Nuclear Engineering and Design 105 (1987) 19-33 19

North-Holland, Amsterdam

CONTINUUM DAMAGE MECHANICS: PRESENT STATE AND FUTURE TRENDS

J.L. C H A B O C H E
Office National d'Etudes et de Recherches A~rospatiales, BP 72, 92322 Ch~tillon Cedex, France

Received 4 November 1986

Continuum Damage Mechanics (CDM) has developed since the initial works of Kachanov and Rabotnov. The paper gives a
review of its main features, of the present possibilities and of further developments.
Several aspects are considered successively:
- damage definitions and measures,
- damage growth equations and anisotropy effects,
- use of CDM for local approaches of fracture.
Various materials, loading conditions and damaging processes are incorporated in the same general framework. Particular
attention is given to the possible connections between different definitions of damage, especially between the CDM definition
and the information obtained from material science.

1. I n t r o d u c t i o n such equations, which can be used for crack initiation

During the past two decades many researches have
been developed around the concept of a macroscopic
damage variable initially proposed by Kachanov [1] and
Rabotnov [2] for creep. The distributed defects in
materials, not only lead to the crack initiation and the
final fracture, but also induce the material deterioration
(material damage), such as decrease of strength, rigidity,
toughness, stability and of residual life.
The new concepts initiated the development of Con-
tinuum Damage Mechanics (CDM) [3]. They are sup-
ported by the general framework of thermodynamics of
irreversible processes and offer complementary possibil-
ities to the Fracture Mechanics.
The aim of the present paper is to review some
general features of CDM and to summarize its main
possibilities, considering successively the following
aspects:
- definition and damage measures, including the possi-
bility to describe the microstructural damaged state
in terms of appropriate mechanical variables,
- formulation of equations governing the evolution of
these damage variables (section 3),
-description of the mechanical behaviour of the
damaged material. This can be studied in the frame-
work of the thermodynamics and can include the
influence of damage anisotropy (see section 5),
- solution of boundary value problems by means of
problems, as well as crack growth problems, in the
context of local approaches (section 6).
2. Damage measures and definitions
The first step in developing a damage theory con-
cerns the definition of the damage variable. Obviously
damage is not directly measurable as strain or plastic
strain (already with the hypothesis of the unloaded
configuration). In the present section we consider dif-
ferent possibilities to define the damage internal varia-
ble through indirect measurement procedures. In fact
such measurements are not always practicable but fur-
nish conceptual definitions. Let us note that interpreta-
tion of each measure in terms of a damage variable
needs a corresponding model.
Before any damage theory, it is necessary to precise
what we mean by the ultimate state of the damage
processes: under the present development of CDM, this
final state corresponds generally to the macroscopic
crack initiation, that is the presence of a material dis-
continuity, sufficiently large as regards the microscopic
heterogeneities (grains, subgrains.... ): in such a case,
the main macroscopic crack is assumed to be developed
through several grains, in order to show a sufficient
macroscopic homogeneity in size, geometry and direc-
tion, leading to a possible treatment through the Frac-

0 0 2 9 - 5 4 9 3 / 8 7 / $ 0 3 . 5 0 © Elsevier Science Publishers B.V.

( N o r t h - H o l l a n d Physics P u b l i s h i n g Division)
20 J.L. Chaboche / Continuum damage mechanics

!Cavities ! Micro- I ! Macro- ] Macro- 'D (a) !D (~)

Dislocations{slip t crack j Micro- ! crack I propagation
I bands i initiation j propagation] initiationi mm_
o.bl 011
Classical I
crack initiation
Presentdefinition
of crack initiation
D1 ~F

-- ~ II Fracture Ol" N1/N~I1 : ~2/NF2 11

Damagemechanics ]1 mechanics
Fig. 2. Schematic of damage evolution curves as deduced from
Surface remaining life measures; (a) linear accumulation, (b) non-linear
\?~r ains ~ mechanics
Fracture accumulation.
i ~ \ idealization
/ \ specimen) is NF2. If the measured remaining life is N2
the damage after the initial damaging process writes:
Micro*o0c -,,-
initiations \ ~ ~.L ~ a I D = 1 - N2/NF. (2)

The remaining life measurements make evidence of

/"---" macroscoDiccrack //
Fig. 1. Schematic illustration of a macroscopic crack initiation
concept.
ture Mechanics concepts (see schematic illustration in
fig. 1).
2.1. Measures through the remaining life
As an engineer point of view, the main objective of a
damage theory is to allow prediction of lifetime of the
structure. Then the remaining life concept is a natural
way to define damage. The most conventional definition
for such damage parameter is the life ratio N / N v in
fatigue, where N and N v represent (for a given loading
condition) the present number of cycles already applied
and the total number of cycles to crack initiation (or
failure), respectively. In that case the damage theory
limits to the linear Miner's rule. For instance, the re-
maining life at the second level, N2, after damaging to
N 1 / N v , at a first level writes:
N2 - l - D = 1 - N--!
Nv2 Nv, "
More generally the remaining life concept does not
necessarily lead to the linear rule: after a certain damag-
ing process, the present damage is measured by perfor-
ming a "measure test", with a fixed loading under
which the nominal life (for an initially undamaged
interesting properties for damage. For instance in fa-
tigue there is not an unique damage evolution curve as
function of the life ratio N / N F, but a dependence on
the applied loading (fig. 2) [4,5]. This leads to the
conclusion that damage growth equations have to show
unseparability, of the damage and loading variables
[6,7]. However, such measurements are not sufficient to
completely fix the values for damage. As shown in [4], a
one-to-one mapping changes the damage value without
changing any remaining life result. Let us note that the
remaining life measures are also practicable for creep
damage [8].
2.2. Damage measures from the microstructure
A second natural way to define a damage variable is
to observe and quantify the irreversible defects: inter-
granular cavities in creep, surface microcracks in fa-
tigue, dimensions of cavities in ductile fracture. Such
measurements have been already used in many situa-
tions (see [9,10,11] for instance). Some difficulties arise
when dealing with the interpretation:
such measures are destructive, which limit their use
(1) to observe the development of damage,
- defects are difficult to observe during the first phase
of damaging processes. Moreover, the initial state is
not easily characterized,
- the quantification has to be done in terms of macro-
scopic variables (usable in structure computation).
Then in each case, convenient hypotheses have to be
considered and a particular model developed.
 J.L. Chaboche / Continuum damage mechanics 21

0 O 0

ii
i
i ,
s
i/__ _ J / ",.,,;.',(h)o=(fi)u
;..,,.
b ," i°i,

o
O*
(a) (b)

Fig. 4. (a) Net stress tensor for damage growth, (b) effective
stress tensor for deformation.

state of material damage may be described by a second

rank symmetric tensor [13] (fig. 3b), generalizing eq. (3)
as:
V
N
-b- o= s,(v3 f/,k, ®,,,, dSW, (4)

where dSg~k) and I, (k) are the area of a given boundary

X3 X3 Xa occupied by the k th cavity in volume V and the unit
normal vector to it, respectively. Fig. 4a indicates
schematically that some equivalence is supposed be-
tween the present damaged material and the un-
x" - -~' a ~ x,..K a~ 1,,/ damaged one (in terms of damage rate) to define the net
stress a*. The problem of damage anisotropy is consid-
ered in section 5.
-- C --

Fig.3. Net area reductions - (a) the damaged element, (b)

2.3. Damage measures through physical parameters and
volume element with grain boundary cavities, (c) net area
reduction on principal planes of damage tensor.
the effective stress concept

The influence of damage on physical quantities can

Interpretation in terms of mechanical parameters
can be made by means of a net area reduction (fig. 3a).
By definition, the damage variable /9, associated with
direction n is:
SD S - S*
D. - S - ~
D n = 0 corresponds to the undamaged state, D, = D c, a
critical value, corresponds to the rupture of the element
(0.2 < D c < 0.8 for metals).
The corresponding net stress concept has been devel-
oped by Murakami and Ohno [12,13] in the case of
creep damage of polycristalline metals. The microstruct-
ural changes can be characterized mainly by nucleation
and growth of various cavities on grain boundaries.
Assuming that the principal effect consists in the net
area reduction due to the distribution of cavities, the
be measured and used to define properly the damage
variable:
- density change [14], which can be interpreted as a
damage variable in ductile failure (see section 3.3),
- resistivity change [15] which, through a convenient
(3) model, leads to very similar damage measures com-
pared to mechanical parameters (see below),
- acoustic emission, change in sound velocity . . . .
- change in the fatigue limit [16] which can he also
interpreted in terms of the remaining life,
- change in the mechanical behaviour of the material,
interpreted through the effective stress concept:
" a damaged volume of material under the applied stress
o shows the same strain response than the undamaged
one submitted to the effective stress 8 ". If the damage
D represents the loss of effective area taking into
account decohesions and local stress concentrations,
22 J.L. Chaboche / Continuum damage mechanics

one can write: undamaged state:

S o is = ( o / X ) N (7)
= . (5)
S 1-D
Several tests give the exponent N. Damage follows
This definition through the gross behaviour of the
easily from the measurement of strain rate during ter-
material is supported by the results of homogenization tiary creep and the effective stress concept (5):
techniques [17], considering periodic arrays of defects.
Damage measures through the effective stress con- D = 1 - ( i l i a ) '/N. (8)
cept have been performed in several situations. Let us
mention: Fig. 5b shows the case of the superalloy IN 100 [19].
- the case of ductile rupture [18], measuring the The damage in composites develops continuously
change of elastic modulus. From elasticity equations for and shows various mechanisms at the microscale: fiber
both damaged and undamaged material debonding, matrix microcracking, delamination... The
case of fatigue is illustrated in fig. 6 for graphite/epoxy
o=/~%, 6=E%, laminates (from [20]). One observes simultaneously the
change in the elastic modulus on the first cycle (due to
one obtains:
partial debonding), its progressive decrease during fa-
E o /~ tigue (fig. 6b), accompanying microcracking of the ma-
3=~o= ~ D=I--- (6) trix with some stabilization, and the final delamination
E 1-D E'
giving rise to rupture. Let us note some similarities with
Fig. 5a illustrates the case of copper [18]. the case of metals, with much more pronounced effects.
- the brittle creep damage [19]: using the power law Ref. [20] shows clearly the correspondence between the
to describe the secondary creep, considered as an decrease of elastic modulus, the decrease of residual

0
IN I00 IO00*C

MPo) .5(

500-

400-

300- 0--
:239
2OO-

I00- ~,' ~t.t,,i

0 ~5 t
o
9b 10o l'lO-

zaU2GN 180"C
O
. _0_~ =__.~ . . . . . .
.0-

5(;
.6-

.4- 21Z MPo --~

226 ~ \
.2-
2 6 8 ~ ,
2b ~ 14b ' 0~ ' 8b ' 160 ' r
, .~_,~-,-i-,-; -'~-Z]k'' |
"CpI ) I. $5 "CpR : 1,07 0,5 t/tc

Fig. 5. (a) ductile plastic damage for 99.9% copper, T = 20°C, (b) creep damage measures - Superalloy IN 100 at 1.000°C and light
alloy AU2GN at 180°C.
 J.L. Chaboche/ Continuumdamagemechanics 23

60 Table 1
1- 1 cycle
2- 40000 cycles 1 2 3 Observable Internal Associated
50
_8oooooyc,e, ////74 variables variables variables
40- Elastic strain Stress tensor
$, tensor ce o
30
Temperature Entropy
20 T s

10 Accumulated Radius of yield

plastic strain surface: Ry + R
P R
2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Damage Damage strain
energy release rate
0.9 D Y

~, 0.8 the total strain tensor by Cp = ( - % and the accu-

mulated plastic strain by p = (~/p : ~p)1/2.

0.7 3.1. Thermodynamicpotential

The specific free energy 'it', taken as the thermody-
/ Normalized cycles (n/N) namic potential in which elasticity and plasticity are
0.6 ~ , ~--,
0 0'.2 014 0'.6 0.8 1 uncoupled, gives the law of thermoelasticity coupled
with damage and the definition of the associated varia-
Fig. 6. Fatigue of [0/90] graphite/epoxy specimens, O~n = 345
MPa (50 ksi), R = 0.1, from ref. [20]; (a) stress-strain curves at bles related to internal variables [26]:
various stages of the fatigue life, (b) normalized residual elastic g, = '/,,(%, T, D) + ~p(T, p ) . (9)
modulus.
As proposed in [30], the damaged elastic behaviour is
described through a strain equivalence and, referring to
strength and the remaining life in fatigue.
the effective stress concept:
This last example shows the adequacy of Damage
Mechanics to describe completely different kinds of
materials. Ref. [21] gives further theoretical develop-
X/Ie= ~1( 1 - - D)A : % : %. (10)

ments on the case of composites.

Let us note that damage can be active or passive The stress writes:
[22]. When the defects, especially microcracks, are 3~
closed, they do not affect the macroscopic behaviour. a=p~=(1-D)A:% or 0=/~:%. (11)
Damage state is not eliminated but has to be considered
as passive: this can be the case under compression for The thermodynamic force Y associated to D is defined
instance. Ref. [23] gives some developments around that by:
point.
0q"
Y=0~=-½A:%:% (12)

3. Thermodynamic aspects Let us note that D includes all the damaging effects,
the density p being considered as constant. In the finite
The present developments are based on a thermody- strain case [29], the change of p (due to the growth of
namic theory of irreversible processes with internal state cavities) can be used as a damage variable. Moreover, in
variables [24,25,26]. Here the presentation is limited to the present case, complete separability of the hardening
the simple case of isotropic hardening within the small and damage processes is assumed, '/'p does not depend
strain hypothesis and to isotropic damage evolution. on D.
Extension to kinematic hardening is well known [27] being the density of elastic strain energy defined
and theories with anisotropic damage evolution have by dW~ = a : %, the expression for Y shows that [30]:
been developed in [26] and [28]. Generalization to finite
-y We 1 dive
strain can be found in [29].
The chosen state variables are given in table 1 for the l-D-2 dD
present case. The plastic strain tensor is defined from at constant a and temperature. (13)
24 J.L. Chaboche / Continuum damage mechanics

C~ J II / Hardening and damage being uncoupled, it is sufficient

/F ,'E-6E to assume:
I
' A - YD > O. (16)
:. ')/ " As - Y is a quadratic function, this leads to /} > 0.
,' ? :/i .
The rupture criterion " - Y = [ Y[ = Yc ~ crack ini-
tiation" corresponds to an elastic energy criterion. It
may be written in terms of D through the one-dimen-
~i":5:-::, '/i~;; e sional rupture stress o R [28]:

02 OR
Y~- 2E(1 - Oc) ~ Dc= 1 (2EYc)l/2 . (17)
o ]_ Many experiments have shown that: 0.2 < Dc < 0.8,
" 8~p-:-See which allows (1 - De) x to be neglected with regard to 1
when x is much greater than 1.
Fig. 7. Schematic of the dissipation during plastic flow and The potential of dissipation is a scalar convex func-
damage growth. tion of flux variables (ip, p, D, and the heat flux q) or
their dual variables (by means of the Legendre-Fenchel
transform), the state variables acting as parameters [25]:
Then the variable - Y can be considered as the
elastic strain energy release rate associated to a unit qb*(O, R , Y; Ce, T , p , D ) .
damage growth. Analogy with Fracture Mechanics con-
It gives the constitutive equations for the evolution of
cepts is clear. - Y may be calculated as a function of
dissipative variables [26]. Here:
the hydrostatic stress o n = ½Tr(o) and the Von Mises
3 , : o,)a/2 where o' is the stress
equivalent stress O~q = (2-0 ip 3q,* 3,#* b - 3~* (18)
deviator [31]: = 30' P- 3R' 3Y"

If q~* is a convex function of - Y, the damage dissipa-

°eq
[ (-tl
-}(1 + ~,) + 3(1 - 2z,) O'eq

(14)
tion (16) is automatically positive [30].
In the case of time independent plasticity and iso-
tropic hardening the plastic flow can be particularized
with the Von Mises plastic potential [26]:
The relation (13) defining - Y as the elastic strain
energy release rate and the above dissipation aspects f(o, R, O ) = 8 ~ q - k - k <O, (19)
can be illustrated in fig. 7, showing the different parts
where Gq is the equivalent effective stress (here %a/(1
of dissipation during the plasticity and rupture process
- D ) ) and /~ = R/(1- D). It follows then from the
[26]. The curve OA'B' represents the evolution of
normality rule ( o ' is the stress deviator):
hardening during plastic flow OAB. Parts AB and BC
correspond to the plastic flow and the elastic strain ip=~ 3f~ 3 X o'
increase during the damaging process, respectively 2 1 - D Oeq' (20)
(schematized at constant stress). The total dissipated 3f X ~. . xl/2
energy separates into (1) the energy stored in the sys- P= -X3R 1-D -- ( ~ l [ p : Cp) .
tem (hardening), (~) the heat dissipated energy, (~) the
energy released by the system during the damaging The plastic multiplier is determined from the con-
process - Y3D, eventually converted into heat. sistency condition f ' = 0.
In fact the above normality rule is a sufficient but
3.2. Dissipation not a necessary condition [32]. In some cases it appears
as too restrictive, especially for materials or rupture
The second principle of thermodynamics imposes conditions where the energetic rupture criterion (17)
that the intrinsic dissipation has to be positive: does not allow a correct description, as it is the case in
creep. The only condition to be verified is b > 0 (be-
o:ip-Rp- Y/) > 0. (15) cause - Y is always positive).
 J.L. Chaboche / Continuum damage mechanics 25

3.3. A slightly different theory for large strain damage
[29]
In that case the density changes constitute a damag-
ing effect in the mechanical sense. The above approach
can be modified into (in the isothermal case):
" / ( % , p , 13) = ½Z : % : I[e + " / l ( P , T ) + "/2(fl, T ) ,
(21)
where L is now independent of the damage variable/3.
The isotropic part of damage is taken into account in
the elastic moduli by:
o = p-~% = p L : % = p 0 ( 1 - D ) L : %. (22)
This theory corresponds to a particular case of the
preceding one in that concerns the elastic behaviour.
The plastic flow rule and the damage evolution are
written in the framework of generalized standard
materials. The plastic potential is:
law, especially a form suggested by the Rice and Tracey
formula for the growth of spherical voids under high
triaxiality [33].
The main differences with the above theory (sections
3.1, 3.2) are:
- the damaged elastic behaviour (only through the den-
sity change),
- the additional term "/2 in the free energy, which leads
to a completely different sense to the associated
thermodynamic force and to the dissipation,
- the hydrostatic term in the plastic strain rate [26]. In
the first theory it comes only through the anisotropic
form of the damage variable [34],
- the form of the plastic potential. Comparing (23) and
(19) shows that damage reduces the hardening R in
the second theory though it does not in the first one.
With o H = 0 for instance: Oeq = p(R + k) instead of
aeq = R + k(1 - D ).
4. Damage growth equations

4.1. Creep damage

where J ( a / p ) = Oeq/P. The generafized force B is con- Continuum Damage Mechanics was developed first
jugated to the damage variable/3: for the case of creep damage [1,2]. The Rabotnov-
Kachanov equation can be considered as very classical.
0"/2
B=o 0,8 " (24) D varying between 0 for the undamaged material and 1
for the rupture, it writes, under pure tensile stress:
The flow rule now writes [29]:
dD = (1 - D) -k dt, (28)
~p=X Of (25)
a(o/0)' where r, k, A are material and temperature dependent
Decomposing it into deviatoric and spherical parts: coefficients. Their determination is made from constant
stress creep tests, for which the integration from 0 to 1
•, =2 ' . =- Xn ,[°hi (26) gives the rupture time:
Oeq
to= k +1l (A)-r (29)
and for the internal variables:
Of )1/2 while evolution of damage is given by:

D= l- (l- ~)l/(k + l). (30)

0f
/3=-X-~-~ = +)tg(~). (27)
The concept of effective stress, introduced in the
Let us note that g is an increasing function of ort/p secondary creep law (Norton's equation), allows the
but '/2 is a decreasing function of/3, so that B < 0 and calculation of tertiary creep curves as well as the predic-
the hydrostatic strain rate is positive. As in the first tion of the change in creep ductility [28,34]. Fig. 8 gives
theory the growth of damage decreases the free energy. an example:
In [29], the function g is chosen as an exponential and
different forms are considered for the relation between = o_ (31)
fl and p, by taking into account the mass conservation ~p /¢(1 D) "
26
epl%)
I - - Predictions
• x + o Tests
5- \ Failure
4-
"' '~"'~ INIO0 Z = 1000°C
3"
2'
1.
~x~.-X.-~ X--X- : ~ ( ' - x
o 10 20 40
Fig. 8. Calculated and measured creep curves on superalloy IN
100. Prediction of creep ductility.
Under multiaxial stress conditions the damage equa-
tions can be generalized by describing isodamage
surfaces (or isochronous surfaces) defined with proper
stress invariants:
- the octahedral shear stress ./2(o) related to the ef-
fects of shear,
- the hydrostatic stress ./1(o) = Tr(o) = a : 1, which
greatly affects the growth of the cavities,
- the maximum principal stress Jo(a) = 01, which opens
the microcracks and causes them to grow.
Following Hayhurst's method [35], the equivalent
stress can be defined through a linear combination:
X(o)=aJo(o)+flJl(a)+(1-a-fl)J2(o),
where a, /3 are coefficients dependent on the material
and temperature. The time to failure under a fixed
multiaxial stress is expressed as:
The creep damage equations can be considered as
taking into account the evolution of microstructural
defects in an indirect manner. Works by the material
scientists have shown the combination of two mecha-
nisms; the nucleation and growth of cavities [36,37]. It
is possible to make some connections between the equa-
tions obtained from material science and the more
macroscopic ones developed in the framework of C D M
[381.
In that concerns the multiaxial stress criterion, the
physical interpretations lead often to a product form:
x( o) = [ Jo(o)]"[ J2(,)] '-~,
J.L. Chaboche/ Continuumdamage mechanics
which can describe adequately the isochronous surfaces
in a large domain [38,39]. However, the form (34)
automatically gives no damage under pure compression,
which is not perfectly true in polycristalline metals, as
shown by two level creep tests [40]. Let us mention a
possible different form for the damage growth equation,
using the creep strain instead of time [41]:
a B
dD=A[Jo(o)] %q de.q, (35)
such form was deduced from cavity measurements on
notched specimens. It is possible to show that (28) and
, t (h)
(31) are equivalent to (35) through the following one-to-
one mapping [42] (in tension):
60
D ~ [1 - (1 - D ) k - " + ' ] a + ' (36)
4.2. Fatigue damage
In the case of fatigue several aspects have to be
considered:
- the existence of micro-initiation and nficro-propa-
gation stages,
- the non-linear-cumulative effects for two-level tests
or block-program loading conditions,
- the existence of a fatigue limit, but its marked de-
crease after prior damage,
- the effect of mean-stress either for the fatigue limit
and for the S - N curves.
Fatigue damage accumulation models have been
considered in [43,5,7]. A common general form is ob-
(32)
tained with:
- [OM--ff] '8
dD=D,~( . . . . )[ M ( ~ ) ] dN, (37)
where a M and 8 are the maximum and mean stress,
respectively. Several choices [44] for a lead to the rules
considered in [5,45,46]. The key of the non-linear effect
is the dependency in o M and ff which, after integrating
for a two-level test, gives:
NF
2N2-I-(N1)O-'~2)/t'-'~') . (38)
The function M ( 8 ) is deduced from a linear depend-
ency between 8 and the fatigue limit.
This cumulative damage equation allows a very good
description of multi-level fatigue tests [7,44]. In a cer-
tain sense it includes in a continuous way the micro-ini-
tiation and micro-propagation phases as discussed in
(34) [5,11,47]. Moreover, by a convenient variable change,
eq. (37) can be incorporated into Continuum Damage
 J.L Chaboche / Continuum damage mechanics 27

Mechanics, with the effective stress concept, as shown 4.4. Ductile plastic damage
by damage measurements described in [19,26]. The mi-
crocrack measurements made in [11,48] for instance Ductile damage in metals is essentially the initiation
then show the possible equivalence between: and growth of cavities due to large deformations. Ex-
- the definition by the effective stress concept, periments of ductile rupture show that the dissipative
- the definition in terms of the remaining life concepts potential q~* can be expressed, in the framework of
(subjacent in eq. (37)), time-independent plasticity [26]:
- the quantification of physical damage, in terms of
microcracking. ~b* = Oeq--/~ -- k + 2-1
S --~ ( -S y)2, (40)
In the case of Low-cycle Fatigue, the conventional
parametrization of the life is written in terms of the ip =~3q~* - A Oq'* = (Zip:
• ~1/2
(41)
plastic (or total) strain range. Provided the existence of 0o ' P = " ' ~ R % ) '

a one-to-one relation between o M and Z~Cp (the cyclic 0q,* = -

curve) eq. (37) can still be used and contains indepen- b = -• ~- S-Yp. (42)
dently the influence of mean-stress.
The generalization to multiaxial loading conditions Using the relation (14) between Oeq and - Y, and a
is a difficult problem. At least two parameters have to particular choice for hardening:
be considered:
Oeq=/~ + k = gp 1/M. (43)
- an equivalent shear-stress amplitude,
- a mean (or maximum) hydrostatic stress. K and M being coefficients which are material depen-
Experiments near the fatigue limit show the independ- dent, one obtains the following differential constitutive
ency in the mean shear-stress and in the hydrostatic equation for ductile plastic damage [18]:
range [49]. A possible form to generalize (37) has been
proposed in [28].
b = + + 3(1 -

4.3. Creep-fatigue interaction
One advantage of the CDM approach in creep and
fatigue is to allow a natural way to predict creep-fa-
tigue interaction. The simplest hypothesis consists in a
direct summation of creep and fatigue damages, which
leads to [4,19]:
d D =fc(O, D ) dt +fF(OM, o, D ) d N , (39)
where fc is for instance deduced from eq. (28) and fF
from eq. (37). These two functions can be determined
from pure tensile creep tests and pure fatigue tests (high
frequency). The conditions at low-frequency or with
hold times are then predicted by integrating numerically
(39). This approach has given good results for several
In the case of radial loading, when the principal
directions of stresses do not vary, the triaxiality ratio
on/O~q is constant and this expression may be in-
tegrated using the conditions:
P < P i~ (damage threshold) = D = 0,
p = p ~ (strain to rupture) = D = D c.
Neglecting elastic strain in the calculation of p and
using Pr)/PR = Er)/CR, the equation for damage evolu-
tion may be written in terms of the one-dimensional
threshold c D and one-dimensional strain to rupture ~R
[181:
o ,.-
(Ip + . ) + 3(1 - 2 . )
t /21 / - ,D

materials [19,50,51,52].
Let us note that the additive hypothesis does not
correspond to the direct addition of physical damages
of different natures. For instance microcracks and cavi-
ties are not added. Only their mechanical effects add, in
the framework of the effective stress concept. The
mechanical effects are obtained by the above mentioned
one-to-one mappings between the physical damage
(crackgor cavities) and the corresponding macroscopic
variable D (see sections 4.1 and 4.2).
(45)
Identification of such a model consists in the
quantitative evaluation of the coefficients ~r), ~R and
D c (Poisson's coefficient being known from elasticity),
which can be done from experimental results such as
those shown on fig. 5a.
As shown in fig. 9, the present model gives the
influence of triaxiality on the strain to failure [18]. It
compares fairly well with the MacClintock [53] or Rice
and Tracey [33] models and can be used to predict the
28 J.L. Chaboche / Continuum damage mechanics
p,
t
,U..
05 ,,
-"-
o i ~' 3 similar to the slip theory of plasticity can be developed
Fig. 9. Influence of triaxiality on fracture strain: • A 508 steel,
® H steel, - . . . . . domain covered by Mc-Clintock Rice-
Tracey models, - - domain covered by the present model.
fracture limits of metal forming [31].
Let us note that the modified thermodynamic frame-
work developed by Rousselier [29] (see section 3.3)
leads to similar results. It fits directly the Rice and
Tracey model for a special choice of g'2(fl)- As shown
in [29] this theory allows a correct prediction of plastic
instabilities and can be used to predict ductile fracture
by means of local approaches [54,55]. Let us mention
also some works based on homogenization concepts
which, in the case of ductile fracture, allow informa-
tions about the damage evolution equations [56,57].
5. Damage anisotropy
The directional nature of damage is clear in many
situations. In creep for instance, microstructure ob-
servations have shown two classes of metallic materials
[38,58]:
- for copper, cavitation takes place on grain boundaries
more or less perpendicular to the maximum principal
stress,
- for aluminium alloys, grain boundary cavitation is
much more isotropically distributed.
Clearly these observations relate to the anisotropy of
the damage rate equation. For a situation with varying
directions of principal stresses the anisotropy of the
present damage state could be reduced (even for copper
type materials). In Continuum Damage Mechanics the
problem of anisotropy concerns also the effect of damage
on the constitutive behaviour. Several levels of theories
can then be considered, where the damage variable is
considered as a scalar function [59], vectors [22], second
[12] or fourth order tensors [60]. See also [61] for a more
complete review.
The scalar measure of damage anisotropy is defined
(in the creep range) by considering the grain boundaries
orthogonal to the direction n and the fraction of
boundaries which are cavitated. Then to each direction
n is associated a scalar valued function V(n). In ref.
[59], it is shown that a tensorial decomposition of such
elementary damage measure leads to even order tensors.
However, if one considers the damage as produced
by small parallel cracks, it is possible to associate a
vector to each crack direction [22]. Such kind of theory,
Ocq
with a similar thermodynamic framework as the one
presented in sections 3.1 and 3.2, introducing for in-
stance a vector as the dual variable to the present
damage variable (instead of the scalar Y or of the fourth
order tensor Y defined in [26]). This kind of theory is
attractive to give directly the distinction between active
damage (open microcracks) and passive damage (closed
microcracks). The main difficulty is the number of
independent systems which have to be considered in a
general case, but several useful applications have been
done for concrete under special loading cases [22].
Two kinds of theories are summarized below, with a
little more details. In the first one damage acts as a
second order tensor and its evolution is directed by the
so-called net stress tensor. Influence of damage on the
constitutive behaviour is described by a fourth order
transformation. In the second one damage is defined
directly as a fourth order tensor.
5.1. The anisotropic theory of Murakarni and Ohno [12,13]
As shown in section 2.2, the damaged state of a
material can be interpreted by a second order damage
tensor. In its principal directions it writes 12 = I2jvi ® J,j.
Considering the vector force acting on a surface element
and on the net surface element, the net stress is in-
troduced in [12] as:
o* = ½ ( o . ~ + ~.o), ~ = ( 1 - 12) 1. (46)
The creep damage evolution is expressed in the form:
r
where X(o*) is the invariant describing the isochronous
surface (see eq. (32)). Coefficient ~, adjusts the degree of
anisotropy of the damage evolution.
On the other hand, the effect of the present damage
 J.L Chaboche / Continuum damage mechanics
on the strain behaviour (elastic, plastic, creep) can only
be introduced through a fourth-rank tensor. Murakami
and Ohno use an effective stress of the form [12]:
S = ½IF: o + ( F : o)T],
where the fourth-rank tensor F is deduced from the
tensor ~2 or rather from (I)= ( 1 - $2) -1 by a general
expression deduced from the representation theory.
This effective stress is introduced in the creep con-
stitutive law. As a particular case, under tension and
[
neglecting hardening it writes:
o
[ o
]r
4p= K(1-c~2) ' I)= A(1-/2)
Integrating (49b) between 0 and 1 leads to:
I2 = 1 - (1 - t /_t c ).x/(r+l) .
Experiments on perforated plates have shown the
adequacy of the present theory for both the anisotropic
effects on the elastic-plastic behaviour and on the rup-
ture conditions [62]. Also experiments on slotted plates
show similar possibilities [63]. The theory is capable to
predict fairly correctly creep rupture for sequence ten-
sion-torsion experiments [12,13], especially longer lives
when changing the direction of the maximum principal
stress.
5.2. The theory developed by the author [60,64]
The damage variable is defined directly through the
effective stress concept, that is by means of an
equivalence made between the damaged and un-
damaged materials in terms of their stress-strain be-
haviours. In the case of linear elasticity, one writes
o = -4 : c and 6 = A : %, respectively, where A repre-
sents the damaged elasticity tensor. The effective stress
follows:
6=A:%=A:fx 1:o.
The fourth-rank tensor M = A : A-1 can be set in a
form that generalizes the initial theories of Kachanov
and Rabotnov, such that the effective stress can be
expressed:
= (t-D)-' :°,
where D is an asymmetrical fourth-rank damage tensor.
It can be measured through the elastic behaviour mea-
sured in the present state and in the initial (undamaged)
29
state:
D = 1 - A : ,'~-x. (53)
such an operator D can represent any observed
(48) behaviour for the damaged elastic material. We have:
o =A: ce = (1-/)): A: 'e (54)
and the symmetry of A and A is verified.
The thermodynamic framework presented in section
3.1 can be generalized in the present case. Note that
(49)
slightly different formulations have been developed,
using a second order damage tensor [65].
The creep damage evolution is expressed here as:
b= 0(6)b, (55)
where Q ( 6 ) gives the directionality of damage evolu-
(50) tion, in the principal effective stress system. It is in-
troduced by rotating a fourth order tensor Q* which is
fixed for a given material. Its identification is made by
linearly superposing the isotropic case and the one
corresponding to planar microcracks, all parallel, devel-
oping perpendicular to the direction of maximum prin-
cipal stress:
Q* = vl + (1 - y ) G . (56)
The anisotropy tensor G is defined from elastic analysis
results [64].
The scalar damage rate b in relation (55) (D is a
scalar measure of damage density) obeys the Rabot-
nov-Kachanov equation. The damage law writes:
k
where invariants 2 and X are defined properly [34]. Eq.
(57) has to be compared to eq. (47) of the first theory.
Using the effective stress concept in the thermody-
namic framework leads to the creep strain rate equa-
tion, applied here under pure tension [28,34]:
(51)
4p= 1 - D K(12D)
the damage equation (57) expresses in that case:
JDm(i)r(1-n)-k. (59)
(52)
5.3. Comparison between the two theories
In the particular case of tension, the comparison
with relation (49) in the theory of Murakami-Ohno
30 ,L L. Chaboche / Continuum damage mechanics
D=I -'E/E
o.,
'"
y ~ = 2a/d
I
0.5 1
Fig. 10. Damages defined by the net area reduction and by the
effective cross section. Results of elastic calculations on perfo-
rated (O) or cracked ( + ) plates. Plain lines are calculated by
eq. (61).
easily shows the main difference between I2 and D,
difference corresponding to the two definitions used.
Integrating (59) between 0 and 1 leads to:
D=I -
(1 -
._ c ).1/(k+1)
t/t
and combining with (50) gives [34]:
O = 1 -- (1 -- ff~)(r+l)/(k+l)
Fig. 10 shows this correspondence together with
elasticity results for perforated and cracked plates. It
proves that the influence of damage on the constitutive
behaviour is less sensitive than given by the net area
definition. This is described in the two theories by
means of the influence factor c in the first one and the
use of exponent k instead of r in relation (59) for the
second one. Moreover the predicted creep ductilities
with the two theories are identical if the coefficient c in
the theory of Murakami (damage effect on the constitu-
tive equations) is c = (n + 1 ) / ( k + 1).
In that concerns anisotropic effects several similari-
ties between the two theories have been pointed out [34]
either for the rupture conditions (damaging effect) and
for the constitutive behaviour.
6. Local a p p r o a c h e s of fracture
The Linear Elastic and Non-Linear Fracture Mecha-
nics are very useful to describe the crack propagation
and the fracture of different structures. In many cases
L E F M constitutes a practical tool to predict crack
growth, especially in situation of non dissipative "small
scale yielding" materials. Not doubt on its utility and
worthiness in the past and in the future.
However in some situations this global approach
presents some difficulties, even inconsistencies, espe-
cially when material non-linearities play an important
role, for example in ductile fracture or creep crack
growth.
An alternate method, presently under development is
i[? the so-called "local approach of fracture". Some atten-
tion is given here to the additional possibilities offered
by Damage Mechanics to this development. See refs.
[66,67] for more detailed discussions.
In fact, two levels can be considered for local ap-
proaches:
- Numerical methods using discrete crack incre-
ments: one uses the technique of node release to pro-
duce the crack growth when some critical value of a
physical quantity is reached at some critical distance
ahead of the crack tip [68-71]. This physical quantity
can be equivalent stress or strain, energy or some mea-
sure of local damage. In such situations, the prediction
of crack growth using this method will be mesh depen-
dent [69], but the local mesh size is fixed by means of
(60) statistical considerations [55,72]. Simplified approaches
can be developed, using analytical stress-strain fields
near the crack tip [73].
(61) - Use of the Continuum Damage Mechanics, includ-
ing the progressive deterioration and the corresponding
stiffness reduction. The crack (damaged zone) is then
taken as the locus of material points with no rigidity
where damage has reached its critical value (fig. 11).
Conceptually, due to the stress redistribution associated
with viscoplasticity and strength decrease, there is no
need to introduce a critical distance nor node release
techniques for crack growth simulation. After some
/ ~ ~ ~ / H/gh grad/enfof
Fig. 11. Crack as a damaged zone.
 J.L. Chaboche / Continuum damage mechanics
maximum, the stresses in the plastic zone decrease
continuously as damage grows, approaching the crack
tip. This approach was studied first by Hayhurst et al.
[74] in the creep domain and is now under a large
development in ductile fracture [54,55], creep [75,76,77]
and fatigue [78], rupture of concrete [79,80]... In some
cases, analytical solutions can be obtained, considering
a discontinuous growth for damage (sudden change
from 0 to 1) [81,82].
The practical use of such local approaches needs
further developments in finite element technique and
the systematic checking of the discretization procedures.
Also simplified methods have to be studied, including
for instance the use of analytically defined stress-strain
fields.
7. C o n c l u s i o n
The main features of Damage Mechanics have been
reviewed together with its present use and develop-
ments, considering successively:
- the measures and definitions of damage,
- its incorporation into thermodynamic theories,
- the damage growth equations,
- the influence of damage on the mechanical be-
haviour, especially in the case of anisotropy,
- the use of damage mechanics, as an additional tool,
to develop local approaches of fracture.
This rational approach of damage proceeds as an
extension of Continuum Mechanics. It allows many
possibilities, introducing for instance some connections
between microstructure measurements and mechanical
parameters. Moreover this theory finds applications in
many different situations (various loading conditions,
various materials, various physical processes... ).
In that concerns life predictions in structures,
Damage Mechanics allows to take into account the
coupling effects between deterioration processes and
mechanical behaviour. It will certainly be developed
further an extensively used in the future as a comple-
mentary tool between Continuum Mechanics and Frac-
ture Mechanics.
R e f e r e n c e s
[1] L.M. Kachanov, Time of the rupture process under creep
conditions, Izv. Akad. Nauk. SSR, Otd Tekh. Nauk. 8
(1958) 26-31.
[2] Y.N. Rabotnov, Creep problems in structural members
(North-Holland, Amsterdam, 1969.
[3] J. Hult, Continuum Damage Mechanics - Capabilities,
31
limitations and promises, in: Mechanisms of Deformation
and Fracture (Pergamon, Oxford, 1979) pp. 233-347.
[4] J.L. Chaboche, Lifetime predictions and cumulative
damage under high temperature conditions, Int. Symp. on
Low Cycle Fatigue and Life Prediction, Firminy, France,
1980 (ASTM STP 770, 1982).
[5] S.S. Manson, Some useful concepts for the designer in
treating cumulative damage at elevated temperature,
I.C.M. 3, Cambridge, 1979, Vol. 1, pp. 13-45.
[6] E. Krempl, On phenomenological failure laws for metals
under repeated and sustained loading (fatigue and creep),
Conf. on Environmental Degradation of Engineering
Materials, Blacksburg, Virginia, 1977.
[7] J.L. Chaboche, Une loi diffrrentielle d'endommagement
de fatigue avec cumulation non linraire, Revue Fran~aise
de M6canique 50-51 (1974);
English translation in "Annales de I'ITBTP", HS 39 (1977).
[8] D.A. Woodford, A critical assessment of the life fraction
rule for creep rupture under nonsteady stress or tempera-
ture, Int. Conf. on Creep Fatigue elevated Temperature
Applications, Philadelphia, Sept. 1973, Sheffield, April
1974.
[9] V.D. Dyson and D. McLean, Creep of Nimonic 80A in
torsion and in tension, Met. Sci. 2 (1977) 37.
[10] C. Levaillant and A. Pineau, Assessment of high tempera-
ture LCF and life of austenitic stainless steels by using
intergranular damage as a correlating parameter, LCF and
Life Prediction, ASTM-STP 770, Eds.: Amzallag, Leis,
Rabbe (1982) pp. 169-193.
[11] G. Cailletaud and C. Levaillant, Creep-fatigue life predic-
tion: What about initiation?, Nucl. Engrg. Des. 83 (1984)
279-292.
[12] S. Murakami and N. Ohno, A continuum theory of creep
and creep damage, 3rd IUTAM Symp. on Creep in Struc-
tures, Leicester, 1980.
[13] S. Murakami, Notion of continuum damage mechanics
and its application to anisotropic creep damage theory, J.
Engrg. Mater. and Technol. 105 (1983) 99.
[14] J.J. Jonas and B. Baudelet, Effect of crack and cavity
generation on tensile stability, Acta Metallurgica 25 (Per-
gamon Press, 1977) 43-50.
[15] G. Cailletaud, H. Policella and G. Baudin, Mesure de
drformation et d'endommagement par mrthode 61ectrique,
La Recherche Arrospatiale, No. 1980-1.
[16] T. Bui-Quoc, J. Dubuc, A. Bazergui and A. Biron, Cumu-
lative fatigue damage under stress controlled conditions, J.
of Basic Engrg. Trans. ASME (1971) 691-698.
[17] C. Duvaut, Analyse fonctionelle - M~canique des millieux
continus-homogrnrisation, Theoretical and Applied
Mechanics (North-Holland, Amsterdam, 1976).
[18] J. LemMtre, A Continuum Damage Mechanics model for
ductile fracture, J. Engrg. Mater. and Technol. 107 (1985)
83-89.
[19] J. Lemaitre and J.L. Chaboche, Aspect phrnomrnologique
de la rupture par endommagement, J. de Mrcanique Ap-
pliqure 2, No. 3 (1978) 317-365.
[20] A. Charewicz and I.M. Daniel, Fatigue damage mecha-
32 J.L. Chaboche / Continuum damage mechanics
nisms and residual properties of graphite/epoxy laminates,
Symp. IUTAM on Mechanics of Damage and Fatigue,
Ha~'fa, 1985.
[21] R. Talreja, A continuum mechanics characterization of
damage in composite materials", Proc. Royal Soc. Lond.
A 399 (1985) 195-216.
[22] D. Krajcinovic and G.U. Fonseka, The Continuous
Damage Theory of brittle materials, Parts 1 and 2, J. of
Applied Mechanics, Trans. ASME 48 (1981) 809-824.
[23] P. Ladeveze and J. Lema~tre, Damage effective stress in
quasi-unilateral condition, Congr+s IUTAM, Lyngby,
Denmark, 1984.
[24] F. Sidoroff, On the formulation of plasticity and viscop-
lasticity with internal variables, Arch. Mech., Poland, Vol.
27, 5-7 (1975) pp. 807-819.
[25] P. Germain, Q.S. Nguyen and P. Suquet, Continuum
thermodynamics, J. of Applied Mechanics, ASME 50
(1983) 1010-1020.
[26] J. Lema~tre and J.L. Chaboche, Mrcanique des Matrriaux
So[ides (Dunod, Paris, 1985).
[27] B. Halphen and S. Nguyen, Sur les matrriaux standard
grn6ralisrs, J. Mrcanique 14, No. 1 (1975) 39-63.
[28] J.L. Chaboche, Description thermodynamique et phrno-
mrnologique de la viscoplasticit6 cyclique avec endomma-
gement, Th+se Univ. Paris VI et publication ONERA no
1978-3.
[29] G. Rousselier, Finite deformation constitutive relations
including ductile fracture damage, IUTAM Syrup. on
Three-Dimensional Constitutive Relations and Ductile
Fracture, Dourdan 1980, Eds. Nemat-Nasser (North-Hol-
land, Amsterdam, 1981) pp. 331-355.
[30] J.L. Chaboche, Sur l'utilisation des variables d'rtat interne
pour la description du comportement viscoplastique et de
la rupture par endommagement, Symp. Franco-Polonais
de Rhrologie et Mrcanique, Cravovie, 1977.
[31] J. Lema~tre, How to use Damage Mechanics, Nucl. Engrg.
Des. 80 (1984) 233-245.
[32] E.T. Onat, Representation of mechanical behaviour in the
presence of internal damage, IUTAM Symp. on Mecha-
nics of Damage and Fatigue, Haifa, 1985.
[33] J.R. Rice and D.M. Tracey, On the ductile enlargement of
voids in triaxial stress fields, J. Mech. Phys. Solids 17
(1969) 201.
[34] J.L. Chaboche, Constitutive equations in creep-fracture
damage, Engineering Approaches to High Temperature
Design, Eds. Wishire, Owen (Pineridge Press, Swansea,
1983).
[35] D.R. Hayhurst, Creep rupture under multi-axial state of
stress, J. Mech. Phys. Solids 20, No. 6 (1972) 381-390.
[36] G. Greenwood, Creep life and ductility, Int. Congress on
Metals, Cambridge, 1973; Microstructure and the Design
of Alloys 2 (1973) 91.
[37] B.F. Dyson, Constrained cavity growth, its use in quanti-
fying recent creep fracture experiments, Canadian Met.
Quart. 18 (1979) 31.
[38] D.R. Hayhurst, On the role of the creep continuum damage
in structural mechanics, Engineering Approaches to High
Temperature Design, Eds. Wilshire, Owen (Pineridge
Press, Swansea, 1983).
[39] P. Delobelle, Etude en contraintes biaxiales des lois de
comportement d'un acier inoxydable du type 17-12 SPH -
Modrlisation et identification - Introduction de l'en-
dommagement, cas de l'Inconel 718. Th~se de Doctorat
d'Etat, Besan~on, 1985.
[40] H. Policella, P. Paulmier and S. Savalle, Effet de la
contrainte moyenne en fatigue vibratorie h haute temprra-
ture, Rrsultats exp~rimentaux sur IN 100 h 900°C, R.T.
Onera, no 49/1765.
[41] J. Beziat, A. Diboine, C. Levaillant and A. Pineau, Creep
damage in a 316 S.S. under triaxial stresses, 4th Int.
Seminar on Inelastic analysis and Life Prediction in High
Temperature Environment, Chicago, Illinois, 1983.
[42] E. Contesti, Endommagement en fluage: Exprrience et
modrlisation, Rrunion GRECO Grandes Drformations et
endommagement - GIS Rupture ~t chaud, Aussois
(France), 30 janvier 1986.
[43] S.M. Marco and W.L. Starkey, A concept of fatigue
damage, Trans. ASME 76, no 4 (1954) 627-632.
[44] M. Chaudonneret and J.L. Chaboche, Fatigue life predict-
ion of notched specimens, Int. Conf. on Fatigue of En-
gineering Materials and Structures, Sheffield, Sept. 1986.
[45] S. Subramanyan, A cumulative damage rule based on the
knee point of the S-N curve, Trans. ASME, J. of Mater.
Technol. (1976) 316-321.
[46] Z. Hashin and C. Cairo, Cumulative damage under two
level cycling: Some theoretical predictions and test data,
Fatigue of Engineering Materials and Structures 2 (1979)
345-350.
[47] K.J. Miller and K.P. Zachariah, Cumulative damage laws
for fatigue crack initiation and stage 1 propagation, Jour-
nal of Strain Analysis 12, No. 4 (1977).
[48] D.F. Socie, J.W. Fash and F.A. Leckie, A continuum
damage model for fatigue analysis of cast iron, ASME
Conf. in Life Prediction, Albany, New York, 1983.
[49] K. Dang Van, Sur la rrsistance h la fatigue des mrtaux,
Sciences et Technique de rArmement, 47, 36me Fasc.
(1973).
[50] A. Plumtree and J. Lema~tre, Apphcation of damage
concepts to predict creep-fatigue failures, ASME. Pres-
sure Vessels and Piping Conf. Montreal, June 1979.
[51] A. Del Puglia and E. Vitale, Damage concept in creep
fatigue: Current theories and applications, Proc. ASME-
PVP Conf. Orlando, Florida, 1982 in: Inelastic Analysis
and Life Prediction at Elevated Temperature, Ed. G.
Baylac, ASME-PVP 59, Book No. 216.
[52] G. Cailletaud and J.L. Chaboche, Lifetime prediction in
304 S.S. by damage approach, ASME-PVP Conf. Orlando,
Florida, 1982, ASME Paper no 82-PVP 79.
[53] F. McClintock, A criterion for ductile fracture by the
growth of holes, ASME J. of Applied Mechanics (1968).
[54] G. Rousselier, J.C. Devaux and G. Mottet, Ductile ini-
tiation and crack growth in tensile specimens - Applica-
tion of Continuum Damage Mechanics, SMiRT 8, Brus-
sels, 1985.
 J.L. Chaboche / Continuum damage mechanics
[55] G. Rousselier, Les modrles de rupture ductile et leurs
possibilitrs actuelles dans le cadre de l'approache locale
de la rupture, Srminaire Approaches Locales de la Rup-
ture, Moret-sur-Loing, France, 1986.
[56] P. Suquet, Plasticit6 et homogrnrisation, Thbse Doctorat
d'Etat, Univ. Paris 6 (1982).
[57] A. Dragon and A. Chihab, Quantifying of ductile fracture
damage evolution by homogenization approach, SMirt 8,
Brussel, 1985.
[58] F.A. Leckie and D.R. Hayhurst, Creep rupture of struc-
tures, Proc. Royal Soc. London 340 (1974) 323-347.
[59] F.A. Leckie and E.T. Onat, Tensorial nature of damage
measuring internal variables, IUTAM Symp. on Physical
Non-Linearities in Structural Analysis, Senlis, France,
1980 (Springer).
[60] J.L. Chaboche, Continuous Damage Mechanics: a tool to
describe phenomena before crack initiation, Nucl. Engrg.
Des. 64 (1981) 233-247.
[61] D. Krajcinovic, Continuum Damage Mechanics, Applied
Mechanics Reviews 37 No. 1 (1984).
[62] S. Murakami and T. Imaizumi, Mechanical description of
creep damage state and its experimental verification, J. de
Mrchanique Throrique et Appliqure 1, No. 5 (1982)
743-761.
[63] A. Litewka, Experimental simulation of anisotropic
damage, Mechanika Teoretyczna I Stosowana 2/3, 21
(1983) 361-370.
[64] J.L. Chaboche, Le concept de contrainte effective ap-
pliqu6 h l'61asticit6 et h la viscoplasticit6 en prrsence d'un
endommagment anisotrope, Col. EUROMECH 115,
Grenoble 1979 (CNRS, 1982).
[65] J.P. Cordebois and F. Sidoroff, Anisotropie 61astique in-
duite par endommagement. Col. EUROMECH 115, Com-
portement Mrcanique des Sohdes Anisotropes, Grenoble,
1979 (CNRS, 1982).
[66] J. Janson and J. Hult, Fracture mechanics and damage
mechanics, a combined approach, J. Mrcanique Appliqure
1, No. 1 (1977).
[67] J. Lema~tre, Local approach of fracture, Symp. on Mecha-
nics of Damage and Fatigue, 1-4 July 1985, Ha'ifa, Israel.
[68] L. Anquez, Elastoplastic crack propagation (fatigue and
failure), La Recherche Arrospatiale 1983-2.
[69] J.C. Newman Jr., Finite element analysis of fatigue crack
propagation including the effects of crack closure, Ph. D
Thesis, V.P.I., Blacksburg (1974).
33
[70] T.D. Hinnerirhs, Viscoplastic and creep crack growth
analysis by the finite element method, Ph. D Thesis, Air
Force Institute of Technology (1980).
[71] J.C. Devaux and G. Mottet, Drchirure ductile des aciers
faiblement allirs: ModUles numrriques, Rapport no 79-057,
Framatome (1984).
[72] F. Mudry, A local approach to cleavage fracture, Srminaire
International "Approches locales de la Rupture", Moret-
sur-Loing, France, 1986.
[73] E. Mass and A. Pineau, Creep crack growth behaviour of
type 316 L steel, Engrg. Fracture Mechanics 22, No. 2
(1985) 307-325.
[74] D.R. Hayhurst, et al., Estimates of the creep rupture
lifetime of structures using the finite element method, J.
Mech. Phys. of Solids 23 (1975) 335.
[75] K. Saanouni, J.L. Chaboche and C. Bathias, On the creep
crack growth prediction by a local approach, Symp.
IUTAM on Mechanics of Damage and Fatigue, Haffa,
1985, J. of Engineering Fracture Mechanics 25, No. 5 / 6
(1986) 677-691.
[76] D.R. Hayhurst, On the use of creep damage constitutive
equations to predict the behaviour of cracked specimens
under constant applied loads, 5th Int. Seminar "Inelastic
Analysis and Life Prediction in High Temperature En-
vironment", Paris, 1985.
[77] K.P. Walker and D.A. Wilson, Constitutive modeling of
engine materials, PWA report FR17911 (AFWAL-TR-84-
4073) (1984).
[78] A. Benallal, R. Billardon and D. Marquis, Prrvision de
l'amorsage et de la propagation des fissures par la
mrcanique de l'endommagment, Sprciale Publication
SFM, Paris (1984).
[79] J. Mazars, A description of micro and macro scale damage
of concrete structures, Symp. on Mechanics of Damage
and Fatigue, 1-4 July 1985, Ha'ifa, Israel.
[80] Bazant, Cedolin, Blunt crack band propagation in finite
element analysis, J. Engrg. Mech. Div. (April 1979) p. 297.
[81] H.D. Bui and A. Ehrlacher, Propagation of damage in
elastic and plastic solids, ICF 6, Vol. 2, Cannes, 1981.
[82] H.D. Bui, K. Dang Van and E. De Langre, A simplified
analysis of creep crack growth using local approach,
S~minaire International "Approaches locales de la Rup-
ture, Moret-sur-Loing, France, 1986.