Ind. Eng. Cher, Fundam. 1983, 22, 163-103 189 Flux Distribution around Tubes in the Radiant Section of Processing Furnaces Hoyt C. Hotter Fate Research Laboratory, Department of Chemical Engineering, Massachusets Insts of Tectooy. Cambriige, Massachusens 02139 COptirizstion of design ot a process furnace for heating, In tubes, a fuid whlch can react chemically and untaveyably inven overheated wal fl requires prociso knowiedge of hestfux maldetrbution. Four geometrical arrangements ‘are treated quanttatvely: symmetrical two-skie heating of single- and doublerow tubes and one-side hating of ‘one or two rows mounted against a refractory background. Addtional ggometrical variables are spacing betwoen {tubes ina row and spacing between rows. Three siages Inthe approach fo rigorous treatment of flux dstibution r@ presented: (1) a preliminary assessment of the flux makdstibutlon factor based on the assumptions tha’ the bes are black and circumferential tube-wall conduction la urimportant; (2) quanttative allowance for pital ‘equalization of dietibution due to mutiple retlecton In the system; (3) Incision of the efte of excumtorentia) ‘conduction. The final step, often unnecessary, includes determination of variation of Inside and outside wall temperatures around the tube perimeters. Good approximations are offered for two tedlus steps, alowance for ‘multiple retlaction and for crcumterenta! conduction. Introduction and Scope ‘Maldistribution of flux over the periphery of tubes in processing-furnace chambers becomes particularly sig: nifieant when the stream being heated is heat-sensitive. In the days of thermal cracking of petroleum, inadequate allowance for flux maldistribution shortened the time between tube cleaning and sometimes produced serious furnace fires. In coal hydrogenation the heating of & three-phase mixture of coal slurry and gas at maximum, safe rate makes e quantitative allowance for flux non- uniformity critical. ‘The chief geometrical arrangements possible in the ra- Giant section of a processing furnace include tworside heating ofa single oF @ double row of tubes or the mounting of @ single or a double row on well-insulated refractory walls, with one-side firing. Those four possibili multiplied when the ratio of conter-to-center distance between tubes in a row to their diameter is varied, and further increased when in a double row system the spacing between tube rows is varied. A firat approximation to a aolution of the problem of ‘choosing a furnace design that will satisfy the constraints imposed by heat sensitivity of the stock comes from evaluation of the average and the maximum flux density expected around a tube periphery in a black-tube system However, ifthe resultant permitted average flux den ‘makes the furnace cost high, steps toward a more re solution are warranted. Allowance forthe tube metal's not being black reduces the maldistribution somewhat, by ‘multiple reflection, and its effect should be included, Further improvement comes from allowing for circum {ferential heat flux in the metal tube wall—and that may ‘be done rigorously or a good approximation may be made. Its the object here to present the basis for quantitative allowance for each of these three steps toward a rigorous ‘olution, together with numerical examples indicating the error associated with stopping short Radiation Principles Involved Consider for example the flux from a furnace chamber to two rows of tubes mounted on @ back-insulated re. fractory wall. To the extent that the radiation from the furnace gases is isotropic it may be assumed to come from fan imaginary plane parallel to and on the furnace side of| the first row. If the area of that plane is Ap and the urea of the first row of tubes is An, the direct lux from p ane 4p of unit hemispherical emissive power toward the tubes ist ApF py, where Fy, is the fraction of the radiation from the plane which is intercepted by the tubes. When the tubes have unit emissive power their first-row direet flux toward the plane is Ap,Frp. By the principle of recipe city AoFrn, © AnFre The product AF is called the direct-exchange area; Fis called the diret-view factor. Tn the present application of principles only twirdi- mensional systems are involved, and their radiation ge metry is relatively simple. If from surface element 4 beam of radiation toward A, that lies within. the nd makes angle @ with the normal to da, the view factor Paani 4d sin & integration is over the angle subtended by A>. The dizectexchange area between finite elements A, and As, per unit length normal te the two-dimensional picture, does not require formal nte gration over the two surfaces. A,Fi, = AF, equals the combined length of stretched crossed strings from the ends Of A; to the ends of 4, les the combined length of un crossed strings from the ends of Ay to the ends of 4, all divided by 2. ‘This consteuction makes rigorous allow snce for any obstruction that partially blocks the view 4. and ‘Az have of each other (Hottel, 195. "The above direct-exchange area concept ean be applied to tworside irradiation by addition of exchange areus or View factors, but reflection or reradiation from adiabatic refractory surfaces presents different problem. Pet anit ‘of source emissive power, let AF), represent the flux fron ‘Ay to Ap, both ditectly and by assistance from an: re {rectory inom source-sink type) surfaces present, but with 1no reflection occurring at any sources or sinks." The me. ‘hod of evaluating F will be discussed later. Still another problem arises when the system is not black. Let AZ, represent the lux from A, to-A, de to direct incidence plus refactory reradiation plus multiple reflection. A special cae of reflection so greatly simplifies the problem as to merit introduction here, Represest the reflectance by p and the emittance by «(= 1 9). Assume that reflection is gray and diffuse and that the system is divisible into threo zone, the souree ane or emiting plane 0196-4318/8571022-0159801.50/0 © 1989 American Chersee! Socety84 Ind. Eng. Chom, Fundam. Vol. 22, No. 2, 1969 Table 1, Maldistribution Factor dm/Qyy for Single-Row Irradiation ‘onessde heating, 26a iiea b1a8 2168 4 1987 162 424 L974 1484 Vigo 1.130 3099 1:70 1387 ‘Ap, the sink 2one or gray tubes Az, and the adiabetic re- fractory zone Ay, Assume that all parta of the gray zone have the same view of reflected radiation (not true; the error will be examined later). Under this condition the exchange area Appr (= Ary) is given (Hottel, 1954) by L L ey er ApFen= ArF re) ApPrel= ArPre) © Aver Plane Ap may be thought of as a black source of unit eminsive power. With the subscript dropped from px the above becomes Fae = ar ApFor If the set of simplifying assumptions is accepted, allowance for tubes not being black is easy Since that part of the tube surface which directly faces the radiation source sees the source throughout a full hemisphere, with no opportunity for multiple reflection, ‘Fry has locally a maximum value which is directly . That ‘quantity divided by the average rp ftom (2) gives the ratio of maximum external flux density gq on the tube surface to its average value Gy @ ‘This ratio is of primary interest. It will be referred to hereafter as the maldistribution factor for the tube system, Basic to all systems to be considered is the fraction Fp of total radiation from one side of a plane which is in tercepted by the tubes in a row parallel tothe plane. With tube diameter D and center-to-center spacing C, this factor is given by Fer = 1 [1 = (D/C)P + (D/C) cos(D/C) (4) Irradiation of a Single Row from Both Sides. The plane on each side of the tube zow irradiates the tubes in accordance with eq 4. Since the system contains no adi- abatic refractory surface, Fy = Pry. Ifthe tubes are gray, ‘rp comes from eq 2, with Ar/Ap = xD/2C because the source plane is on both sides of the tubes. ‘The maldis: tribution factor comes From (3) 6 ‘Table I, left half, gives the results of computations based on), for lac eben and tubes having refectance of Mgand "5, ‘One-Side Irradiation of « Single Refractory- Backed Row. Of unit radiation from the imaginary ra diating plane, Foy is intercepted, 1 - Fyr reaches the ‘backwall and is either reflected or reradiated, and the fraction Fpr ofthat is intercepted by the tubes, ‘The total Figure 1. (s) Determination of exchange aree between secon 70% tube and rediation souree.(b) View fector from moat favrable position ofrecand row tbe to radation source. (e) Division of oc ‘x from tube vo surroundings nto redition from: soures and om source via adiabatic aurface. [Reference toe 7 and 8 on (above should be to eq AL and AZ) incident rction—aeored ithe ube ar black iven by Fees Fort (1-FrrlFye = Frrl2- Fn) (6) Conversion from Fie to Frp by multiplieation by C,'xD gives the average flux density at a black tube suriace. Equation 3, with Ar/Ap = D/C, gives the fux maldis: tribution Fe Oe ‘The results are given in Table I, right half, for black tubes and tubes having a reflectance of '/, and '/,. ‘The mal distribution ntly unfavorable to merit allowance for cireuraferential tube-wall flux. However, the use of double tube rows to reduce furnace size will be consicered first. ‘Two-Row Irradiation (Tubes on Triangular Cen: ters). The presence of two rows of tubes enorm>usly increases the complexity of evaluating geometrical effects Let the centerline spacing between tube rows, measured im diameters, be S/D. Three F's must be formulater|: (1) the fraction Fp, of radiation from plane Ap which reaches ‘a second-row tube, (2) the viow Frings that 8 spot on tube T, has of the radiating plane on the other side of row 1 when the spot directly faces the central opening in “ow 1 (see Figure 1b), and (3) Fr, when S is so small as to cause row 2 to partially block exchange between row | and the radisting plane. ‘These Fs are formulated in the Appendix. ‘Two Rows of Tubes Irradiated from Both Sides. A Dlaci-tute system will be considered first. Each row re ceives Fp, from the radiating plane on ane side, Fy. from the other’ rp is Ap/ Az times the sum of these, vt ¢ F (Fp, from eq 4 oF eq Ad + Fy, from ey A2)Ind Eng. Chem. Fundam, Vol. 22, Ne, 2, 1983 185 tb = 1420 301 1 ° anes 798 1593 0 LTTT 1582 1.895 2 ° 2209 © 1842 1.650 My 1808 L581 1433 ‘This ia the average fux density around a tube surface relative to what it would be if each tube could see Ap in all directions, 2, if it were surrounded by the r touroe, Values of Frp as a function of $/D, for C/D = 1.8, 2,25, 8, are given as four dotted line at the top of Figure 2 -ALS/D = 0, the double row of tubes acts lke a single row at halé-value of C/D. is limiting peeformance could have been gotten directiy from ea 4 ‘Since one part ofthe area of each tube sees the radiation source through a full hemisphere and since the two rows fare alike in thei view, evaluation of the maldistribution factor with allowance for tube grayness can be made by Use of eg 3. In the absence of « refractory surface Pra = Fpr and the factor Fre plotted in the top part of Figure 2'% directly the reciprocal of the term Ay/ ApFpr that ‘appears in ea 3. The factor gu /du 0m that relation, for C/D=15 103 and for S)D"= 05, 1, and 9, is given in ‘Table U, left half. Performance in given for black tubes and tubes having a reflectance of '/s. (The variation of a/duy With p in submtantially linear from p = 0 t0"/3) ‘One example of use will be given. Although both Table 1, left half, and igure 2 indicate that gu/dq is nearer 1 the amaller §/D, ie, thatthe fitting of a double row into ‘single one improves the flux distribution, the opportunity for tube inspection and good return-bend design is porer. ‘Atwo-row aystem with C/D = Sand S/D = 1 would carry fas many tubes as a single row with the unacceptably tight spacing C/D = 1.5, and qu/qu, would thereby rise from 1190 (1 row, C/D = 1.5, p= {J Table D only to 1.31 ail an acceptable meldistribution. ‘Two Rows of Black Tubes Mounted on a Refrac- tory Backwall. What is noeded here is Fy the fax from ‘Ap to Ty oF Ty by direct incidence plus that which arrives via the radiatively ediabatic refractory surface. Of unit radiation leaving imaginary plane p, Fr, is intercepted by the frat row, 1— Frr,~ Fer, reaches the refractory and in reflected or reradiated, and Fp, of that impinges on 7, from the backside. Thus Fen = Fer, + (1-Pen,-Fon)Fen, (0) and Poe, = Fen, + (1 ~ Fen, ~ Foner, @ (lt the tubes were black and the furnece gas were gray, the flux @ to the two rows of tubes would be given by Qn, + Qr, = sep Tp! = Tr An Pr, + Fer) Here Ap is the area of the plane of the tubes; «¢ and Ty the furnace gas emissivity and temperatare. (Fn, + Fer) may be thought of ee the effective emissivity or absorp- tivity ofa plane surface at Ty which replaces the tube rows ‘and their refractory backing. ‘The variation in tube surface flux depends on Fp and Pap. Aa before, these come from multiplication of F values from (7) and (8) by C/rD. Values of Frp aze plotted as functions of S/D, for four values of C/D, tn the lower part = 2430 20801-8053 auoa S1a9 26312285 8199-2459 2.087 1.86 4200 «3213 -2.565 2.326 3330-2476 «2110 1.884 igure 2. Bifectof row spacing on fax density onto rows of bac tubes. Top portion, dated ine: ow, jrediated from bot sides. ‘Bottom portion: 2 rows mounted on refractory wall frat row, slid lines, second row, dashed lines. Numbers on lines ato of center tvcantar dintance (oa row to tube diameter. of Figure 2, solid lines Fryp and dashed lines Fy,o ‘The desired daus/ a i8 the reciprocal of Fr,» for sow 1 because one strip along that row has a full view of Ay However, the most favorable position on row 2 ha: an F given by eq A3. Then Qn /Gan Ist TOW = 1/(Prp from 9 7, djustec) (9) Fainan from 09 84 Ga/ Aen 208 20" = Foes oa 8, adjusted "°) ‘The strange character of these functions is shewn in Figure 3, where they appear as solid lines for the first row and dashed lines for the second. Fr,pmge (eq A3} oscillates {in value as S/D is increased, with amplitude lower the higher C/D and decressing as S/D increases. The result isa emall oscillation of the second-row gq/quy_ Note that th the second row always receives less radiation than188 Ind, Eng. Chem, Fundam, Vel 22, No.2, 1989 igure 3, Tworrow one-sideizadition. Effect of spacing between tows on rato of maximum to average Mux denaty. Solid tine, fist row; dotted lines, second 03 the fret (Figure 2), the maldistribution (Figure ) changes from worse in the second row than in the first when $/D is less than 1.36 (14, 1.45, 159) for C/D = 3.0 (25,2, 1.5) to better than in the first row when S/D is large. At the values of $/D expected in practice, however, the difference between first- and second-row maldiatribution is small. ‘One example will be given. With C/D = 2 and with tubes on triangular centers (S/D = (C/D)(3)*/#/2 = 1.73), Ga/ Gu» from Figure 3 is 2.29 for the first row, 1.97 for the second. Figure 2 shows that the average flux tothe first row is 43.7% of that from a tube completely surrounded by the radiation source; the average to the second row is 18.6%. These numbere may not be limiting ifthe Flow pattern puts heat-ensitive material into the second row ‘The figures indicate also that an $/D of 1.18 is an un necessarily large spacing between rows, for many appli ‘ations 1 would be better "The above treatment of one side two-tube irradiation has not allowed for grayness. The one-gray-zone treatment based on eq 1 or 2 is not applicable unless the performance of the two rows is combined. When that is done the ratio ‘of maximum to average fax density on the tube surfaces will be high because exposure of the front side of the front row will be high compared with the wwo-row average. Such ‘comparison has merit, however, since some furnaces are designed on the basis of average flux to the two rows View factors Frr, and Fy, must be added, then rul- tipliod by Ap/(An, + Ax, to éonvert to Fre. When Ap, = ‘this is the equivalent of averaging Pry and Fy,p read directly from the solid and dashed lines of Pigure 2. Equation 3 is then used to obtain ga/qu Table I, right half, gives the results of the calculation. It is clear that ‘double row mounted on a refactory baciovall can present a serious maldistribution problem unless C/D exceeds 2; Keeping $/D small helps somewhat. Multiple Reflection ‘The merging of first: and second-row performance 10 permit use of the simple one gray-zone treatment embo- died in eq 1-3 is unacceptable if the fluid being heated is 48 temperature senaitive for example, asa coal slurry. In addition, the effect of tube grayness on leeal flux density Figure 4. Zoning used in one row irradiation of partially re tubes. (a) Synmettica radiation from both sides, varies around the perimeter of a tube to an extent that could deny justification of a superimposed rigorous treatment of circumferential heat flux in the tube wall unless reflection is included. For these reasons a :uore nearly rigorous treatment of multiple reflection is wer ranted. However, @ rigorous treatment generates a in tegral equation with the unknown function Leing sought—-a description of the flux disteibution—insid the integral. An alternative approach is to divide a tube surface into enough zones to conform to the requirement ‘that all elements on one zone have substantially the same ‘view of surroundings. The zone method will be usd Let the syatern consist of a source zone of are «ip, & refractory zone of area Aq, and n gray zones of areas Ay. Let the direct-exchange area AF, (= A,F,) be rep: resented by jj (= ji). It may be shown (Hotel and Sarofim 1967) thas the total exchange area AyTp is given 1-7 tea, 2 Atte AWDin Fn = Tal — Se au where D is the symmetrical determinant PP Agiry mm \ Ay ie in Tk | aie. in 3h eB a Ra Aion ae Re oe Ri HR» ay and D’,, is the P-row i-column cofactor or signed minor of D, obtained by crossing out the Pth row and ith ou. umr of D. Equation 11 is much simplified by problem s metry and the fact that in the present application ;, = « ‘The zone method will first be used on a single raw of tubes heated from two sides, with separation (1) = 2 Figure da shows a representative cell formed by |+ancs nnormal to the source zone Ap~symmetry planes cross which radiation in the two directions cancels. ‘Ph tube is divided into sixteen 1/8 segments which, been symmetry, produce five zones. Zone 1 consists of fou #/18 segments facing Ap on two sides; zone 5 consists of two segments facing one another; zones 2, 3, 4 consist ! four segments each, of 2/8. ‘The direct-exchange area for each pair of zones m.st be evaluated. Because of symmetry and because some zones ‘cannot see one another, there are 13 unique exchange erens to evaluate, ‘These are arranged in proper order! de terminant evaluation in Table III left half, where oy has ‘been given unit valueAgana ind, 916 187 column 7 2 8 @ 6 "PF ¢ 0.0967 01874 0.1682 01427 0.0866 0.0 o1937 O.a170 o.1949 0.0120 0 oar 0.0 9.0006 0.0009 00 0 o.1ga7 00 0.0026 0 oo ° 0.0006 0.0017 0.0030 0.0028 0.0010 0.3170 6.0026 0.0271 0.0271 0.0068 0 0.0120 0.0003 0.0030 0.0080 0.0124 0.007s 01319 0 0.0273 0.0686 0.0271 0 01:49 0.0” 0.0026 0.0124 0.0283 0.0133 0.0120 0 0.0068 0.0271 0,0271 6.0026 0.2170 © 0.0010 0.0078 0.0138 0.0095 0.0 0.0026 0 0.1237 os = 0 $49 0.31700. 0.0 T0000 O0SBE 0.1963 0.1965 -O.T98 ‘Table IV. Effect of Zone Fineness and Surface Reflectance on Total-View Factor 7 and MalditsIbution Factor dn/Que (Single Row Irradiation, C/D = 2) oneside heating, ‘elractory twoside hesting "backing oasTe 1 o 0.8620 1.780 He V2one model 0.7172 0'3052 1.650 2aone model ~ = OagTo 1674 Sone model 0.7156 1.165 0.4957 1.681 zone model 0.7154 1168 0.4950 1.683 (est) J Laone model 0.5902 1.180 0.4387 1.520, Done model — 0.4272 1.561 Sone model 0.5880 1.184 0.4245 1'570 zone model 0.5878 1134 0.4236 1.574 (est) tf, Laone model 0.4857 1.097 — ~ Zane model = Sone model 0.4535 1,103, srtone model 0.4533 1103 = (est) Solutions of eq 11 give the five local Fry's, which are plotted vs. angular position around the tube in the top half of Figure 6, for values of » of 0, '/a,"/ and '/. Values of #6, the ratio of average to maximum flux density, are plotted in the lower part of the figure. Its clear thet the fractional change in # from the tube front to the /2 position decreases asp increases, indicating that maximum buildup by multiple reflection occurs in the area where the ‘wabes come closest to forming a cavity. For 9 = 1/s the circumferential average Frp (from Figure 6 ot Tabie IV) i 0.5880. Since rp from the simple one-rone treatment, 2, is 0.5902, it is clear that for one row of tubes heated from both sides there is no need for multiple zoning if the objective is evaluation of ¢9/du; the analysis has another ‘use, considered later. The effect of zoning on Fzp and n/ Qu is recorded in Table IV, left half "The zone method was next applied to the case of one. side heating of a single row of tubes with refractory backing. As.a step toward determining how fine the zoning need be, numerical evaluation was first based on divis into but two zones—halfcircles—T; facing the radiation source and Ts facing the refractory. Use of eq 11 with C/D = 2 gives Fay oF Fr, 4811 ~ 0.25859) of (0.2062 + 0.0253 "0.8169 — 0.4181 + 0.032008 Fyp + Sap 0.3467 - 0.11610 TE "6168 = OBI + 0.08285" Fre Reference to these results will be made later. Figure 5. Zoning study of one row of gray tubes irradiated from both sides. ‘Top curves local tatal-vew factor vi. position 0» tube Bottom, ratio of loc! to maximum fox density ‘The zoning shown in Figure 4b was next sed, agsin to sive 5 zones, but larger than those used for 2-side bring ‘Values for the § local Fry's are plotied in Figure 6, npper section. Smooth curves have been put through the step fanction to aid in visualization. ‘The lower part of the figure presenta the local values of Frp/, equal to Gi./ Gn ‘The effect of zoning on Frp and dq/aq. may be seen by comparing resulta onthe one, two- and fve-zone models, ‘Table IV, right half, gives the coraparison, for p=", and -zone model is seen to underestimate the effect of reflectance on the change in Frp fror the black-tube value by about 13%, and to overestimate the change in dm /@u, from the black-tube value by about 30% ‘The more important use of the results of zoning is to find therefrom a way to estimate the effects of reflection nn the details of flux distribution around the tubes, for use evaluating the contribution of circumferential conduction in the tube metal without actually carrying out a tedious zone computation, Tt the ratio q/ 9m, where q is flux density at angular position #, be designated by Q,. Figures 5 and 6, bottom88 Ind. Eng. Chm. Fundam, Vol. 22, No. 2, 1963 igure 6. Zoning study of one-sideiradiation of gray tubes. Top cutve, local toalvsw factor v=. tube posite Bottom, ratio of ec to maximum fur density sections, indicate that the decrease in Q, from 1 as & ‘changes appears to be proportional to the corresponding decrease for a black-tube system and roughly proportional to p, and is almost no function of 8. This proportionality, inverted for a reanon that wil become apparent ter, tkex 1 form a ‘where subscript B refers to the black-tube value. More over, if the functional relation f is independent of 8, (9) may be replaced by gq, to give 1 = u/dabe =f » aan 71 us In terms of Fzp and «, this becomes Fre Frese (in the absence of a refractory surface Frp = Fry) ‘as the the structure of f(g) comes from using zone model to express in terms of F and op. From eq ld and 3 (0 aw i.e Ap) is @ linear function of p/« Setting the right-hand vide of (15) to the left-hand side of (14) and clearing gives re /Pr yp as) One may expect, though, that a correction factor will have to be introduced into eq 16 to allow for its being bused fon the one-gray zone approximation. When the data from ‘Table IV, left side, for two-side firing are inserted into 16) to test the assumptions made about the structure of.) it is found that multiplication of p/« by a constant "in this case having the value 0.894, puts the date for p "/s,\/y on a straight line through the origin, with a max mun’ error of less then 1%. One may then insert the corrected value of f{e) into (12) and (13) to obtain. for two-side firing 1=@u/Qn)n = ap 1-@ = 14 0.894F 9217) Tene) ¢ In explicit form (aye/ Gn) OF Qe = 18) A similar treatment of the date on one-side firing with a refractory backwall—Table IV, right side~gives a cor jon factor ¢ of 0.70. Although but two points have ‘been obtained for this case, they lie on a straight line through the origin within an error of '/,%. For one-side firing Llaav/4aha oF Qual + 0.705F T¥OR06F p07) ay. / Gq) 0F Qe = 19) ‘The above recommended relations (18) and (19 are based on study of a single value of tube spacing C/.. It is probable, however, that within the range of C/I’ en: countered in furnace design any error introduced by busing the correction for grayness on (18) or (19) is less than. the error in knowledge of the value to use for p oF « Tf one wishes to allow for circumferential wall cor duc- tion, eq 18 and 19 provide a method of obtaining the local gray-tube distribution factor Q, from its black-tube value. tone wishes to stop short of allowing for conduction (18) and (19) give the maldistribution factor in terms of its Dblack-tube value. (dyy/da)s is Fro; insertion of that into (19) and inversion gi¥€8 G/ dew 1/F ep + epfe tol tm = TF cofe (0 Although the effect of reflectance on the performance of a two-row system irradiated from one side has been treaved, that was done by combining the two rows in order to permit use ofthe one-gray-zone model. Multiple zoning of a two-row system has not been carried out, Iti» rec ommended that if the individual performance of esch af the two rows ia desired, the following approximation be used. Find the individual performances of the two -ows when black, eq 9 and 10. Find the joint performance when black and when gray (illustrated by Teble If, right side) ‘Assume that the fractional change in maldisteibuticin for the combined rows due to change from black to gray’ ap plies to each of the individual performances. This sliould slightly overcorrect row J and slightly undercorrec" row Circumferential Conduction It will be assumed that the reduction in maldisteibution factor in a one-row system due to inclusion of wall con: duction will adequately measure the importance of con duction. Only one-row aystems will be treated,From what has been presented, itis clear that if ci ccumferential conduction is not important, the maldisti- bution factor is a full measure of the furnace contributi to trouble reaulting from local overheating of the process fluid, and that factor is obtainable without inquiry into the details of flux density variation around the tube per- imeter. However, if conduction is to be included, one must mow how a, varies with angle from the tube front. ‘The first step is the evaluation of local values of Fzp around the tube. Because of the difference between the two planes on sither side of a tube—one the radiation source and one sometimes a radiatively adiabatic surface—it is necessary to keep separate the views a spot on a tube has of the two planes. Figure lc illustrates the problem. Spot S at angle 4 from the normal to the radiation source sees the latter through angle DSG; it sees the backside through angle FSE. Consider the 2x steradian radiation impinging on ‘tube at spot S. ‘The fractional view $ has of surroundings ‘on the front or @ = 0 side will be called Gp, the fractional view of the back or 8 = x side, Gy, Two quantities, A’ and BY simplify the formulation of Gy and Gy, (C/2D) - (C/D) ain 8+ (C7 (C/D) cos 6 ((C/DY* ~ (C/D) sin 8) Y-(C/Dyain + (C7 It may be shown thet for any 8, Gy = (1 +A" B9/2. When 6 < sin (D/C), Gp = 0. When 4 > sin (D/C), Gp = (0+ A'=B)/2and Gp+ Gp = 1+ A: These relations permit formulation of G, for two-side and one-ide ire- diation. ‘Two-Side Irradiation. Q = [1 + AC) + B)/2 if 6 < sin (D/C) (21) Q)= 1+ AG) if 02 sit (D/C) One Side Irradiation, Refractory Backwall. When frontaide surroundings are at unit emissive power the Dackwal acta like a secondary source at an emissve power (L- Fer), with Fpy given by eq 4. Then = (G0) when <#Ssin4(D/C) (22) Q = [G0] + (1 ~ Fen |Gai) when sin" (D/C) s Osx/2 Qs = Fe lGylx - 81 + [Gx(x~ 9} when #/2 $0 < (x ~sin"t (D/C) (1 ~ Fpn)Gr(e ~ 8) + (D/O) <0< Values of Q, for both one-side (C/D = 1.5 to 2.6) and two-side irradiation (C/D = 2 and 2.5) are prosented in Figure 7. (The use of 2.526 instead of 2.5 is related to an interesting practical example, 2.375-in. tubes on 6-in. centers.) A partial check on the validity of eq 21 and 22 comes from noting that the reciprocals of values from Table I, p = 0, are the same as the average height of the curves of Figure 7 . Fitting the Q, Relation to a Cosine Series. Although the effect of circumferential tubewall conduction can be handled with external flux density presented in graphical form, the problem can be solved more tidily if the input is @ cosine series, Let when (~~ si @= cos (nf) Ine, Eng. Chem. Fundam, Vol 22, No. 2, 1983. 168 Figure 7. One- and :wo-ide irradiation of single row of black tbs aloof incident loeal ux density at tube wuetae to maxima lve ‘Vs positon on tube. For practice application itis never necessary to use (21) or (22) for finding Q, at more than five Q's, most von- veniently at 6 = 0 to x in steps of 1/4. ‘The rela:ons needed to obtain Ca to Cy, together with their evelua-ions for several spacing ratios C/D, are given in the Appe dix. 1f@ is symmetrical around »/2 (two-side heating) the odd C's will drop out, For all cosine series the integration of ound the tube gives Quy Formulation of Conduction. With flux densits dis tribution on a tube exterior specified and with th: in- side-film heat transfer coefficient h to fluid at a specified bulk temperature T assumed independent of 6, the tem- perature in the tube wall will be « function of @ and ridial istances . At steady conditi equation of heat flux is ar iat iar a rar ae Four boundary conditions must be specified. ‘The solution of the equation is given in the Appendix. Alittle consideration indicates that the partial itfer- ential equation may be avoided, with great reduction in labor and an acceptably small introduetion of error, by ignoring the radial component of the circumferential ux and focusing on the tube temperature ata mean rads ro = (,-+7)/2. If circumferential flux is assumed 4 be along f path of width r, ~ rand length rad, a balance on a full-thickness seginent of tube of that length gives an ‘equation which replaces (23) ar (a 4) ae ate ‘where 4, is the external flux density (= ge) inside tube metal temperature, and Ty 9 the partial differential (23) (Ti T~) (24 ‘Tis the local ¢ fluid bulk.‘180 Ind. Eng. Chom. Fundam. Vol 22, No, 2, 1983 temperature. To get rid of 7, assume that (7, Ts) is to (P~ Ty) an the inside film resistance is to the sum of it fand that of a half-wall thickness, or that TT. ara hrf Ty~ Tq) = 8g TT) L,Rem" T) (Bi) oe Egy (222 in te he 2 5) where R a r4/r, (Without this addition of half-wall ‘thickness to the inside film resistance the simplified model ‘would simulate the rigorous one poorly) Substitution from (25) and of quQy for qe in (24) gives ay /a# — By + G0 where PD rt, gras TT) ‘The boundary conditions are that dy/d@ = 0 at both @ Oand @= x. The solution, with Q, expressed as the cosine series Ee" C, cos nb, is From (25) and the definitions of y and E, YE equals 4i/aeR, the ratio of internal flux density per radian to maximum external flux density per radian. Then a NT TH AG, Ran Rae a cos nb 26 sotnye | ‘To obtain 7, the simplified model must be complete. Just an the energy flowing circumferentally at 7 was as- ‘sumed to encounter a half-wall resistance—measured radially—to reach the inside wal at 7, so the energy en- tering the tube from outside is assumed to encounter « hal-wall resistance in transport from the wall at 7, to the cirournferentilly lowing heat stream at T. The statement of that concept is MI,= 7) In rere Ge Ia ‘This leads to HT, ~ Ta) ar ae, (u)(m , Red ons (Se) m8) ‘Note that all results are in terms of an adjusted cosine ‘summation. If the rigorous treatment based on eq 23 had been followed, evaluation of q, 7\, and T, would necessitate three different summations (see Appendix), each more complex than that used in the above simpler model. One cease of irradiation of a single row of refractory-backed tubes typical of furnace practice was used for comparing the values of ¢)/Rdu, #(T;~Tp)/ da’, and k(T,~T')/Gare ‘based on the above model with these based on the rigorous ‘treatment. At no value of é did the two sets of results differ by more than about one part in 400 on any of the t=ree quantities given by eq 26 and 27. Reliance in furnace design on the simplified model can be recommended ith confidence. Examples. To illustrate the progression of though in deciding whether a proposed furnace design is acceptable ‘when judged on the besis of tube flux maldistibution, two cases will be considered. Schedule 160 tubes, & = 033 Btu/feh °F (00189 kW/m C),2375 in. D, on in. centers (C/D = 2.526) mounted against o refractory backwall ave been used in DOK-supported research in which & cool slurry was heated. ‘The average flux density arouné the tube exterior was 11450 Buy/fe? (36.1 kW/m’), with inside film coeficonta of 112 and 210 Btu/ft°h °F (638 and 1.192 kW/m! C) at different points along the flow path, ‘The tube inside diameter is 1.589 in, making R= 106. ‘The factor Prp for a black-tube system is, from eq 4 and 6, 0636, Its reciprocal, 1.573, 18 da/Q., the ext-nal black-tube maldistribution factor—high enough to war-ant further eefinement. The alleviating factors, metal rele tance and circumferential wall lux, wil be considered in sequen Assume a metal reflectance of 0.81. The value of 4../¢x. ‘that includes allowance for reflectance comes from € 20, with © 0.705. That brings g/day ftom 1.573 dova to 1.435. If citcuraferential but not radial lux in the wall is ignored, dae = diary where die is the meximum flux density’ atthe interior wall. Phen dia/d = 1-435, ‘hel doyy is 1495 % 1.406, or 2.018, ‘Since gen, = 11-450 Biuy/fi?h (961 Kw/m?) the maximum inside fox density is 23100 Btu/ft’ h (72.9 kW/m’), Both because this is high value for processing furnace operation and because an of 1406 makes conduction around the tube sixnifi- cant, allowance should be made for that effect. The Biot ‘number k/hr is 1.888 and 0.738, E'= 1.890 and 3.213. The cosine series giving Q, for a black system with C/D = 2.528 is piven in the Appendis. Conversion of the series to 2 form allowing for multiple reflection necessitates usi-g 19, which yields Qen + 0.20 “es ‘The reaulting cosine series for the gray-tube system is Qs = 0,696 + 0.239 coa 8 + 0,075 cos 2 0.013 cos 38 + (1003 cos 49. This appears as « heavy line in the upper port of Figure 8, It gives a maximum flux density on the tube exterior of 11 450/0.896, or 16450 Btu/ ft! h (47.3 kW/m) ‘The internal flux density per radian relative 1 the ‘maximum external value, from eq 26, appears in Fgure 8, top half, for the two values of h. The (maximum), (average) ratio is 1.31 (1.26) when k = 210 (112), 4 sig- nificant reduetion from the value 1.438 without circum ferential conduction. Equations 26 and 27 yield the in: ternal and external tube surface temperatures; these are plotted in the lower part of Figure 8. ‘The internal tem perature exceeds bulk fluid temperature by a max mum of 100 °F (180 *F) when h = 210 (112) Bua ft? h °F The above is a case of small tubes, thick walls, ger erous ube spacing, and reasonably high h. An example more nearly typical of large-scale industrial practice would be the use of 6-in, schedule 160 tubes (o.d. = 6.625 in. (16.8 cm), R = 1.277, C/D = 2, k= 10.9 Btu/ft h F (18,9 W/m C), an average outside flux density of 11450 Bta/ft® (36.1 kW/m!) and h = 75 and 150 Btu/ft? h °F (0.426 and 0.85) kW/m? C). ‘The results of the computation are given in Figure 9. ‘The maldistribution ratio would be 1.782 nn the hhasis of external distribution to black tubes, 1.594 hasedFigure 8. Allowance for citcurferentil conduction in single row lnradiated from one aide, center tocenter distance tube diamete 26% 2576in od, tubes, = 1406, = 109 Btujft hPa = 031. Guy xtaral) = 11450 Bts/(@ hc h = 212 and 210 Btu) h oF; W/he, 971380 and 0.788. Upper curves, (ux denstien per radian) imax imum external density per radian). Lower curves, external an in ternal tube surface temperature, meugured above Dull value on external distribution to gray tubes, With allowance for circumferential conduction it drops to 1.515 (1.471) based cn internal distribution when h = 150 (75). The maximum M48 °F (287 °F) when h is 150 (75). This ig the fractional fluctua. ite absolute value drops, Whether these higher film temperatures than those reached in the pilot plant furnace would produce tube fouling has not been established. Limitations and Conclusions Factors affecting flux distribution which have not been considered above include the effects of nonuniformity of flux density at the refractory backwall, nonisotzopic itra- ition of the plane of the tubes, choice of tube surface reflectance, spectral selectivity of the tube surface, con- vection to the tubes, and corner effects. In the analysis presented, the irradiation of the tubes by the backwall has been assumed to come from a surface of uniform emissive power. Whether this assumption is valid depends on the ratio of backwall-to-tube clearan to tube diameter and on C/D. When the latter is 2, the average incident flux on the backwall is 1 ~ Fry of 0.3424. ‘When the backwall clearance is one diameter, the maxi mum and minimum flux densities are 0.9562 and 0.33 ‘That small variation will not influence the tube-received flux density significantly, but the wall clearance should not bbe much less than one tube diameter. ‘Whether the intensity of incidence of radiation from the furnace chamber onto the tube plane is independent of angle of incidence depends on how nearly black the ra- diation is. If the radiation source is # not very thick slab ‘of gas, intensity increases aa the angle to the normal to the plane increases. ‘The effect of this on one aspect of the tube problem has been considered (Hottel, 1974). If the optical density of the radiating gas normal to the tube plane is greater than {a reasonable value for a gray- In. Eng. Chom. Fundam, Vol.22, No.2, 1863 161 EXTERIOR (0 INTERIOR) wins BULK TEMPE Mon on Wee " Figure 9, Allowance for circumferential conduction in sing! lnradiated stom one ade, eanterto-center distance tube daa‘ 356605 in. od, tubes, = 1.2, 109 Btu/feh*F, 9 = 0.31, £0812 and'0396. Upper carves, ux densities er radia! ‘mum external fur density per radian. Lower curve, eaten Interael tube surface temperatures, measured above bulk vu 2. ancitar pos) plus-clear gas furnace model—Pyris found to increase less than 3% above its value for isotropic radiation. This suggests that though Q will decrease less rapidly as @ departs from 0 than if the radiation were isotropic, the effect will not be large enough to justify including t in computations. Tt can be done but the labor would be great. ‘Metal reflectance, or its complement the absorptance varies with roughness, dirtiness, and, particularly i! not an alloy steel, state of oxidation. It is conventional to assume a = ¢ = 0.8 to 0.9, but alloy steels are lower. Ac cumulation of deposits from fuel ash or from refra:tory vaporization end redeposition on the tubes makes isho- ratory measurements of clean alloys have little value, Measurements of 301 and 316 stainless, after repeated heating and cooling, ranged in ¢ from 0.51 to 0.70; speci= ‘mens of stainless steel tubing taken after long furnacy use showed a wider range of variation. Little is known «2out, the spectral selectivity of deposits on tubes in ail fired furnaces. Since convection in the radiant section of a furnace chamber accounts for but 5 to 10% of the total flux, its effect on the Q-4 relation is hardly worth considering. ts added effect should be considered, however, if furnac~ and burner are g0 designed as to produce strong gas impinge- ment on tubes or a significant flow over the refractory behind them, Computations have been based on the assumption, that the tube plane is infinite in two dimensions, Since flux densities at edges and corners willbe les, the conven onal basis is a reasonable one for determining maximum chance of tube punishment, When 2 furnace processing operation is on a large scale and the fluid being processed is capable of chemical re action in an overheated fluid film, it becomes imp rtant to identify differences in local overheating associated! with different furnace designs in order that design may he op- timized. At high pressure snd high tube temperature the1862 Ind Eng. Chem. Fundam, Vol. 22, No. 2, 1983 Prema choice of wall thickness also becomes a problem; the es- timation of local temperature knowledge of temperature in the tube wall. The model presented here permits the furnace designer to go as far toward rigorous allowance for furnace geometry, metal reflectance, and citeumferential tube flux as the the problem warrants. Appendix 1. Consider the fraction Fr, of radiation from plane ‘Ap which reaches a second-row tube. As the row recedes—S/D inereasing—the number of gaps in the first ow increases, and the structure of the exchange area, gap to tube, depends on whether all or part of a tube is seen through a gap (see Figure La). ‘The cross-string method. leads to a formulation involving 4, and n, the integer value of the expression below in parentheses INTUS/D){1 ~ {D/C} + 1/2) Ay = (S/D)? + (C/DVMn = 1/2" (AL) View-factor Fpr, takes one of three forms: ifn = 0 and sjczt Fyn, = (1 ~(D/CP} itn = 0and S/C-s1 (D/C) cos" (D/C) (A2a) 2 tae? 15D ad Fre Banta ~ 1 + cont = = ai? Ab) ifn > 0 (the usual case) 2 2 1? — cog 2 Fr Bl term == cost B + cos i Dg nay oy SID 1 sin FO tag 18 + cos) in + {A,? - 1) +8(4 (An? = 1] 4)] (a2) Multiplication of this by C/xD gives Fry 2. Consider the view factor Fr.pmax eq A3), the view spot on tube T; has of the radiating plane on the other ‘of row 1 when the spot directly faces the central opening in row 1 (see Figure 1b). Distance from spot to midplane of row 1, in tube diameters, is (S/D ~ "/;). ‘Addition of the difference in sines associated with the two fides of each gap in row 1 gives @ summation the formu: lation of which again depends on an integer, m. nawn((3-2)o-w/os) 3. Consider the value Fyn, has when S isso small as to cause row 2 to partially block exchange between the plane and row 1. That occure when S/D <1/2{1 = (D/O ‘or when nas given by eq AD is zero, When that is the case, g (2m - 1) (C/D) {(2m + WAC/DY? + (28D - VF = 11" - @S/D- 1) =o (@m-DXC/DF + 2870-9 - (Gm = 1) (C/D)(2m = DAC/DI" + (28/D - 1? 1 + 25/0 — yaa (2m ~ HC /D}* + (@S/D ~ ‘Table V. Values of C, for Several Tube Arrangements (See Append 3 “Two-Side Irradiation Le 0276 0 e026 0 o.va76 2) 083610. 01668 0 0002? 253 0M719 0. ozs o 004? One Side Irrad'n, Refr. Backwall 0.9612 0.8508 0.1119 -0.0220 -o 0x9 4 D287 0.0900 -0.0159 04031 all the radiation from Ap is intercepted either by row 1 or t escapes through the single pair of openings per Evaluation of that escape permits formulativa of Fetdges © 1 > Fer, P(us/or + ceo yer =" C/2Di}** yn to a Cosine Series cos! ((S/DF + Fitting the Q-6 relati @= LC, cos nd Let the values of Q, be determined by eq 28 oF 29 at @ Oto x in equal steps of x/4. Designete these Q's es Qo, aja, Qiyas Qayas and Q. There will be 5 Cy's, as fo ows Cy + QI/B + ig + Arps + Qa /4 C= 0-Qy/2-0, Cy = [1 ~ Qo 1 QI/21/2 Cy == Qype + Gore QNDE T= QUAM 1/4 Cy H+ QD/2- Qin + Qin Gaal /4 2 6c, conn ae Values of C, for several tube arrangements are tabulated inv Table V 5, Solution to Rigorous Equation of Flux in a'Tube wall, Lan 1ar rar oe ‘The four boundary conditions are: at r = “kia /6r) number, unrelated to ate solution.) Line " T=nB the B used in the approxi 4, ‘Pre sotution givesInd Eng. Cham Fundam 1083, 22, 183-166 0 BT wenn £4 aardh OMB FBS Nomenclature A (Ap, Aq) = area (of plane, of tube) ‘4, =a constant, defined before eq AL B’= Biot number, k/hr, ¢m constant in 64 20 C= canter-to-center distance between tubes in « row Caan = cosfficienta in cosine series D'*"tabe diameter D = determinant = the xrow, j-column signed minor or cofactor of D E = dimensioniogs parameter defined following eq 25, F (Fp, Pry) = direct view factor (fraction of radiation leaving P whieh is intercepted by T, or vice versa) FP, = fraction of radiation emitted by x which impinges on "y, directly and by aid from adiabatic rerediating surface ‘3 fraction of radiation emitted by x which ia received by "J, directly and by aid from reradiating adiabatic surfaces, and by multiple reflection in whole ayatern Gq = fractional view, from a tube spot, of surroundings on the # = x aide, or back side Gy = fractional view, from a tube spot, of surroundings on ‘the B= 0 side, or front side fh = heat transfer coefficient, Btu/ft® h °F (kW/m? C) Gas Flow through Rotameters Harry Levin’ INT = the integer of « reduced improper fraction Fr thermal conductivity of tube metal, Buu/fthF (Wm im, n= integers ‘iy ™ average flux density over surface of tube, Btu/t'! b eW/m’) dq) = external 4 ‘0, y= ratio of (local external flux density at 6)/ (maxi am ‘external Mux density) (Fer) » external (internal, arithmetic mean) radius of 8190, ie) R= ratio, t/t 5 distant boween cone lin of to parle row of aes (0) (7, T) = temperature of tube metal at arithmetic mean 7), °F (°C) bull fluid temperature in tubes, °F (°C) shorthand designation of exchenge area A,F', (« A," Grech Letters = absorptance of tube surface ‘= emittance of tube surface » = reflectance of tube surface ' = angular position on tube surface, measured in radians fom plane normal to radiating plane ternal) local surfece flux density ‘maximum external surface flux density on tube (at = ae Subscripts lack (except on Ts) external internal P = plane PI’ = from plane to tube T= tube ‘TP = from tube to plane Literature Cited Hotel... "Radar He! Tanerilon” Chapa 4 io McA, et Trangia was Motrewti New or, 184 Hotoe Herr Sarotm AF. SRagatwe Tanwar McGraw New sor "Ber pte vot "oat Transtr im Paras": Agar, NM: Baar JM. £4; S30 12 ig) New Yor 1074 Chae Received for review April 14, 982 ‘Accepted January 28, 385, et Propuon Laboratory, Calfnta Insts of Tecanowgy, Pasadena, Cattery 81109 Monica M. Escorza ‘Stanford Universi, Stanford. Cattorle £4308 From dats avaliable for smal rotamoters that use epherical floats in gas flow, ain fi for variable volumetric ow , dansty p, and viscosty at constant float helght. The equation is @ constants for a given tube and height. Applying the equation at “1, Qu becomes constant; on the otter hand, a high Reynolds numbers (Re > 2000), tA = Aluip) + B, where A and 8 tow Reynolds numbers (Re 5 relationship s presented Qp"? becomes constant. The equation can be used to obtain an indirect calibration with any gas of known p land y. The constancy of Oy at low Q suggests the development of simple, nexper rotameter technology, ‘Textbook and manufacturers information suggests that in relationships for flow through rotameters, the volumetric rate of flow @, the fluid density, and the viscosity eur in combinations Qp¥? and p'/*/ and, to a close epprox- imation et = Fah) at constant float mass, flost density, and height. a 0196-43 18/89/1022-0163601, 50/0, Ive gas viscometer ‘sing ‘This paper examines how eq 1 applies to differen: re gimes of gas flow. It is important to evaluate the function fof eg 1 to obtain an insight into gas dynamics and also to reduce the work of calibration to a minimum in going from one gas to another. For these reasons, we sought to transform eq 1 to its most useful form. ‘Using dats aveilable for small rotameters with spherical floats, we determined by trial and error that an exylicit © 1989 Amarican Chemica! Society