do not spread, and, toward the end of tbi$ pedOOl,. a few cbanges Iha.t spread, but (lilly ·arn.o;mg closely assoeiajed towns,

In the midille period, dialect boundaries begin to "'ppear. Audilio"al local obllDgea rncreasedfhe .[Iijfeoooce!l oot<veen (me JlI""'" and another ; flDd now many diliusioru. failed to spread over the whole area, stopping somewhere, alo:O'Og lines where ~oc.ia1-1i",,"'1tistic rommunication and i.o.tlllenee _·s al a, tmoim1!tm. However, there we!,e still many ehanges OI hroadsm.:chrntl :rclel'!I.n~., whicli spnadmwr tll,e 'whole area, e;1!mt ~ such dialeeta] di ... isiens as bad ahead,. developed. The coinciding of the limits of various dilfus;ng f:eatu.res created fa; rly definite areas, groups. (lL towns ",hiclh had a eerbain number 0.£ changes in common as 3,gaim;l the ather t.o'l'1lS wirick did lI(1't hav~ nan",

[0, tlbe late ;perioo! the l'i1ing up of these ;so,gl_ eonfinnsd, and pnd.ically no diff..sions Were able to cross them all and 10 COVEl" the ... hole area, Thele were many local ebang'es:. and even those changes lihat diffused stopped either at thefi~ s .t m a j<)~ isogl= lItmdLe, 0:', CrOSSing 'it" a~ some minor iwgloSll I>undte fartbex ';)D.. By the and 'If tll'i$ em, Canaaaite had ceme to be di~ideil. iinOO several distinct lae.guages, ba"iing 'I'aJ'ioas dialectal divisions within them.'

Or" £OIlCf~;t. Rn:t:. tile Boca:l changes wnmll,j' invo,h;'",ed. jus.t ome ''l'!'onl] 0:1'" .i!i, =omaU gLllttp ~f' WI!lr.ds. We col!1lLd not. dj~oo\!w' th~m UD~El$9. 'E:be partic::~lar "P{on3l h::uppE!n-.ed :til' oceur iJi a, tro. And even the.nJ 'we 'llSUailly ~not te:ll hov: long 'before the time .. f' t1l" m.cripl.io,ll tlIi. <1»;" .... ""'lI<ro. iQr IJI"'~ of these local changes ilid not afiect tile stro.owrel or the= ia.rn,guage "(;Iii ~:nnot. be tD:i:b?:dl i1ilto seeae OBe ithooll',eJ!:;csUr n~ry point among the: other' clLarlgeg in -the lalil,g:ua.g;e.. [n thre b.bl ea 000,1 "I tb.." .hac.ges ,"'" m.rd.F H,ted .. t t, •• <lates 01 to. "',.,.."pliOD' u. w1l.ich Ul.~y ar-e fOLmd-H],~ termj'n'lIlS ante qllem for lbem_ In rut. tht:: tab~1!S theeaeelvea .show i.hat- the 31p'pS!reIlt l-de;ll"e!9: of local cbaegee ~ an 8.ec:i,d~nt er tJse e¥i.cl-ent::-e'. for Ur.4: only earl}" focal ehllnges which [bey I~~t. are trom. Uga..Tii; wb Ie b i. tbe 0'" lrea.lity from w:l!icb we ha •• m",h .""Iy "'1<1""",,.

"Thll mdbod. of na.ming liill'.guXstic pe:ri.od.s sud C':b'em~ I5I.:'J ~o: prl!"E.ebr-E!:w~ r.! etc .• 'is, ~'b.i't',e:fOTeJ -diifficiU!lt in. tbli!: ease l!Ii a ,gJrOup of d_~9!I!Nb:;. 'ilO'hi..ch 'tanad:t:le:d. in OOrtWe "II tb. .. tim.e. It is m;,I""d;ns becaese it sa_l'S n<>thill;g' ,,( thegeograp~,i< exru.e;i"" of the chaag;e and. because it. gives the impres..Sio» of 8! sharp dii\7islon 'Oet?Oee:n a p",·Reli,''''' amI, ,a HO<hrew s~ m''''''.ptwhere delin.lre lirne-groupi'W' a ... E"". sjJbl<, hi.story ,luro1iL be ]I,....".~d ,. ~r .. ~ 0< '" _tim",.", 'oi cluLngoe, th,oogh iiw.e;, tr"atbe::r tiLan a Slaoct!S5-'WJI! -of 3xll~lr3..!''y peEiiDd:s.

5'. The, resultant dialects. The isng[os;e.s" the 1imilll of !iugrustic diffusions., did not always, stop a.t eXll:o!;ly the sarueplace, to ferm dialeetal ""alls. Some cltaoges spread quite di!ffe.re.ntly from others and '"",era[ cileng;;s wbicltwere sllre&di.ngwiibiIlIl. dialet2t groll,!, difiu~ a1SOl into

· .. ariens neigh"",ring dial"",ts, e.eIl 'where these were ~head,Jl' separated from the point ll'I origin by several impommtisogi.!J&Sesc Th~re w'&s fhetefore considerable overlapping of dialectal ieatllm. We alsoesaeot tell, in .iew of our smallrrmnoe< of ge<>graphically differentiated sources,

.... kelbe< the bmmdaries bet <oilII I'''.gn.ges wete - defi ... 'te, so lih3lit any

gireu to"'lI along !he iJo,d."" ould be, e, g., Phoemeian Or Hehrew in. it..

speech, orwhether there were borde!' zones, narrow areas w,hlcb. used dialectal features from both laeguages, or, in special WlL)'S, from either,

We may neve r tbeless distin.,,"llish the £oUGwjl!lg languages or d:i!l.lects ':

li!JGAlllnc---e.arly d,iva:gen~e., but ... ms, pernap" m:my, later ehaag es ;:1] common with Pnoenician.

HllL4.T-I.ittle known; few ch~l1ges:, some in COIDlllOD .... i fh parts of Phoenieiaa, O'!hETS in. COIDm'm with Hebr"w and M"",bite.

PlIoIl,NHll .... N-mallly,chaugell, most of. tbem '1lOIUIDoni!o, Y~'l!tdi, EJ'hiQS (Central Phoenicia), and the Smllh Phoenician eities. Its dialects:

Y" 'oDl--<iifrer.d. iii that it bad iD addifion a few IDeal changes too; .iu lb., ease of , se ve .... 1 Pho .... iei.au changes we cannot tell if they also spread! to Y'I'udii or not.

BIBl!.os.---differ·..aJ in Ihat it did not "<>:lept a, few cheages "hi"b spread tbrollgh SODtb Phoenician lind Ya..,di.·

Parts of S'1uth Phoenici .. differed from the rest Dr Phoenician, by p rereIvmg reJiainwcIru;,. and aeeeptiug certain changes, in eomman wifh other IIItns of the Canaan ute area, "'b.ieh. the rest of Phoenician dido.o&.'

Seieral. Pboonician changes we re also aeeepted ill. No,th Palestine, a 'f~w bolo in North Palastins andl Moab.

'HE:I!IUlI'I~, good :.rwn.be( of chmges, most I){ them COmmon to Nmth Palsstine and Jerwalem (8]]<1, e:arly S(>utb Palestine),

• All>:ri,gll!, B.!..SOR 640 (D .... 19G6) 30 regaro. these differeeeeabetween Byblos and South :Phoef1~ian a'S ~!ing rner-e:1y ('-O:l!lsl!t~nti.ve o:rcbDgraphy 011 'thle' part (1([

_w.By'~i! ... " :EutBl'bli"" ""mng ,,"" lOT H"aw] ... ows a cll;ange io 'o.tlwg'''l'hy j,,,,,, the ea, ,nor BybH'n .Ii. ;;"" ['-h)hu), .niI _ ebauge. [·..btl]) [ .• ..,j .. h.,b i. ollm, rep~."Led d,d not .,..11T in So"u. I'hooemd." 0' 1'.'''''i, whore lit;' Hi-) _',r~pl"""" by [.y-]; tIte two <li9l.lecls thu~ D.d eDt;",ly djJf .. ""t forms (see cho.pber 4. no'. 29, sm. ,311.

I Of. c!h:apt,~l' 4, nv.. 21. 44. also eer.I:.:a:~tI 'Punic: fur:ms, nat mli:!t ..... ithl itrt the kttown Pl!l.oeJbilti.an d]:d~b~ wh,ic:bm.us~ [!til"'!!! oome. '~Trnn aleEt' PfuJel1lidi:ac ttlW'n5: Gl! 42.5: :54:J'10.

D6ve.!opment: of the CQ)1UUiI'm'fe Dialects

N Olt'GI PALKS'I"ENE~~iII'ered in Iill;Ot it accepted certain generJi] (~l!IU.a~lli.re and Pheenieian dJlIJlI,ges wl:ric!b 1 ernsalem dj,iJ! Dot; and @".rlll late", J "'''''Ii.tem <!h"",,ges did not spr.ead to it.

JE!iliIJS.!ild!M-dilie>l'ed from HorU" :J!IldStndh P,Bi"lti:oe, and, :from the res t oif Can.aniie, as an islam!. resisting a few early gem.".l Can""lrik, o:hsng<!S; later this d;~<cl sp:rl1ad ,over S'!1lili F'aIB'l,tine, lit ,least as slsnil!aril hm,gtUlg<!,OE,d ,had eertaia ebaBg~ whlclt djid, not spread to Noclih Palesnne.

MOA1u_--cl<JSe t.. Behmw, '!lut IlQtidentiCl!l w;th it, n aceep1ieil many cltOJ1ges in ""_0"- with Jerusalem or til" whole of Palestin", and some m oommun wilh Fhoou.ici".llJ!m or Phoenieisn ami 'N "rib Pal""liue; it slso had some leeal changes,

!l9

I

n'

II

,AI; 'iU;'CIllS timBS. til ••.• may h .. ve boe'l1 gre&~r di.fflO ra n~. lletweell. these dialeels, d'IIe W tim&dill:,....,u=: ill ib" spread 01 u'e "'.",,, ra 1 (lanaanits di:li:usWllS" But tbe:/" w"", 1.",,1ed. a. tb~ di:lfution. eonrpleted their sl',,,,ad '[)'iN tEte wl,<:>I~ area,

]t i.sp[JSS;;ble to group tb."" diaLects inbl twola.ge caWgories:' Coo."i; OalnMn;!,e, md'llIDog Phccnicisn end eertain [nIonil cities lin,,"1Iisti....ny simil;u to .it (Ya'udi) and Ugariti'c; mild Inhnd G1m<lanite,indui!ing

Hsbrew, M""bite, Ba.m a tand p, ooti>~y "tb., agricultural and j:ol:md

trade areas, Golast. Osnaonite "", geo.r.al..!y th.eploce {Iii or;gilL of

changes, sonre of iI,hieh sPrelld 0'1'''[ !he 'iI,h1)!e area, s(l,m.' of which tm.ded :in"" IleighE.>frng Inland <i!ial.ecl>1 {chiefly N odb. Palestine}, b.uJ m.rn;t of' wbicll '''''11"'''.'' ",ilhiQlbe Ooast-Glialect asetione, Inl""d C",lIlllirute was more ,oolll"er.ative, a.nd! fhllillgh P"]wo,, later .J! •• clopM. • !Iuml.er Qf! a .,gecbanges or its OWfI. this ",h<Jle di8lect ami is ciliefly til be ",nderstocd as tbe sum. (if regi,,1IS .in,[n 'whicb m'''''-yooastal c<hanges did! Dol; spread."

6", Socialbasis "I' dill"sioIl" I", the wbo]e of linguis!i." ~fuL~ two types Of~'iBnt;; lite '''''ohed.:!fue delf"lnpme.at m n_ mr,ms, .... h~er by phouetie (1'[ :anal.,gi:" "bange, ,,",d lhe s p',,", .. d. <)f the new t,.,r.IIllj I)'vex. rome ool!ll.lll1W1i~.l' of speilk.,sc Ch.JJg<lS. originate in (>Olll! place, and nt3!f or may a{]t spread <J<1II] into ... eighooring placsa; !he dili'usion is a l'te .. el'wi;, ever ,,,,,ei ae""" the, m;gi:m:a;t.ion <of tire :""W' feature ill. ODe plaee."

TIl;" dialeetd divisi~" which. d ... "I~pOO m SYcia-Palesti.ne "xilihits the

p a ,iI;ial dependeuee '" pe .• haps Ilotb, types "I' lingufutic events n:port oooia!. I;Illlditi"IlS.

Th" ... igiOll"r ehaoges, ,especially oJ phonetic changes, "'~ seen too be llil6Silly in ibe llla,rilime cit1es'of Pboenieia, llIlu<,b more $0' than inlsnd. It. :is pClS!'ihl~ that this was related ~ [be p-.-JlIee or large numooIs (]if FQ<eign"rs in th"", cifiea; similarly the late, 1006 (If the larJDgeo] phonemas in NO-dh. ]Pal.stin· e ""d ia. }fQ·r1h Amelln Punic 1ma, be ",bted, !:c !;he large numbers 1)£ foreign .spe.a;".rn of Canaanite in th_ tw·\llI;!1!M.

Mileh cle~r, b.o'wever,. is the so~~l b~is "r till! oillIu~i>on oJ the." ehanges, FOf·the dffiusiOlD. "f ,8 chaJIlge is a .seeial act, brought abomt by .l:ingu:i.f.:i.e [u.tar.onrs. betw ... n mej])be.r~ of eo:..!ligacu;s ... oth.;wise assoeiated, OOllllIlJUmties. A:m,()!),g the Phoenician sea-ports, which "ere In v"ry close •• '';Hwm;>e and socia.! i ... terrd.Hon" a !in est aU cllJllnges "p re ail! ,e'l!"ally- As to. Ugll.rit, wfiieh trom~rly fimesl!!ad "",epted some changes f:hd did not spread elsewhere, i~ was also il.isiiruet. from the ,}llie. eifies ill. its chid ro"b"~~; fm !he major trode in, TIIga,it was 1,1n",. between 1Jy.!,rus [aed the Aegeltn basin) and ~reStJpota:mi.1, wlb..ile the chief "usOOllD.1!1: ®f Eybloo ,mil: Sooth Ptuwrici.. "'!til "t fu..,t Eg,pt, Iater the Pheenieien ooloIlie& :Mea:Ilw'h]l" miami Palestine, eOO>1lf)IDjeo,]]y' ,.11(1 soeialij- romewlmt diB"ment ':['(Im Phoenicia, h.d, less soeisl ;]I00roou.rse wi !;hit :aDil! $e_r ]u.gmsru: dlliliSi"ru; from .it.; bull;. It is not "ntil the lim millennium .00 tile ed;abh~hme!lt of tne :a .. hrew b<\g'll'oms" wiU. th"i~ social-political divisi.on 0;5 "g.'illst 1PhO.[J';eill, that the Iinguistic "'<ill 'Od"'eO'D the lwo a","," geMl1S to ha"" !.e.oome iasurm .... mtable, 'T,he lines dilfid]"'g ewnOlm;caU}- dii!eIellt areas were n~t~ral1ylli>e.s ef Iesser wcial contact and ' ....... 00 as the ii<sl ·(I>bstade.;;. '1<> ijjff","rm,,- I'll tbe· im:t..IlCle'3 where these lines later beeama ,",\iti",,-l bonndari es " social inf.eroour.e across Ihem became. far less, Md f.ll",,~W:ffmil1ns l:endoo tol· Wi' at them. And in addit!:on , eaeh isoglcss that stopped at these lines ". zones w"akened! .tm further ~b" .m.olom. and the "m.QQ.ltt of sceiall.ingni£tic communieatios 8.<!I"R<s it" ami 00 mads it all the more sUl'e Iliact later i\:iffU$io'n.s ,",oilld also iout'll th .. re.

II'. In.depen<le<tt dlanges. Sind 1"'gE!'istio drift_ But if is possible that StlJIle of thec'hlWge. which <ICClltted, ",er '!be w'l,~)!e "1'ea,o. 0"'" large P'3<ls "r it, ""Fa not dlt1"usiom" bu~ at ind.p"'ildeli~ ""i;gia, in v:aIi.ousJl'fl.t'l otSJria- Palestine, This III!.llcl:i is certain, that setae 'I! these ehaeges <Wi.\> """""r.rooindelle:mdently in Semitic l""gtJJllglZS which ",er·. nojOllgef in <'Oota.ct with, C!llll'lJ'nite.· T,b~ I""" ~! ihe spit:3.1!1[:s aDd of [i] lIS pb,,ne",~s, nO. tile laler I()>;> ()·i the larJDgeils and ,glr>Hal ~wp .all 'Il,!CuTrelJ. at ".dous times: tfIT01,ghOUt Aldiadi.n ;and sum.ice "" ",elIas Ca"",,,njte;

1Ii~; at':E',Ulg-eml!Jri; B.c-oo:r.Iis, wit'll -Ute e~1ide:~ tie-tiler t'l12"[J_ ~ tb~ divtgmoo ~nto .N~~h :a~d Sou,n. CaJlB1LID.i:te., 'The; l:rt.te:r b al[id.tu:["'y~ Jl;OO Endicates nmt!ring 0:[ {hoe. r:ti:ffi~f1j'!(!, in~ingu3sti-c b:i.Stol"y [in l'iI!Umber of ~,g:-es. et(:.,]1 bel1i'irri-l!!l, .roa.;:i :!.:ad Ia.land. ar.ea_~

• III tiJlE!, (;b3l;'rt th~ oel'la.:tilge:s .a:n' :["ep[,~lIled 'by- It~ee wifecdJ arem.o:k"en. at. l)Je di:a.~~ dimiiiiJ~.

1001 Development of tke Ca-n.(lamte Dialects

some of th.ese developments (e. g., the los of [s]) IilllOwak place in paris of Soutb.-SemJtic, eady or modern, The loss tlIf floa short 'IIo .. els took p]ace earl, or late in olmos:!; all Semific ~.nguage3, inclllding modern N>lr(b Arabie, TbB del'<!lopmeDt of a. sl!Ibjective a:spoot s:ysoom in the 'v,,~1l occurred, in all Ianguages of the W",t-Semitic group. Even the lOGS 6[ the mimsfion of tne ind€fluite noun, and the m'l.D.cphthoDg:ieZiloon Olf (lipbt;hQILg!! were liwt pee"fll]sr to Canaanit .. _

All 'the.!;",. s:imilal" develepmeuts were not Proto-Bsmitie ot 1"roro·,Vi'eEtIS~mi!~C changes. T.he oceurrenee 'If th. o<\g"'<mtI, as yet nnchanged {<:lIms 'in liJgarlt MId! other ""dy eeoaarute sources, 35 well as in elldy stag,,-, <;>i other Semitic langDllge:5, .!h<JWIl that ttLeS 'took place In the seearal languages oJt." fhe;y were no longer in contact with each "the',". These changes .must theJ'efore be eoasidered as 'parallel ind"pendeo.t de."lopmeots in all 'or some Siem~!ie Jaoguilg€S, and a~ widely 'I1!lrJiiOlg times. We can understand such ,,,,.nts only if We assume 'that they are a 11 iaOle-· p<'lll!!ent results of II situation which had ezisted in Uta commoa parent; The 19S5 offimu ShOTI ~owel. may have beenthe olld result of a peculiar weak Irrom.lociatioD. of '<O",.1s in. that position in. Proto-Semitic; the development 0,£ SlIIbjecli;e ""Ibal aspeeta may hare been the configurational outgrowth of "great and speeiafueil.fue'llle~ of use of tbe st..tic ped",,;tsand the nominal StmieDce in Proto- W,est-Sem:itic. Taken all together, they Tepl'€llellt the .. drift" , .• of Semitic_

Wilhlil C:!lll!l:liD.i~ 'how,;,'i'er" i~ is 1lOj; clear whether tl'!ey were, diffusions from. 0]]." center, or ",f independent origiD in variQus places, Tn, some eases, ,the)! utay he' ve been i.od.pendeo't, e. g .. , the ead" loss of the U !! iI] phenemesjn Phoenician and tb .• ir later Ioss in Flebraw ; in the ca...,,"' "f the j,aryngeaIs, tilcir loss in Punic, outside Sy,ia~Paiestille, was cerlllil'll}, inclepm.dellt oi ~.i. 1_ ill N ori:ll Pslestil'l". T'O) the e;>tent that mOGt of n",,, changes seem to, ha~e taken place throughoot Ca!la.<!.niu, rut.bout tbe Morna time, it may 00 that we ~hou.ld eeasider 'IIII'm mOl<tly as diltusions witlJ.ill Caaaenite, thus acequniiog fIJI the id.en.tit11' of tlm~_ S"me of them, however, may well have been separate parallel developmen4 in various l<lealit,i~,similarJ,y mete,mined i a e:a>dt place bJ' a. id.oneal phonetic or morpbologic strueture of the language. In ilJOl!t sense ii, may b. that· certain oIher, pur,ely GaManite changes too were I!O'~ dift,.,.ious from oDe· eeuter, b1!lt. h04 mm. !hall one place .of origin: thesewere cli.oo.ges like the contirrued mcncphthoagizatton (1,31.)" eontianed V'oweI. reduetien (.5:Z}, shift 01 ,b2, verb stress {51}. Fer th es se changes too are erenbs whicb were determinea,perhaps independently in d1ffe.reat places, by the CUJ~eIIt skl!lGb:ue of Oanaanlte ; lbej" represe!l.t jre~lnlipS the Dew features of drift in the Caaaanitc group_

, .

Ii'

"II See K Sapir-, La:ogua.ge. e:b~ I, eap, p. 166.

~bhL~g:;te::rb!1
_U{)
AJ"A
AJSlL
EASON
saG
IlJPJ!S
'S'L
soU
llu<Chardt
ern
Dir,-Ll"'Lger
"EA
'I Ebel;'ng
I E'F"£
QABL
GB
'GK
GP
O'IIG J.AJDoD J3!:JS JIlL JE.!L .Sl'QS JQR,

Lid.~ .

LOol

1